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Class 12 SQL Notes Detailed

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6 views

Class 12 SQL Notes Detailed

Notes

Uploaded by

25anonymous2000
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Class 12 SQL Notes - Full Topic Guide

1. Math Functions

Math functions are used to perform mathematical operations in SQL.

1.1 POWER(x, y): Returns the result of x raised to the power y.

Example: POWER(2, 3) -> 8

1.2 ROUND(x, d): Rounds the number x to d decimal places. Useful for formatting results.

Example: ROUND(3.4567, 2) -> 3.46

1.3 MOD(x, y): Returns the remainder of x divided by y. Used for divisibility or alternating rows.

Example: MOD(10, 3) -> 1

2. Text/String Functions

Text functions are used to manipulate string values.

2.1 UPPER(text)/UCASE(text): Converts all characters to uppercase.

Example: UPPER('hello') -> 'HELLO'

2.2 LOWER(text)/LCASE(text): Converts all characters to lowercase.

Example: LOWER('WORLD') -> 'world'

2.3 MID(text, start, length) / SUBSTRING(text, start, length): Extracts part of a string from a given position.

Example: MID('COMPUTER', 2, 3) -> 'OMP'

2.4 LENGTH(text): Returns number of characters in the string including spaces.

Example: LENGTH('DATA') -> 4

2.5 LEFT(text, n): Returns first n characters from the left side.
Class 12 SQL Notes - Full Topic Guide

Example: LEFT('HELLO', 2) -> 'HE'

2.6 RIGHT(text, n): Returns last n characters from the right side.

Example: RIGHT('HELLO', 3) -> 'LLO'

2.7 INSTR(text, subtext): Returns position of subtext in the string.

Example: INSTR('HELLO', 'L') -> 3

2.8 LTRIM(), RTRIM(), TRIM(): Used to remove extra spaces.

LTRIM(' hello') -> 'hello'

RTRIM('hello ') -> 'hello'

TRIM(' hello ') -> 'hello'

3. Date Functions

Date functions are used to manipulate and extract information from date values.

3.1 NOW(): Returns current system date and time.

3.2 DATE(): Extracts only the date from a datetime value.

Example: DATE(NOW()) -> '2025-04-08'

3.3 MONTH(date): Returns the month as a number (1-12).

Example: MONTH('2025-04-08') -> 4

3.4 MONTHNAME(date): Returns the full name of the month.

Example: MONTHNAME('2025-04-08') -> 'April'

3.5 YEAR(date): Returns the year part of the date.

Example: YEAR('2025-04-08') -> 2025


Class 12 SQL Notes - Full Topic Guide

3.6 DAY(date): Returns the day of the month.

Example: DAY('2025-04-08') -> 8

3.7 DAYNAME(date): Returns the day name.

Example: DAYNAME('2025-04-08') -> 'Tuesday'

4. Aggregate Functions

Aggregate functions are used to calculate a single value from a group of rows.

MAX(column): Returns highest value from a column.

Example: MAX(marks)

MIN(column): Returns lowest value from a column.

Example: MIN(marks)

AVG(column): Calculates average value of a column.

Example: AVG(marks)

SUM(column): Returns total sum of values.

Example: SUM(marks)

COUNT(column): Counts non-null values.

Example: COUNT(name)

COUNT(*): Counts all rows including nulls.

Example: COUNT(*)

5. GROUP BY, HAVING, ORDER BY


Class 12 SQL Notes - Full Topic Guide

These clauses help to group, filter, and sort data.

GROUP BY: Groups rows based on a column value.

Example:

SELECT city, COUNT(*) FROM students GROUP BY city;

HAVING: Filters grouped results, used after GROUP BY.

Example:

SELECT city, COUNT(*) FROM students GROUP BY city HAVING COUNT(*) > 2;

ORDER BY: Sorts records in ascending (ASC) or descending (DESC) order.

Example:

SELECT name, marks FROM students ORDER BY marks DESC;

6. Equi-Join (Joining Two Tables)

Equi-Join is used to retrieve data from two or more tables using a common column.

It uses the equality operator (=) to match rows.

Example:

Table1: students(roll, name)

Table2: marks(roll, subject, score)

Query:

SELECT students.name, marks.subject, marks.score

FROM students, marks

WHERE students.roll = marks.roll;

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