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Network Devices (Hub, Repeater, Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateways and

Brouter)

1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over
the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to
which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An important point to be noted about
repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the
signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength. It is a 2 port device.

2. Hub – A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from
different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations.
Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words,
the collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have the
intelligence to find out the best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.

Types of Hub
• Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their own power supply and can clean, boost,
and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as a wiring
center. These are used to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
• Passive Hub :- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from
the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting
them and can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.
• Intelligent Hub :- It works like active hubs and includes remote management capabilities.
They also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an administrator to
monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.

3. Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the
functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of source and destination. It is also
used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input and single
output port, thus making it a 2 port device.

Types of Bridges
• Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are completely
unaware of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from
the network, reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of
two processes i.e. bridge forwarding and bridge learning.
• Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is performed by the
source station and the frame specifies which route to follow. The host can discover
the frame by sending a special frame called the discovery frame, which spreads
through the entire network using all possible paths to the destination.

4. Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency(a large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data
link layer device. The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, which
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makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good
packets selectively to the correct port only. In other words, the switch divides the
collision domain of hosts, but broadcast domain remains the same.

5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and
WANs together and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make
decisions on routing the data packets. Router divide broadcast domains of hosts connected
through it.

6. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks together
that may work upon different networking models. They basically work as the messenger agents
that take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also
called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer. Gateways are generally more
complex than switches or routers. Gateway is also called a protocol converter.

7. Brouter – It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines features of both
bridge and router. It can work either at the data link layer or a network layer. Working as a
router, it is capable of routing packets across networks, and working as the bridge, it is capable
of filtering local area network traffic.

8. NIC – NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect the
computer to the network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It has a unique id
that is written on the chip, and it has a connector to connect the cable to it. The cable acts as an
interface between the computer and router or modem. NIC card is a layer 2 device which means
that it works on both physical and data link layer of the network model.

MODEMS
Modems are used to transmit digital information via analog systems. The word “Modem” is
derived from the term “modulator-demodulator.” The fundamental elements of a modem are to
modulate an analog carrier signal to carry digital data and to demodulate a comparable signal in
order to disentangle the digital data from the analog carrier signal.

A modem is a gadget that is used to transmit digital data through Analog systems. The term is
determined from”modulator-demodulator”. Modems are sorted based on two models:

• The first is Data sent/unit time

• And the second one is a Change in the state of the signal/unit time

The first modem was used during the ’60s decade, to interface over an organization of phone
lines. It was 1977 when Modem was first used with a computer for transmitting information to
another computer. The gadget is used for modulating an Analog carrier signal to carry digital
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data just as for demodulating a comparative signal so concerning interpreting the digital data
from the Analog carrier signal. In this article, we will explore the types and functions of the
modem.

Types of Modems
Internal Modems:
As the name means the internal modems are being associated with the motherboard of our
computer. The internal modems are, for the most part, dial-up or wireless (Wi-Fi). The phone
network is being used for sending and receiving signals in the event of dial-ups.

Authentication is needed for the connection. In contrast with different modems, dial-up is
notably slower. Going to the Wi-Fi modems, there is no compelling reason to interface them
with the phone network, and Authentication isn’t needed for such gadgets.

External Modems:
An external modem is an unconnected unit pressed for a situation. Fundamentally, we connect an
external modem with the phone line and the computer through cables.

Cable Modems:
The name says everything! We have seen such modems at our homes or at cable administrators’
place. The radio frequency that range that cable TV uses is additionally being used by the cable
modems. The use of the existing cable TV infrastructure allows the cable TV organizations to
provide Internet services.

ADSL Modems:
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line or what we call ADSL modems to use phone lines for
sending and receiving information. ASDL modems are really quicker than any conventional
voiceband modem. The ASDL,as well as Cable modems, are used for providing the broadband
web connection. These sorts of modems allow more information to move and that makes the
using of the web quicker.

There are two sorts of data transmission used by Modems and those are synchronous and
asynchronous. To make it more clear for you timing signals are used for Synchronous
transmission and mistake correcting formulas are used for asynchronous transmission. These
gadget filters be used for one technique for transmission or the other or can be used for both
ways.
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WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF THE MODEM?

Modulated Signals
The fundamental function of a modem is to make a handily communicated and decoded signal
that allows digital information to be sent here and there without the loss of data. The most
familiar use of modems is to send data over a phone channel, yet modems can be used to rely on
data over any system that gives a methods for transmitting analog signals, including radio and
optical networks.

Data Compression:
To diminish the measure of time it takes to send information and to eliminate the measure of the
error in the signal, modems need to employ information compression. This was particularly
important at the beginning of modem innovation since information must be sent through
conventional telephone lines. Not being intended for digital data, telephone lines set weighty
limits on the size and speed of signals sent over them. Information pressure strategies reduce the
size of the signal needed to send the necessary data.

Error Correction:
This is the process where the modem checks the data they have received is undamaged. Here and
there harm of information is being noticed as modified or lost information. To get rid of this
issue, the modem uses error correction. Groups of the data are being made and those casings are
labeled with a checksum.

What is a checksum? Thus, the checksum is fundamentally and unique identity of frames. The
receiving modem compiles its own checksum from the frame that is sent to it and afterward
checksum information is being contrasted and it. Coordinating checksums brings about
unharmed information transmission. On the off chance that they don’t coordinate, the getting
modem sends it back and sits tight for the edge that the communicating modem will re-send.

Modem Speed Classification

The speed of a modem is normally classified by the measure of information it can send in a
particular length of time. This is for the most part communicated as far as pieces every second
(bps). An alternative way of classifying modem speed is the adjustment in the state of the signal
per unit time – the occasions a modem sends another signal in a given length of time. This is
known as the symbol rate and is measured in units called baud (Bd).

Internal versus External Modems

An External modem is a discrete unit housed in a different case. Normally, an external modem
will be associated with the phone line and the computer via cables. Internal modems are circuit
boards that plug into a computer’s motherboard. Internal modems can be dial-up or wireless (Wi-
Fi). Dial-ups use the phone network to send and receive signals. They require authentication to
associate. Dial-up is notably more slow than different sorts of modem association – as of the date
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of distribution, the quickest listed speed for a dial-up modem is 56.6 Kbps. Wi-Fi modems don’t
should be associated with the phone network and don’t generally need authentication.

Broadband: Cable and ADSL Modems

Cable modems use a similar radio frequency range as cable TV. Cable modems have the
advantage of using the existing cable TV infrastructure, allowing cable TV organizations to
provide Internet services. Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) modems use phone lines
to send and receive information however use an alternate recurrence band than modems using the
voiceband range of frequencies. ADSL modems are a lot quicker than ordinary voiceband
modems. ADSL and link modems are used to give broadband Internet, which allows more
information to be transmitted and along these lines makes using the Internet quicker.

Flow Control:
The speed of sending data contrasts from modem to modem. There is a huge need of hindering
the speed of the quick modems so the slow ones can work appropriately. The distinction of wifi
speed makes the more slow modem receive more data that it is fit for handling. In the event that
this begins happening the slow modems will transmit a character to the quicker one. This
character would be a signal to the quicker modem for Pausing the data move until the slow
modem gets caught up.

Likewise, when the more slow modem is prepared to receive more information, it will send
another character to the quicker modems a symbol that it is currently prepared to receive more
information. This is the way the increasingly slow quicker modems coordinate wifi and internet
speed. Presently, with the use of ongoing models of modems we are fit for sending information
to more hosts, and the Internet network. This shows how quickly the development in innovation
has occurred.

Modem assumes a significant role in the networking of your computer. With the changing time
and improving technology the working of these gadgets has changed and now they are offering
much better service than ever before.

EXPLORING THE FUNCTIONS OF ROUTING

In this lesson, we are going to explore the packet delivery process, from the routing perspective.
We will see how one of the main functions of routing is to determine the optimal path across a
routed network for IP packets. We will dive deep into certain components like routing tables and
describe the different methods to populate routing tables, for example, static and dynamic
routing. For dynamic routing, will list the characteristics of routing protocols and classify them
into distance, vector, and link state.

Routers
We know that routers implement layer 3 or network layer functions. Their main job is to forward packets
based upon a routing table. When doing so, they also provide traffic segmentation, multiple broadcast
domains, and define network layer addressing subnets and networks. Those networks are defined by
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router network adapters or ports to which IP addresses are assigned. Those IP addresses are
typically the default gateway to PCs and servers or other networking devices.
Routers also connect to service providers and act as gateways to other networks, typically found
at the perimeter or edge of the network. Some of those network adapters will be other than
Ethernet. They will have connectivity to serial interfaces, DSL connections, and other forms of
WAN. The main components listed here are similar to those of any computing and network
device: CPU, motherboard, RAM, ROM. In fact, Cisco routers have different types of memory.
They also have flash, where the image of the operating system resides. But the main point behind
this is that those computing resources are now so powerful that they allow routers to start
behaving like other network elements; they can incorporate firewalling functions and even voice
call routing capabilities for IP telephony environments, so routers today are the same good old
layer 3 devices, but they are also the jack of all trades, which allows you to integrate multiple
functions within your network elements: some of those via software upgrades, and some of them
via network modules in modular configuration routers.

Router Functions
The basic routing function can be split into two areas; one is to build a map of the network and
for that routers typically use either static routing or dynamic routing protocols. With the help of
dynamic routing protocols, routers will let other network devices know about not only the
topology of the network but also about network changes. Static routing will be that static and
will not adapt to network changes. Both models accomplish the task of building the map of the
network in the form of the routing table.
The command and output shown here display the routing table on a Cisco router. With show IP
route, an IOS device like this one could show the different destinations, the cost to get there,
what is known as the administrative distance to define priorities for different routing protocols,
and the next-hop to get to that destination. Notice how the routing protocol that learned that
particular entry or destination is shown there in the first column. This is EIGRP, this is RIP, and
this is OSPF. With this information, routers will be able to determine where to forward packets.
They will do so by sending the packet to the next router in the path according to the info in the
routing table. Notice then that routing is based on destination addresses.
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Path Determination
During the process of path determination, the routers will consider multiple alternatives to get to
the same place; those alternatives result from the redundancy built into most network designs.
You want multiple paths, so that if one goes down, other alternatives will become available. In
determining the best path, routers will consider several things. One of them is the source of the
information, and so you could have multiple dynamic routing protocols or even static routing
populating the routing table and telling the router what the options are.
The second piece of information is the cost of taking each path, and knowing that the path is
made up of multiple links or hops that are defined by other routers. Then we could add the
concepts of the cost in the context of the total path, but that cost is nothing more than the sum of
all the costs to reach each hop in the path.
Well, the two decisions are ruled by different pieces of information, for example, in order to
define a tie breaker between sources of information, the routers use the administrative distance,
so if a routing protocol like OSPF is telling the router information on a destination and also RIP
is telling that router information on the same destination, then the administrative distance will
define who wins. Once the source is selected, then the cost is what matters; in other words, if
OSPF is giving me the information on those two paths, then the cost of the path will define
which one I take. This is similar to having two maps to drive from one city to the other. You first
select which map you are going to follow and then if the map is giving you more than one
option, then you will select the option according to perhaps the amount of time it takes or the
amount of miles you have to drive for each option.

Routing Tables
So the routing table contains the network layer intelligence that tells the router how to forward packets to
remote destinations. Initially, that routing table is made up of networks that are directly connected to the
particular router. They are obviously shown as directly connected networks, after that the way to learn
about remote destinations is by either populating the routing table with static routes in which an
administrator will tell the router how to get to the destination or by populating the routing table via
routing table advertisements coming from other routers.
So routers are gossipy and they will tell each other information that allows them to know about all the
gossip in the network. In both cases, static and dynamic routing notice how routers use the reserved
subnet addresses or network addresses that contain all 0s in the host portion of the IP address.
In this case, we are talking about a classless subnetted class A address. Network 10 split into subnets
similar to a class C. However, in all cases here, the host portion of the address, the fourth byte is all 0s
and that represents that subnet or network itself. In other words, these are destination networks or subnets.
In the case of remote destinations, the routing table entries show what the next hop is in order to reach
that destination. In this case, in order to reach 10.1.3.0, our next-hop is router 2 at 10.1.2.2.
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These are categories of routing table entries that could be populated either dynamically or
statically. Some of them are born with the router. As soon as the router boots up, it will identify
its directly connected active networks and interfaces and define them as reachable destinations,
only because of the fact that the router is directly attached or connected to it. Now that is pretty
smart, but even smarter is the fact that the routers will communicate with each other, exchange
routing information via dynamic routing protocols like OSPF or EIGRP, and then learn not only
about those destinations, but also adjust to changes on those destinations.
Routing protocols will be able to identify topology changes and tell each other about them. Soon
enough, entries will appear and disappear from the routing table according to availability; again,
an administrator could come in and manually insert static entries. This is sometimes not
recommended because they will be static and they will not adjust to network changes; in other
words, if the entry or the destination goes down, the entry will remain there and the router will
still forward packets to a destination that is not available. Perhaps a special case of a static route
is the default route. Although they can also be learned dynamically, static defaults are used when
no explicit route to a destination is known and so this is the entry that identifies all unknown
destinations. The router will say, "If I do not know about a certain destination, I will forward a
packet to someone that does, typically another router."

Routing Metrics
Optimal path selection depends on what is known as the cost to reach a destination across a
certain path. Again, the cost of a path is made up of incremental costs for each hop along the
path. The cost is also known as metric, and different routing protocols will consider different
criteria in order to define the metric. Older technologies and protocols consider the number of
routers along the path in order to reach a destination; that is what they call the hop count. Hop
count is sometimes not an efficient way to determine cost, because you could have different
bandwidths associated with each hop or each link.
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In this example the two-hop path is better, because it has more bandwidth available. Other
routing protocols start considering bandwidth as a measure of cost, and even more parameters in
the criteria, for example, EIGRP considers bandwidth delay, reliability, load, and maximum
transmission unit. In that case, a path with enough bandwidth, but one that is fully congested,
would not be selected and perhaps another path with less available bandwidth would be selected
because it is less congested and more reliable.
Perhaps one of the points and highlights of this lesson is the fact that routing protocol selection,
if you are doing dynamic routing, is key in determining the cost or metric and, therefore, how
efficient and optimal the path selection will be, but also the convergence time, which is defined
by the time it takes for routing protocol to detect a topology change and adjust by selecting an
alternative path if the main path is down. There are different categories of routing protocols if
you are using dynamic routing that define their cost and metric, but also their behavior under
those circumstances.

Distance Vector Routing Protocols

Perhaps one of the points and highlights of this lesson is the fact that routing protocol selection,
if you are doing dynamic routing, is key in determining the cost or metric and, therefore, how
efficient and optimal the path selection will be, but also the convergence time, which is defined
by the time it takes for routing protocol to detect a topology change and adjust by selecting an
alternative path if the main path is down. There are different categories of routing protocols if
you are using dynamic routing that define their cost and metric, but also their behavior under
those circumstances.
Using the distance vector approach, which is one of the categories, routers do not have to really
know the whole path toward the destination. They only have to know the direction or vector in
which to send a packet. In that sense, it will only keep information in the routing tables related to
what the next-hop should be in order to reach a certain destination.
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Distance vector protocols suffer from many disadvantages; one of them is that they periodically
advertise the routing tables. Some of them use broadcasts to advertise the entire routing table.
This creates too much overhead in the network and it may be unnecessary if the network does
not really change, so it is really similar to calling everybody to tell them about gossip, by calling
them frequently to tell them the same gossip over and over again. Even if the rumor has not
changed, it is also similar to telling the whole story over and over again from the start, even
though nothing has changed or even though just a piece of the story has changed. RIP, or
Routing Information Protocol, is an example of a distance vector protocol. In the case of RIP, it
uses a hop count as the measure of cost.

Link-State Routing Protocols

Link-State protocols are more efficient and effective in creating network topologies, sharing
them, and selecting the best path as compared to distance vector protocols. There are several
differences between the two categories. For example, link state protocols will not broadcast the
information per router, it will use multicast where each router advertises via that multicast the
link it knows to the neighbors. Secondly, link-state protocols do not advertise periodically. After
an initial flood of all the information, yet will only advertise changes to the topology. In other
words, if the link goes down then that small change will be advertised via multicast. Third, router
not only know about the next hop toward a destination, they know about the whole topological
map of the network. Each router after the initial flood will build that map of the network, which
includes all the routers and all the links. With that information, each router is capable of
browsing those tables via using the shortest path first algorithm, and select the best path toward
each destination. This would be installed in a routing table. So, you do not need a chain reaction
of events for each router to make a topological changes and change routing decisions. Once there
is a change, for example this link going down, that will affect only a little branch of the tree and
only that change will be advertised to the network. This is what they call incremental updates.
All of these changes and differences make link-state protocols more effective and efficient in
dealing with network changes.

What is Router: Definition, Functions, Uses | Types of Routers with

Examples
What is Router in Networking
Definition: Router is a network hardware device that allows to make communication in between
the internet and all devices which are linked to the internet in your house and office.
router

Router works like as a mail carrier that helps to broadcast the internet messages to other connected
devices such as laptop, PC, printer, etc.
There are few popular companies that design the routers like as Cisco, 3Com, HP, Juniper, D-
Link, Nortel, etc
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Functions of Routers
Here, we will spread the light on the several major functions of router; below explain each one
–
• To Make Segment: Routers play the major role to segment the internet network form internal
network in the residencies area or business. Routers moves to all packets from internal network to
the Internet. Primary function of router is to web traffic dedicated for internet outside to internet
network as a safety concern. It also helps to ignore the damage of data from a data packet that is
flowing to wrong network.
• To Assign IP Address: IP (Internet Protocol) is very necessary element for every computer
system because the IP address means that which address that is assigned to the computer over the
network. With the help of IP, all communication packets are sending and received over the
network. Dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP) allows to IP address to each computer that
is linked to network. Most routers are enabled with DHCP protocol over the internet that is used
for home and office small types of networks.
• As a Firewall: Firewall helps to provide protection from intruders and malicious users over the
internal networks. Firewall allows to get blockage of unauthorized or unwanted traffic. Firewall is
software that is installed on each computer over the network, but routers are identified over the
internet along with firewall firmware and software.
• To Share Resources: Routers also help to many users for sharing resources like as faxes,
scanners, printers, and file folders on the drives which are located on remotely. Printers and faxes
can be properly configured on the router by skilled network administrator for using the entire
organization through computer network. There are not need to install the printer for every user
over the network, so it helps to save extra money and space for placing the printer. All files and
folders that is stored on the user’s hard drive can be shared over entire network without getting to
print or hard copies. Due to this, to save extra company funding and resources, and so employees
are able to perform their functions quickly while locating remote geographic locations.

Uses of Routers
Router is used for getting to fulfill four purposes; like as –
• First, to make ensure that data is flowing with correct destination, like as uses sends the emails to
correct internet provider and recipient.
• Second, Routers provide the protection from unwanted data, like as enlarge file is distributed to
each machines over the network and improve the network performance.
• Third, router plays the role as a buffer in between the modem and network, and it also allows the
software security to diminish the risk of viruses or other malware.
• Four, to share the information with other connecting routers in the networking.
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Types of Router
• Wired Router
• Wireless router
• Virtual Router
• Core Router
• B-Router
• Edge Router
• Subscriber Edge Router
• Inter-provider Border Router

Wired Router
Wired routers are available in the market as the box shaped that can be made connection
with computer system through Ethernet cable or wired connectivity. These routers are mostly
used for home and small types of offices. It contains the separate Wi-Fi access point, and it is more
useful for those users who want to make connection to the Wi-Fi enabled phones as well as they
can also use VIOP (voice-over IP technology).
For security purpose, these wired routers commonly use the stateful packet inspection (SPI)
firewalls, while for offerring the interaction in between the computers with in community, as well
as router also uses the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). These types of router are
supportable to network address translation (NAT) technology, because this technology helps to
link several computers to router with wired router to share single Internet Protocol (IP) address.
For Example: ADSL modem consists the two jacks for getting the connection to phones and
Ethernet.

Core router
Core routers are generally used by service providers (i.e. AT&T, Verizon, Vodafone) or cloud
providers (i.e. Google, Amazon, Microsoft). They provide maximum bandwidth to connect
additional routers or switches. Most small businesses will not need core routers. But very large
enterprises that have many employees working in various buildings or locations may use core
routers as part of their network architecture.

Edge router
An edge router, also called a gateway router or just "gateway" for short, is a network's outermost
point of connection with external networks, including the Internet.
Edge routers are optimized for bandwidth and designed to connect to other routers to distribute
data to end users. Edge routers don't usually offer Wi-Fi or the ability to manage local networks
 P a g e | 13

fully. They typically have only Ethernet ports—an input to connect to the Internet and several
outputs to connect additional routers.
Edge router and modem are somewhat interchangeable terms, though the latter term is no longer
commonly used by manufacturers or IT professionals when referencing edge routers.

Distribution router
A distribution router, or interior router, receives data from the edge router (or gateway) via a
wired connection and sends it on to end users, typically via Wi-Fi, though the router usually also
includes physical (Ethernet) connections for connecting users or additional routers.

Wireless router
Wireless routers, or residential gateways, combine the functions of edge routers and distribution
routers. These are commonplace routers for home networks and Internet access.
Most service providers provide full-featured wireless routers as standard equipment. But even if
you have the option to use an ISP’s wireless router in your small business, you may want to use a
business-level router to take advantage of better wireless performance, more connectivity
controls, and security.

Virtual router
Virtual routers are pieces of software that allow some router functions to be virtualized in the
cloud and delivered as a service. These routers are ideal for large businesses with complex
network needs. They offer flexibility, easy scalability, and a lower entry cost. Another benefit of
virtual routers is reduced management of local network hardware.

How does a router work?

Routers guide and direct network data, using packets that contain various kinds of data—such as
files, communications, and simple transmissions like web interactions.
The data packets have several layers, or sections, one of which carries identifying information
such as sender, data type, size, and most importantly, the destination IP (Internet protocol)
address. The router reads this layer, prioritizes the data, and chooses the best route to use for
each transmission.

How do routers help your business?

A common tool for modern network computing, routers connect employees to networks, both
local and the Internet, where just about every essential business activity takes place. Without
routers, we wouldn't be able to use the Internet to collaborate, communicate, or gather
information and learn.
Routers can also provide security. Embedded firewall and content filtering software provide an
additional protection from unwanted content and malicious websites without affecting your
online experience.
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A router isn't just for data transmission or Internet connections, though. Most routers allow you
to connect hard drives and use them as file-sharing servers, or printers that can then be accessed
by anyone on the network.

How to choose small business routers

Connectivity
Pay close attention to the numbers and types of ports (such as phone, Ethernet, cable, and USB)
to make sure you can connect the necessary devices. Remember that unused ports are fine to
have, as they allow you to expand the network when needed.

Bandwidth
Sufficient bandwidth is important for user experience. It ensures maximum performance for
multiple users: the more users, the greater the bandwidth needed. You can grow your business's
network by adding additional routers or hubs if necessary, but insufficient bandwidth anywhere
in the network can cause bottlenecks.

Wireless capability
Wi-Fi is a given, but there are different standards. The latest, Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax), can deliver
much higher transmission speeds, especially when multiple access points (such as devices or
additional routers) are connected at once. Wi-Fi 6 routers are backwards-compatible with old
Wi-Fi standards.
Simplified setup and management
Most routers provide a browser-based interface that connects directly to your router to perform
setup and admin. However, many manufacturers now offer mobile apps that are specially
designed for their devices and provide more intuitive interfaces and easier setup.

Security
Your router should at least offer WPA or WPA 2 password protection. Some routers also have
firewall software, which continuously scans incoming data for potential malware and viruses.
Another important tool is MAC (Media Access Control) address filtering, which uses device-
specific IDs to screen users and build a whitelist or blacklist for network access.

Flexibility
Consider routers that have at least one power over ethernet (PoE) port. PoE provides both data
and electricity power supply to external devices such as wireless access points, VoIP phones, IP
and cameras. PoE eliminates cabling and provides additional flexibility to your networks.
Automatic updates
Routers contain software that requires updates to maintain performance and security. Many
manufacturers update software automatically, which is preferable because it happens in the
background without any action on your part.
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User changeable configurations

This feature allows you to manage network traffic, guest networks, parental controls, and
security settings. The process is easier to handle if the router's configuration can be managed
from an app as opposed to a browser interface.

Guest networks
Guest networks are an important layer of extra security for when guests visiting the business
need Wi-Fi access. A guest network will limit access to the business's devices and files, while
still offering connectivity to visitors.

Quality of service (QoS) controls

Combined with tools to look at usage across all users, this feature allows you to limit network
use to up- or downstream transmissions, control for certain types of use (video streaming, for
example), and specify bandwidth for different users. This feature helps you improve security as
well as network monitoring.

Mesh networks
If you've had experience with Wi-Fi extenders, you may have found that they can do as much
harm as good. They create multiple networks that don't communicate with each other, as well as
device incompatibilities that can cause bandwidth bottlenecks.
A better solution is a mesh network, which allows you to place multiple Wi-Fi transmitters
across your office, all on one network. Unlike extenders, which you can use with any wireless
router, mesh networks require a router with this capability built-in.
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THE FUNCTION OF A REPEATER IN NETWORKING

Every router has a boundary within which it can serve. Sometimes the service must be
extended to accommodate a new host. In such a scenario rather than getting a new router
set-up, a repeater is used.

What is a Repeater?

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it. It receives the signal
before it becomes too weak or corrupted. It regenerates the bit and forwards the refreshed signal.
A repeater operates at the physical layer.

This two-port device has limited use in specific situations. They do not read the data frames at
all. It makes sure that data is repeated out on each port. These are analog devices that work with
signals to which they are connected. A signal appearing on one port is regenerated and put on
another port, this extends the LAN strength. It does not understand packets or frames. It only
understands the symbol which converts bits as volts.

Types of Repeater
There are multiple types of repeater across the communication industry. Radio repeater,
telephone repeater, and optical communication repeater are three major consideration at a higher
level.

A radio repeater is a combination of a receiver and a transmitter. This is used to transmit radio
signals for two-way communication.
A telephone repeater is where the communication industry began the initial boost. This was
used to increase the range of telephone lines. These routers are used in landline and submarine
connection system.
An optical communication repeater is a carrier of all the new digital signal forms. It converts
the electronic signal to light and sends it out to the other fiber.
Based on the data handled by the repeater, it can be categorized only in two:

Analog Repeater: This repeater transmits data in analog signals. It amplifies the analog signals
and sends it to the next receiver.
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Digital Repeater: Also called as a digipeater, transmit data in binary digital signals. This
amplifies the digital signal and also, if required, repairs the losses over the medium it is received
from.
What is the use of repeater in networking?
In networking, a repeater is used to connect two LAN signals. It is not possible to connect all the
devices through wires. Repeater makes it easy to expand the coverage and access network to a
greater scale with the same signal strength. Repeaters are used to extend transmissions so that the
signal can cover long distances. It creates an extended range of the signal and makes it accessible
till the destination which was not possible only with the router.

In a wireless communication system, a repeater takes the existing signal from an access point and
rebroadcasts to create a second network. This is a two-port device. This is commonly used in
homes and small offices to make the signal available to a larger extent. This strengthens the
signal and extends the coverage area of the Wi-Fi network.

A repeater is often considered as a non-logical device as it rebroadcasts each bit by bit regardless
of its feature. It supports both analog and digital signals. It removes unwanted noise from the
signal. Even when the signal is weak or distorted it is absorbed and is strengthened again. Digital
repeaters can even reconstruct the signals which are distorted by transmission. It repropagates a
broken signal.

Repeaters are easy to install. It is cost-effective and does not require a unique installation
process. A few of the disadvantages are; it connects only to a similar network, it cannot
differentiate noise, it cannot reduce traffic or congestion, and routers or networks might have
limitations on the number of repeaters that can be installed.

What is a hub in networking?

As mentioned, the repeater has two ports, a hub is a multiport repeater. It can carry multiple
connections. It is a common point for all devices in a network. It is considered as one of the most
basic devices in networking. It connects multiple computers or other networks together. Hub is
the cheapest device available which does not even need an IP address to function.
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It has several lines to connect to nodes (devices). Frames arriving on any one of the lines are sent
out to all others as well. It broadcasts to all the connected devices. If two frames arrive
simultaneously, it collides. All the lines coming into the hub must operate at the same speed.
Hubs are also physical layer devices and do not verify signals in any manner. It is not considered
as an intelligent device.

These are the three types of the hub; active hub, passive hub, and intelligent hub.

Active Hub, as the name suggests, receives the signal from other devices, amplifies it, and
regenerates to multiple devices.
A Passive hub works like a bridge, it distributes the signal to multiple devices.
Intelligent hub goes by its name, it can perform the task of both active and passive hubs. It helps
to monitor the network traffic. It also allows you to configure each port individually. A good
example of a hub is a USB hub, it allows you to connect multiple USBs at the same time. Today
in networking hubs are replaced by switches. Both costs the same as switches provide better
network solutions.
What is the difference between repeater and hub?
Repeater goes by its name. It repeats the fading signal and makes it accessible. The same
function can be done using a hub. The function of both devices is almost similar. The
difference is that the repeater has only two ports, one is the inlet for the signal, and
another is the outlet. One receives the weak signal, and another sends the boosted signal.
Hub can have 8-24 ports together. The only function of the hub is to retransmit the signal
as it is received.

For home, or small office networks, where the signal expansion is required, a repeater
will be more effective than a hub. Whereas, for a bigger office, the hub will be a
preferred choice.
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What is Repeater in Computer Network

Definition: Repeater is a network hardware device that is worked at the physical layer of OSI
model, and it helps to amplify or regenerate the signals before retransmitting it. Repeater is also
known as “Signal Boosters”.

A repeater was released for wired data communication networks due to challenges of signal’s
propagation over the longer distance area, but now simple installation in the wireless networks for
scaling the cell size.
The main aim for using repeater in the Ethernet is that repeater is capable to carry signal and
broadcast it to other Ethernet capable without damaging any signals. The repeater is intelligent
device that helps to control the flow of signals. If, to determine any defect in the signals then
repeater is able to detect it and transported to the linked port.
How Does Repeater Work?
When electrical signal is broadcasted through a channel, then it gets attenuated based on the nature
of technology. This deploys a limitation depend upon the length of the LAN network. This issue
is created by embedding the repeaters at the specific intervals.
Repeater gets to amplify the attenuated signal then retransmits it. Repeaters are getting to
popularity for incorporated to link between two small LAN and large LAN network.
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Types of Repeaters
According to the Types of Signals:
Analog Repeaters: Data transmission is done in the format of analog signals in order to boost its
amplitude. These repeaters are used in the trunk lines that helps to broadcast the many signals with
using of frequency division multiplexing (FDM). It contains the linear amplifier and filters.
Digital Repeaters: In which, data transmission is done in the form of binary digits like as 0s and
1s. While transmitting of data, 0 and 1 values are generated, and it is capable to transmit data for
long distance communication. This repeater can perform the retiming or resynchronizing
functions.

According to the Types of Connected Networks:

Wired Repeaters: These repeaters are used in the wired LAN networks.
Wireless Repeaters: These repeaters are used n wireless LAN networks and cellular networks.

According to the Domain of LAN Networks:

Local Repeaters: They are connected with LAN segments separated by short distance.
Remote Repeaters: They are connected with LAN segments that are long distance with each
other.

Based on Technologies:
Microwave Repeater: This repeater is embedded in between the transmitting station and receiving
station, but it is depend on the distance in between them. In these types of repeater, sensitive
receivers, high power transmitters and high mounted antennas are used.
Satellite Repeater: The communication satellites are embedded at about the 36000Km surface the
earth. These repeaters are able to cover the greater distances. Satellite repeater grabs the uplink
signal from the ground, then amplifies it and gets frequency conversion to appropriate downlink
frequency before getting to retransmission to the earth.
WiFi Repeater: WiFi Repeater is based on IEEE 802.11 a/b/g/n standard, and it can scale the
coverage area that is supported by the wifi router to larger region usually between two rooms.
LTE Repeater: LTE repeater obtains the signal from LTE eNB (e.g. base station) and re-transmits
it after amplification towards connected devices.
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Optical Repeater: These types of repeater are used for fiber optic communication system. This
repeater grabs the optical signals into electric form. It is capable to reshaping and amplification
operations before getting to retransmission.
Radio Repeater: Radio repeater transmits the all data into radio signals. It contains two ports; one
is radio receiver and other radio transmitter. Radio receivers helps to grab the data in the form of
signals, and radio transmitter helps to retransmits the data which are obtained from the repeater.
Telephone Repeater: Telephone repeater can be used for long range communications. In this
repeater, amplifier is used that is consisted the transistors for enhancing the power. This telephone
repeater uses the bidirectional communication system that means data is broadcasted in the form
of audio signals. The main use of this telephone system is in the submarine communications.

Functions of Repeater in Networking

Uses of Repeater in Networking as Well
• Repeater simply allows to facility for making network interconnection.
• The primary function of repeater is to receive the signals for one LAN terminal cable and then to
regenerate and retransmit the all signals as its original form over other cable segments.
• A repeater ensures that the amplified signals are not discard or weak before arriving the destination
point.
• Mostly, repeater is capable to regenerate the signal strength but it is done before broadcasting.
• A repeater works at the physical layer of OSI model and transparent to all protocols which are
operating in the layer above the physical layer.
• With using of repeater, network can be scaled the size limit of a single, physical, cable segment.
• The number of repeaters that can be used intended is generally limited by a particular LAN
implementation. Using a repeater between two or more LAN cables segment requires that the same
physical layer protocol be used to send signal over all the cable segments.
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Repeater Function In Computer Networking

Using repeater is mandatory for tall buildings, for example, is the office,
companies, warehouses, and so, why? as a repeater or Network Repeater is a
device that serves to overcome the problem of limited range or the signal quality
of a computer network segment.

While the buildings are always experiencing a weak signal conditions in

because of the size of the building so that the farther from the weaker
transmitter signal is obtained, therefore it was the building – large buildings
must use a repeater.

Repeater is also one computer networking hardware as hardware that supports

the connection is more widespread.

How It Works And Examples Repeater

How it works repeater is spreading data across the network though the data is
not in need of it will eventually spread to the entire network, the data
dissemination or access performance will decrease more slowly if the increasing
number of signal stops (Station) and the increase in data traffic.

Repeaters are typically installed at the point – to a point to update the

transmission of signals coming to the condition of the signal as the current in the
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first radiated from the transmitter. For example repeater is HUB, HUB is also
often referred to as multiport / modular.

Function – Repeater function on the Network

Repeater has many functions in addition to expanding the reach of the signal,
repeaters also provide comfort for those who work in tall office building. A long
time before there is a repeater when a weak signal upstairs office is very
difficult to work and decrease your productivity.

Especially on a large scale can make a bankrupt company’s office in because

productivity because employees no trouble signal. Here are some of the
functions of a repeater in a network:

1. Extending the Reach signal Area

Expanding the area signal range is the main function of the repeater according
to https://gfbdatacenter.tumblr.com/, many people buy a repeater for this is due
to the limited range of a wireless transmitter or what we call wi-fi. Repeater is
rarely used by a restaurant, cafe, or a mini restaurant, because of the use of wi-fi
at home eating a small scale and not too important, if there is no repeater
productivity of its employees keep it running.

However, unlike the case with large buildings, offices, companies, and so on.
Their productivity depends on the signal transmitter in because era of
globalization all the modern convenience of data per data is sent through the
signal. If the signal is interrupted, the employee productivity will also decrease,
therefore the use of wi-fi in the large building can be categorized using a large
scale. Therefore, when the use of wi-fi on a large scale which means they need
tools that expand the signal coverage area of ??the so-called repeaters.

2. Reduce Costs

Repeater will help you as an entrepreneur who has a large building in the
financial sector. Would you believe repeater can connect two adjacent
buildings? You have to believe, because the repeater can connect two adjacent
buildings, with the ability that extend the range of the signal area.

If no signal then it implies that you can communicate and does not need to be
down through the elevator and then walk to the next building did not you? 2
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Imagine building your company using only one transmitter only, of course your
company’s spending will be smaller with the help of the repeater. Moreover, the
cost of the signal transmitter to the office now can say the price is quite
expensive, it will greatly save your company is not it?

3. Save Time

If the signal transmitter is located on the basement floor so the signal upstairs
not miss out, then plug the repeater in the middle – the middle of the floor
between the basement and the top floor but better position closer to the repeater
transmitter signal. Mileage signal repeater that is as far as our eyes look (Line
Of Sight), which means repeater can also penetrate between floors, in other
words it will save a lot of your time.

You so do not need to take the data down to the floor if your boss downstairs
while you’re working on the upper floors, thus simplifying communication and
its practices against the bosses and their employees. With this repeater function
makes employees can save time so that employees can increase productivity and
can save more time to rest.

The advantages of Repeater

Benefits repeater very big impact to the office, companies, warehouses,

factories, and so on because they tend to have large buildings.

– Radiating signal to every corner in a building

– Provide better and distribute the signal to every user
– Internet access becomes easier unhindered appropriate location for wireless
– Enables the user to use the internet access on any device without restrictions
limit user

But the greatest impact on the feeling that the employees because it can increase
productivity so employees can demonstrate its ability and save a lot of time to
rest.

In addition to the excess repeater has an disadvantage that can not filter the
incoming data, so all entries will be visible to anyone who wears the same
network, it is fatal in fact if the company is sending a file that is confidential to
one employee in trust over the network which is extended by repeater then
everyone could see the file.
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Types of Transmission Media

In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between
the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which data is sent from one
place to another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:

1. Guided Media:
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted
are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
• High Speed
• Secure
• Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
(i) Twisted Pair Cable –
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally,
several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely
used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another. This type of
cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical shield for
this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Advantages:
⇢ Least expensive
⇢ Easy to install
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⇢ High-speed capacity
⇢ Susceptible to external interference

⇢ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP

⇢ Short distance transmission due to attenuation
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a foil shield)
to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and
data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages:
⇢ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
⇢ Eliminates crosstalk
⇢ Comparatively faster
⇢ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
⇢ More expensive
⇢ Bulky

(ii) Coaxial Cable –

It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon and
2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable
transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and
Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog
television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
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Advantages:
• High Bandwidth
• Better noise Immunity
• Easy to install and expand
• Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
• Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
(iii) Optical Fiber Cable –
It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The
core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used
for the transmission of large volumes of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division
Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.

Advantages:
• Increased capacity and bandwidth
• Lightweight
• Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
• Difficult to install and maintain
• High cost
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• Fragile
(iv) Stripline

Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium invented by

Robert M. Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre in the 1950s. Stripline is
the earliest form of the planar transmission line. It uses a conducting material to transmit
high-frequency waves it is also called a waveguide. This conducting material is
sandwiched between two layers of the ground plane which are usually shorted to provide
EMI immunity.
(v) Microstripline
In this, the conducting material is separated from the ground plane by a layer of
dielectric.
2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical medium
is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
• The signal is broadcasted through air
• Less Secure
• Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
(i) Radio waves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM
radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.

Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be
properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly
proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are
majorly used for mobile phone communication and television distribution.
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(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate
through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency
Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer,
etc.
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Transmission Modes in Computer Networks (Simplex, Half-Duplex and Full-

Duplex)
Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is also known as a
communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur
between individual devices that are interconnected. There are three types of transmission
mode:-

These are explained as following below.

1. Simplex Mode –
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one
of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode
can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input, the
monitor can only give the output.

2. Half-Duplex Mode –
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex
mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the
same time. The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
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Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in
both directions.
Channel capacity=Bandwidth * Propagation Delay

3. Full-Duplex Mode –
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In
full_duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with
signals going in another direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:
• Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for
sending and the other for receiving.
• Or the capacity is divided between signals travelling in both directions.

Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time.
The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a
telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.
Channel Capacity=2* Bandwidth*propagation Delay
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What Is the Purpose of a Switch in Networking?

What Is a Switch in Networking?

In a network, a switch is a hardware device that filters and forwards network packets from one
networking device (switch, router, computer, server, etc.) to another. It is widely used in local area
networks (LANs) to send each incoming message frame by looking at the physical device address,
known as the Media Access Control address (MAC address).

Actually, a switch is considered as a multiport network bridge that uses hardware addresses to
process and forward data at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Some switches can also
process data at the network layer (layer 3) by combining routing functions. Such switches are often
referred to as layer 3 switches or multilayer switches.

What Is the Purpose of a Switch in Networking?

You may have a blurry understanding about the function of switch in networking simply from its
definition. Then, what is the purpose of a switch on earth? Listed below are main purposes or
functions of switches:

• Connect multiple hosts: Normally, a switch provides a large number of ports for cable
connections, allowing for star topology routing. It is usually used to connect multiple PCs
to the network.
• Forwards a message to a specific host: Like a bridge, a switch uses the same forwarding or
filtering logic on each port. When any host on the network or a switch sends a message to
another host on the same network or the same switch, the switch receives and decodes the
frames to read the physical (MAC) address portion of the message.
• Manage traffic: A switch in networking can manage traffic either coming into or exiting
the network and can connect devices like computers and access points with ease.
• Keep electrical signal undistorted: When a switch forwards a frame, it regenerates an
undistorted square electrical signal.
• Increase LAN bandwidth: A switch divides a LAN into multiple collision domains with
independent broadband, thus greatly increasing the bandwidth of the LAN.
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Applications of Switches in Networking

Nowadays, switches are used almost everywhere from small office/home office
(SOHO) to major ISPs (Internet Service Providers). You can use them at home office
or small-sized area as you wish. For these places, a 10/100/1000BASE-T Gigabit
Ethernet switch is enough. In addition, there are many switches that feature high speed
uplink ports to offer speed of 10 Gbps, 40 Gbps, or even 100 Gbps! These high-speed
switches are commonly adopted by enterprises for data center construction. Under such
circumstance, you may need a 10GbE switch or 40/100G switch.

Conclusion
From all the above, you may have a general understanding of “what is the purpose of a
switch in networking?”. In addition to connecting networked devices, a switch plays an
important role in traffic management, message forwarding, bandwidth increase, etc.
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What are Functions of Network Switch

The function of Network Switch –
An Ethernet/Network Switch operates at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Unlike a
hub, a switch forwards a message to a specific host.
When any host on the network or a switch sends a message to another host on the same network or
same switch, the switch receives and decodes the frames to read the physical (MAC) address portion
of the message.

An Ethernet switch creates a separate collision domain for each switch port. Each device connected
to a switch port can transfer data to any of the other ones at a time, and the transmissions will not
interfere, with a caveat that in half-duplex mode, each switch port can only either receive from or
transmit to its connected device at a certain time.

In full-duplex mode, each switch port can simultaneously transmit and receive, assuming the
connected device also supports full-duplex mode.

Layer 2 switching is hardware-based, it uses the host’s Media Access Control (MAC) address.
Switches use Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC) to build and maintain filter tables.
The function of Switche process faster than Routers, instead use the hardware address defined at the
Data Link (MAC) layer to decide whether to forward or discard the frame, unlike Router which
works on Layer 3 and uses the destination IP address for forwarding packets.

Uses Layer 2 switching for network connectivity and network segmentation (each port is a separate
collision domain).

Functions of layer 2 switching are –

1. Address Learning
2. Forward/Filter decisions
3. Loop Avoidance
1. ADDRESS LEARNING –
An Ethernet switch controls the transmission of frames between switch ports connected to Ethernet
cables using the traffic forwarding rules described in the IEEE 802.1D bridging standard.

Related – Patch cable vs Ethernet

Traffic forwarding is based on address learning. Switches make traffic forwarding decisions based on
the 48-bit media access control (MAC) addresses used in LAN standards, including Ethernet.
To do this, the switch learns which devices, called stations in the standard, are on which segments of
the network by looking at the source addresses in all of the frames it receives.
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When an Ethernet device sends a frame, it puts two addresses in the frame. These two addresses are
the destination address of the device it is sending the frame to, and the source address, which is the
address of the device sending the frame.

The way the switch “learns” is fairly simple. Like all Ethernet interfaces, every port on a switch has a
unique factory-assigned MAC address.

However, unlike a normal Ethernet device that accepts only frames addressed directed to it, the
Ethernet interface located in each port of a switch runs in promiscuous mode.

In this mode, the interface is programmed to receive all frames it sees on that port, not just the frames
that are being sent to the MAC address of the Ethernet interface on that switch port.

As each frame is received on each port, the switching software looks at the source address of the
frame and adds that source address to a table of addresses that the switch maintains.

This is how the function of a switch automatically discovers which stations are reachable on which
ports.

Figure 1-2 shows a switch linking six Ethernet devices. For convenience, we’re using short numbers
for station addresses, instead of actual 6-byte MAC addresses.

As stations send traffic, the switch receives every frame sent and builds a table, more formally called
a forwarding database, that shows which stations can be reached on which ports.

After every station has transmitted at least one frame, the switch will end up with a forwarding
database such as that shown in Table 1-1.

2. FORWARDING AND FILTERING –

Forwarding is the process of passing network traffic a device connected to one port of a Network
Switch to another device connected to another port on the switch.

When a Layer 2 Ethernet frame reaches a port on the Network Switch the switch reads the source
MAC address of the Ethernet frame as a part of learning function, and it also reads the destination
MAC address also as a part of the forwarding function.

The destination MAC address is important to determine the port number which the destination device
is connected.

If the destination MAC address is found on the MAC address table, the switch forwards the Ethernet
frame via the corresponding port of the MAC address.

If the destination MAC address is not found on the MAC address table, the switch forwards the
Ethernet frame through all its ports except the source port. This is known as flooding.
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Normally flooding happens when the network switch is starting up. Flooding prevents loss of traffic
when the switch is learning.

When the destination device receives the Ethernet frame and sends a reply frame to the source
device, the switch reads the MAC address of the destination device and add it to the MAC address
table, which is the function of the learning process.

If the source MAC address is the same as the destination MAC address, the switch will drop the
Ethernet frame. This is known as filtering.

This will normally happen if there is a hub connected to a port of the switch, and both the source
device and destination device are connected to the hub.

3. LOOP AVOIDANCE –
In practical Local Area Networking, redundant links are created to avoid complete network failure in
an event of a failure in one link.

Redundant links can cause layer 2 switching loops and broadcast storms. It is the function of a
network switch to prevent layer 2 switching loops and broadcast storms.

Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is used to stop network loops while still permitting redundancy
Spanning Tree Protocol is designed to perform port state transition to mitigate switching loops and
allow the primary or preferred path active.

The port states are as below –

Blocking – doesn’t forward any frames, but still listens to BPDUs. Ports default to blocking when
the switch powers on.
Used to prevent network loops.

If a blocked port is to become the designated port, it will first enter the listening state to ensure that it
won’t create a loop once it goes into the forwarding state.

Listening – listens to BPDUs to ensure no loops occur on the network before passing data frames.
Learning – learns MAC addresses and builds filter table, doesn’t forward frames.
Forwarding – sends and receives all data on the bridge ports. A forwarding port has been
determined to have the lowest cost to the root bridge.

What is Switch in Computer Network

Definition: A switch is wired network hardware device that performs all
tasks at the data link layer of OSI model, and it also allows connecting
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multiple devices including computers, printers, and servers, in a small

Network switch

business network with using of Ethernet cable.

These
exchanging
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sharing all information
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Switches are capable to handle the physical network and software-based virtual
devices. They help to establish connection with computers that host
virtual machine in the data center and physical servers, and much of the
storage infrastructure. They also allow carrying massive amount of network
traffic in the telecommunications provider networks.
Types of Network Switches
There are different types and categories of Switches in Networking; below
explain each one –
1. KVM Switches
2. Fixed-Configuration Switches
• Unmanaged Switches
• Managed Switches
• Smart Managed Switches
3. Modular Switches
4. Stackable Switches
5. Ethernet Switches
6. PoE Switch
7. Enterprise managed switches
8. Data Center Switches
Example of Switch in Networking
You can say examples of network switches to these types of switches; here
describe each one –
KVM Switches: KVM stands for “keyboard, Video and Mouse“, and this
network switch helps to make connection with keyboard, mouse,
and monitor to several computer system. KVM switch manages the
multiple servers as well as saving PC space by eliminated wires.
These switches are simple interface for using of individual user to handle
various functionalities of multiple systems with one console. These types of
network switches have few keyboard special keys, so you can easily connect
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your computers to keyboard and mouse. You can scale the reach of switch
several hundred feet with using of KVM extender bt transmitting DVI, VGA
or HDMI signals. KVM offers best option to access to local and remote
machines as well as can be managed to centralize server.
There are three types of Fixed-Configuration Switches like as –
• Unmanaged Switches: Mostly, these switches are used in home network or
small companies because these types of network switches provide little basic
connectivity. They do not need any heavy configuration setup because they are
developed as Plug and Play mechanism. If, you have to need extra Ethernet
Port then Unmanaged Switches are best choice for you.
• Managed Switches: These switches have various abilities to customize for
enhancing the functionalities for specific network. They provide many features
such as QoS (Quality of Service), Simple Network Management Protocol
(SNMP) and more. It offers several advance features to professional
administrator for controlling them, and it is used for some
computer networking devices like as VLANs and so on.
• Smart Managed Switches: These network switches are middle ground in
between the managed switches and unmanaged switches. These types of
switches are provide few management abilities where you can configure some
fundamental features like as VLAN, speed/duplex control, SNMP etc. These
network switches are used in home network or small companies where to use
less complexity requirements.
Modular Switches: Modular Switches allow attaching expansion modules as
per the user requirement then it provides you much flexibility for changing
network requirements. Expansion modules are designed for specific
applications with enabling for firewalls, wireless connectivity, and network
analysis. These types of switches let you add additional interface, power
supplies, and cooling fans but its cost can be increased.
Stackable Switches: Stackable Switches provide the combine features of fixed
switch and modular switch. Here, stackable switch unit can be constructed with
using of same model of fixed switch and modular switch. These types of fixed
switches are made connections with together at the rear edge with using special
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wire, so it can make communication with each other and perform all tasks like
as single unit with extra ports.
It has eight switches with total 384 ports and it performs all function as single
switch.
For example– Cisco 350X series models can be used as standalone fixed
switches.
Ethernet Switches: Ethernet Switches are also known as “LAN Switches“,.
With the use of these types of switches, companies can make internal
connection with LAN network. Ethernet switches help to deliver the
broadcasted data packets before getting direction it to its embedded receiver.
These switches can decrease the network congestion or bottlenecks by
distributing a package of data only to its intended recipient.
PoE Switches: PoE stands for “Power over Ethernet“, and these switches
spread the power over the entire network to different types of network
devices. On this network, you can perform several functions from your
computer to IP cameras and smart lighting system without any requirement
nearby AC access point, because PoE switches transmit both power and data
to linked their network devices.
PoE switches make the PoE network environment that can help to support both
Ethernet and PoE-enabled devices.
Enterprise Switches: Enterprise Switches are used to track and monitor users
and all devices which are connected at the edges to secure each connection
point from security problem. These types of network switches have specific
abilities such as PoE function, and with using of PoE technology, these
switches are capable to handle the energy consumption of several edge network
devices linked to switches.
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Functions and Uses of Switches

There are basic four functions of switches in networking; below explain
each one –
To Make Connection with Multiple Host: Network switches allowing many
number of ports for connecting cable connection that helps to star topology,
and it is also used to make link various computer to the network system.
Can be send Messages to Specific Host: Network switches provide similar
forwarding or filtering logic for every port. If, any switch tries to send any
message to other host over the same network otherwise same switch, then they
obtain and decode those frames for getting to read the MAC address part of the
message.
Control Traffic: Network traffic is managed by network switches can help to
manage both types of network traffic like as coming into or exiting network as
well as connecting multiple network devices such as PCs and access points.
Enhance LAN Bandwidth: Network switches split the LAN network into
several collision domains along with independent broadband, so enhancing the
LAN bandwidth.
Network switches are able to regenerate an undistorted square electrical signal
while forwarding frames.
Switches help to operate at multiple OSI model layers like as data link,
network, or transport layers, such devices those operate simultaneously at
multiple those layers, they are known as “Multilayer Switch”.
Functions of Layer 2 Switching
There are main three Functions of Layer 2 Switch in networking; below
explain each one –
Address Learning: In this process, it gets MAC address of their
connected network devices. If, a frame arrives at port of network switch then
it fetches the MAC address of source terminal from Ethernet frame and then
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get to compression it with its MAC address table. When, any time switch is not
able to search a corresponding entry in MAC address table, then switch will
try to append the address to table along with it port number through Ethernet
frame reached.
If, MAC address table already contains the MAC address, then network switch
gets to compare incoming port along with port that is already existed into MAC
table. But, port numbers are mismatch then further switch is getting to update
MAC address table with new updated port number. This issue is occurred when
network administrator removes the cable from one port and then connects it to
other ports.
Forward/Filter Decisions: In the forwarding process, all network traffic is
getting to pass from one linked one port of switch to another device that is
connected with another port of switch.
Destination MAC address play major role to identify the port number which
the target device is connected.
When destination MAC address is not matched in the MAC address table then
switches forwards the Ethernet frame via all its ports exclude the source port
that is known as flooding.
Normally flooding is occurred while starting up network switch, so it helps to
prevent the discard of network traffic when switch is getting to learning.
When source MAC address is matched with destination MAC address then
switch will get to drop Ethernet frame that is called the filtering.
Loop Avoidance: In the LAN network, redundant links are generated to
prevent complete network failure in an event of failure in single link. Network
switch’s function is to avoid layer 2 switching loop and broadcast storms.
Store and Forward: These switches are capable to store and verify every
packet before routing.
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Cut Through: Network switch gets to verify the part of packet header to
hardware address of frame before forwarding it. They have to hard to store and
forward techniques while outgoing port is getting busy to other packets.
Fragment Free: Fragment free helps to verify the first 64 bytes of packet
where to store all addressing information. So, it prevents the erroneous packet
frames for routing.
Adaptive Switching: In this technique, to choose any one of above three
methods according to network traffic situation.
Working of Switch in Networking
If, in your mind is arisen one question is:
How Does an Ethernet Switch Work?
Then we solve it!!
Working of network switch is divided into four steps, like as –
Obtaining Packets: an Ethernet switch performs all activities on the data link
layer devices along with IPs generate packets, which are available into Ethernet
frame.
Encapsulation: It is happened when bits adhere to the front and back of the
packet.
Processing Identifying Data: Key identifying data is available at the header,
like as inter alia source and destination MAC address. When a frame reaches
at the network switch then it fetches all information and decodes where to send
it via ports to arrive it targeted destination point.
Forwarding Packet: A frame reaches at intended device, and then it obtains
and strips the packet.

How does a firewall work?

Firewalls carefully analyze incoming traffic based on pre-established rules and filter traffic
coming from unsecured or suspicious sources to prevent attacks. Firewalls guard traffic at a
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computer’s entry point, called ports, which is where information is exchanged with external
devices. For example, “Source address 172.18.1.1 is allowed to reach destination 172.18.2.1 over
port 22."

Think of IP addresses as houses, and port numbers as rooms within the house. Only trusted
people (source addresses) are allowed to enter the house (destination address) at all—then it’s
further filtered so that people within the house are only allowed to access certain rooms
(destination ports), depending on if they're the owner, a child, or a guest. The owner is allowed to
any room (any port), while children and guests are allowed into a certain set of rooms (specific
ports).

Types of firewalls
Firewalls can either be software or hardware, though it’s best to have both. A software firewall is
a program installed on each computer and regulates traffic through port numbers and
applications, while a physical firewall is a piece of equipment installed between your network
and gateway.

Packet-filtering firewalls, the most common type of firewall, examine packets and prohibit them
from passing through if they don’t match an established security rule set. This type of firewall
checks the packet’s source and destination IP addresses. If packets match those of an “allowed”
rule on the firewall, then it is trusted to enter the network.

Packet-filtering firewalls are divided into two categories: stateful and stateless. Stateless
firewalls examine packets independently of one another and lack context, making them easy
targets for hackers. In contrast, stateful firewalls remember information about previously passed
packets and are considered much more secure.

While packet-filtering firewalls can be effective, they ultimately provide very basic protection
and can be very limited—for example, they can't determine if the contents of the request that's
being sent will adversely affect the application it's reaching. If a malicious request that was
allowed from a trusted source address would result in, say, the deletion of a database, the firewall
would have no way of knowing that. Next-generation firewalls and proxy firewalls are more
equipped to detect such threats.

Next-generation firewalls (NGFW) combine traditional firewall technology with additional

functionality, such as encrypted traffic inspection, intrusion prevention systems, anti-virus, and
more. Most notably, it includes deep packet inspection (DPI). While basic firewalls only look at
packet headers, deep packet inspection examines the data within the packet itself, enabling users
to more effectively identify, categorize, or stop packets with malicious data. Learn about
Forcepoint NGFW here.

Proxy firewalls filter network traffic at the application level. Unlike basic firewalls, the proxy
acts an intermediary between two end systems. The client must send a request to the firewall,
where it is then evaluated against a set of security rules and then permitted or blocked. Most
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notably, proxy firewalls monitor traffic for layer 7 protocols such as HTTP and FTP, and use
both stateful and deep packet inspection to detect malicious traffic.

Network address translation (NAT) firewalls allow multiple devices with independent
network addresses to connect to the internet using a single IP address, keeping individual IP
addresses hidden. As a result, attackers scanning a network for IP addresses can't capture specific
details, providing greater security against attacks. NAT firewalls are similar to proxy firewalls in
that they act as an intermediary between a group of computers and outside traffic.

Stateful multilayer inspection (SMLI) firewalls filter packets at the network, transport, and
application layers, comparing them against known trusted packets. Like NGFW firewalls, SMLI
also examine the entire packet and only allow them to pass if they pass each layer individually.
These firewalls examine packets to determine the state of the communication (thus the name) to
ensure all initiated communication is only taking place with trusted sources.

Firewall defined
A firewall is a security device — computer hardware or software — that can help protect your
network by filtering traffic and blocking outsiders from gaining unauthorized access to the
private data on your computer.
Not only does a firewall block unwanted traffic, it can also help block malicious software from
infecting your computer.
Firewalls can provide different levels of protection. The key is determining how much protection
you need.
The topics below can help you learn what firewalls do and determine the level of protection that
will help keep your computer and the data on it safe and secure.

What does a firewall do?

A firewall acts as a gatekeeper. It monitors attempts to gain access to your operating system and
blocks unwanted traffic or unrecognized sources.
How does it do this? A firewall acts as a barrier or filter between your computer and another
network such as the internet. You could think of a firewall as a traffic controller. It helps to
protect your network and information by managing your network traffic. This includes
blocking unsolicited incoming network traffic and validating access by assessing network traffic
for anything malicious like hackers and malware.
Your operating system and your security software usually come with a pre-installed firewall. It’s
a good idea to make sure those features are turned on. Also, check your security settings to be
sure they are configured to run updates automatically.
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How does a firewall work?

To start, a firewalled system analyzes network traffic based on rules. A firewall only welcomes
those incoming connections that it has been configured to accept. It does this by allowing or
blocking specific data packets — units of communication you send over digital networks —
based on pre-established security rules.
A firewall works like a traffic guard at your computer’s entry point, or port. Only trusted
sources, or IP addresses, are allowed in. IP addresses are important because they identify
a computer or source, just like your postal address identifies where you live.

Types of firewalls
There are software and hardware firewalls. Each format serves a different but important purpose.
A hardware firewall is physical, like a broadband router — stored between your network and
gateway. A software firewall is internal — a program on your computer that works through port
numbers and applications.
There also are cloud-based firewalls, known as Firewall as a Service (FaaS). One benefit of
cloud-based firewalls is that they can grow with your organization and, similar to hardware
firewalls, do well with perimeter security.
There are several different types of firewalls based on their structure and functionality. Here are
the various firewalls you can implement, depending on the size of your network and the level of
security you need.

Packet-filtering firewalls
A packet-filtering firewall is a management program that can block network traffic IP protocol,
an IP address, and a port number. This type of firewall is the most basic form of protection and is
meant for smaller networks.
But beware. While packet-filtering firewalls can be helpful, they also have limitations. Because
all web traffic is allowed, a packet-filtering firewall doesn’t block web-based attacks. So, you
need additional protection to distinguish between friendly and malicious web traffic.

Proxy service firewalls

The proxy service firewall is a system that can help protect your network security by filtering
messages at the application layer. It essentially serves as a gateway or middle man between your
internal network and outside servers on the web. Also known as a gateway firewall, it is
more secure in its use of stateful and deep packet inspection technology to analyze
incoming traffic.
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Stateful multi-layer inspection (SMLI) firewalls

The stateful multi-layer inspection firewall has standard firewall capabilities and keeps track of
established connections. It filters traffic based on state, port, and protocol, along with
administrator-defined rules and context. This involves using data from prior connections and
packets from the same connection.
Most firewalls rely on stateful packet inspection to keep track of all internal traffic. This firewall
is a step above packet-filtering in its use of multi-layer monitoring.
However, it is still unable to distinguish between good and bad web traffic, so you may need
additional software.

Unified threat management (UTM) firewalls

A unified threat management firewall is a program that combines the functions of the SMLI
firewall with intrusion prevention and antivirus. Additional services like cloud management may
be included under the UTM umbrella of services.

Next-generation firewalls (NGFW)

Next-generation firewalls are more sophisticated than packet-filtering and stateful inspection
firewalls. Why? They have more levels of security, going beyond standard packet-filtering to
inspect a packet in its entirety. That means inspecting not just the packet header, but also a
packet’s contents and source. NGFW are able to block more sophisticated and evolving
security threats like advanced malware.

Network address translation (NAT) firewalls

A NAT firewall is able to assess internet traffic and block unsolicited communications. In other
words, it only accepts inbound web traffic if a device on your private network solicited it.

Virtual firewalls
A virtual firewall is an appliance used in a cloud-based system, both private and public. This
type of firewall is used to assess and manage internet traffic over both physical and virtual
networks.

Host-based firewalls versus network-based

firewalls
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There are differences between host-based and network-based firewalls, along with benefits of
having both in place.
Network firewalls filter traffic going to and from the internet to secured local area networks
(LAN). They typically are used by businesses that need to protect a large network of computers,
servers, and employees. A network-based firewall is able to monitor communications between a
company’s computers and outside sources, as well as restrict certain websites, IP addresses, or
other services.
Host-based firewalls work similarly but are stored locally on a single computer or device. A
host-based firewall is a software application or a suite of applications that allows for more
customization. They are installed on each server, control incoming and outgoing traffic, decide
whether to allow traffic to individual devices, and protect the host.

Firewall history
Firewalls have certainly evolved over the years and become more advanced since the technology
first entered the scene. Getting their start as a basic packet-filtering system in the late 1980’s,
firewalls monitored packets sent between computers. They now offer more advanced protection
and technology, as highlighted in this timeline.

• In late 1980, first generation firewalls developed as attacks on personal computers drove anti-
virus products.
• In mid-1990, internet attacks on networks led to the advent of the second generation firewall; the
first stateful inspection firewall was introduced in 1993.
• In early 2000, third generation firewalls addressed vulnerability exploits at the application layer,
leading to Intrusion Prevention Systems Products (IPS).
• In 2010, increases in targeted attacks instigated anti-bot and sandboxing products.
• In 2017, larger scale attacks drove even more advanced protection.

Do you need a firewall at home?

Firewalls represent a first line of defense in home network security. Your home network is only
as secure as its least protected device. That’s where a network security system comes in.
A firewall shouldn’t be your only consideration for securing your home network. It’s important
to make sure all of your internet-enabled devices — including mobile devices — have the latest
operating system, web browsers, and security software.
Another consideration? Securing your wireless router. This might include changing the name of
your router from the default ID and password it came with from the manufacturer, reviewing
your security options, and setting up a guest network for visitors to your home.

Why do we need firewalls?

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You might already engage in certain safe computer and internet use practices, including these:

• You don’t click on unknown links or attachments.

• You only log on to trustworthy, known websites.
• You never give out any personal information unless it is absolutely necessary.
• You have strong, unique, complex passwords for each online account that you update often.

Does all of this make you safe enough? The answer may be “no.” If you use the internet, it’s
smart to have a firewall in place. Cyberthreats are widespread and evolving. It’s important to use
available defenses to help protect your network, and the personal information stored on your
computer, against cybercrimes.
Here are the three main risks of not having a firewall:

Open access
Without a firewall, you’re accepting every connection into your network from anyone. You
wouldn’t have any way to detect incoming threats. That could leave your devices vulnerable to
malicious users.

Lost or compromised data

Not having a firewall could leave your devices exposed, which could allow someone to gain
control over your computer or network. Cybercriminals could delete your data. Or they could use
it to commit identity theft or financial fraud.

Network crashes
Without a firewall, attackers could shut down your network. Getting it running again, and
attempting to recover your stored data, could involve your time and money.
Firewalls are a key part of security technology, especially when the different types of firewalls
work together to provide an umbrella of protection. Firewalls can help keep your network,
computer, and data safe and secure.

Frequently Asked Questions About Firewalls

What is a firewall?
A firewall is a security device in the form of computer hardware or software. It can help protect
your network by acting as an intermediary between your internal network and outside traffic. It
monitors attempts to gain access to your operating system and blocks unwanted incoming traffic
and unrecognized sources.
How do firewalls work?
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A firewall acts as a barrier or gatekeeper between your computer and another network like the
internet. It works like a traffic controller, monitoring and filtering traffic that wants to gain
access to your operating system.
What does a firewall protect against?
A firewall can help protect your computer and data by managing your network traffic. It does
this by blocking unsolicited and unwanted incoming network traffic. A firewall validates access
by assessing this incoming traffic for anything malicious like hackers and malware that could
infect your computer.
What are the types of firewalls?
As listed in detail above, there are software and hardware firewalls – several different types
based on their structure and functionality. A hardware firewall is physical, stored between your
network and gateway. A software firewall is an internal program on your computer that works
through port numbers and applications.
Do you need a firewall?
If you use the internet, it’s smart to have a firewall in place. They provide a first line of defense
to help protect your computer and your personal information from cyberthreats, which are
widespread and evolving.
Can a firewall be hacked?
A firewall shouldn’t be your only consideration for securing your home network. It’s important
to make sure all of your internet-enabled devices have the latest operating system, web browsers,
and security software. You also should secure your wireless router. This might include changing
the name of your router from the default ID and password it came with from the manufacturer,
reviewing your security options, and setting up a guest network for visitors to your home.
Do firewalls prevent viruses?
Firewalls manage access to your network, whereas antivirus software serves as cyber protection
from malicious viruses.
What is the difference between hardware firewalls and software firewalls?
A hardware firewall is physical, like a broadband router — stored between your network and
gateway. A software firewall is internal — a program on your computer that works through port
numbers and applications.
Do you need a firewall at home?
Yes. Without a firewall, you could leave yourself open to accepting every connection into your
home network. You wouldn’t have any way to detect incoming threats. This open access could
leave your devices and personal information exposed and vulnerable to being accessed and used
for malicious purposes. Those intruders could engage in malicious activities like gaining control
over your computer or network, deleting your data, or using your personal information to commit
identity theft and other online frauds.
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