Criminology and the Criminologist

Author(s): Marvin E. Wolfgang

Source: The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, Vol. 54, No. 2 (Jun.,
1963), pp. 155-162
Published by: Northwestern University Pritzker School of Law
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 CRIMINOLOGY AND THE CRIMINOLOGIST

MARVIN E. WOLFGANG

The author is Associate Professor of Sociology in the University of Pennsylvania, Phil

He is also Director of a basic research project entitled "The Measurement of Delinque
Wolfgang is the author of Patterns in Criminal Homicide, for which he received the August
Research Award in 1960, and is President of the Pennsylvania Prison Society. As a former
heim Fellow in Italy, he collected material for an historical analysis of crime and punis
the Renaissance.
In this article Dr. Wolfgang explores the meaning of the terms "criminology" and "criminol-
ogist." Recognizing that these terms have been used with great varieties of meaning since Lombroso,
and that in the United States criminology has had primarily a sociological orientation, the author
poses the question whether criminology can be considered an autonomous, separate discipline of
knowledge. He examines the interrelationships between criminology and other fields, and the di-
versity of present-day approaches to the study of crime and criminals. Presenting his conclusions
as to the meaning of the terms "criminology" and "criminologist," Dr. Wolfgang finds an important
distinction between the art of influencing human behavior and the science of studying crime, crimi-
nals, and criminal behavior.-EDITOR.

THE MEANING OF CRIMINOLOGY nomenon, of criminal investigation, of criminals,

and of penal treatment."4
The term "criminology" has been defined by
It is the position of this paper that the term
almost every author who has written a text in
"criminology" should be used to designate a body
the field. The variegated content of criminology,
of scientific knowledge about crime. This is es-
as conceived by Lombroso, Ferri, Garofalo,
sentially the basis for Thorsten Sellin's introduc-
Aschaffenburg, and other pioneers,' has permitted
tory chapter of Culture Conflict and Crime,5 which
use of this term for the many subdivisions of the
remains as the most pervasive and precise state-
field. Textbooks generally refer to a mixture ofment about the content area and theoretical
data on science, law, public administration, and
structure of criminology in the literature.
morality, and the commonplace dichotomy of
This conceptualism of criminology is neither
"criminology" and "penology" has been with us
narrow nor confining. A scientific approach to
at least since the days of Parmelee.2 Sutherland's
understanding the etiology of crime may include
definition has been standard for many years:
the statistical, historical, clinical, or case-study
"Criminology is the body of knowledge regarding
tools of analysis. Moreover, there is nothing
crime as a social phenomenon. It includes within
inherently quantitative in scientific methodology,
its scope the processes of making laws, of breaking
albeit the most convincing evidence, data, and
laws, and of reacting toward the breaking of
presentation in general sociological replications of
laws.... The objective of criminology is the
propositions appear to be quantitative.6 Probably
development of a body of general and verified
the most fruitful source of analysis of empiric
principles and of other types of knowledge re-
uniformity, regularity, and systems of patterned
garding this process of law, crime, and treat-
relationships can be found in the statistical studies
ment."3 Webster's unabridged edition of the
of causation and prediction. However, interpretive
American dictionary appears to have incorporated
analyses that may occasionally go beyond the
part of Sutherland's perspective, for we read that
limits of empirically correlated and organized
criminology (L. crimen, criminis, crime +-logy)
4 WEBSTER'S NEW INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF
is "the scientific study of crime as a social phe-THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE (2d ed., unabridged, G. and C.
Merriam Co., 1959).
1 See PIONEERS IN CRIMINOLOGY (Mannheim ed., 5SELLIN, CULTURE CONFLICT AND CRIME 1-16
London 1960). (Social Science Research Council, Bulletin 41, 1938).
2 PARMELEE, CRIMINOLOGY (1923). 6 Hanson, Evidence and Procedure Characteristics of
3 SUTHERLAND & CRESSEY, PRINCIPLES OF CRIMI-"Reliable" Propositions in Social Science, 63 AM. J.
NOLOGY 3 (6th ed. 1960). SOCIOLOGY 357 (1958).
155

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156 MARVIN E. WOLFGANG [Vol. 54

data (but not beyond empiric reality)milieu,

can be so does the criminologist need and use
useful and enlightening. If description related
of scientific
the information.
phenomena of crime is performed within The argument may be made that presently
a mean-
ingful theoretical system, the methods and
there the
is no such special separateness to criminology
goals of science are not necessarily discarded
as exists ininother disciplines, and that this fact
the process but may be retained with allthe
delays the
recognition of criminology as a distinct
vigor commonly attributed to sophisticated sta-
field. The histories of most scientific specialisms
tistical manipulation. follow similar developmental trends," i.e., a
We are contending that criminology branching should be off from a larger, more inclusive area
considered as an autonomous, separate of investigation; next, an increasingly narrow,
discipline
of knowledge because it has accumulated its refined, and detailed analysis along "idiographic"
own set of organized data and theoretical con- lines in order to legitimize devoted and disciplined
ceptualisms that use the scientific method, ap- concern with the special subject; and then a
proach to understanding, and attitude in research. return to the "nomothetic" and more enveloping
This contention has recently been supported or universe of investigation that can embrace a
at least examined by Vassali,7 Bianchi,8 Grass- variety of scientific specialties.'2 Thus, it appears
berger,9 and Pinatel.10 Such a position does not that separate disciplines merge and develop in a
negate the mutual interdependence existing in the way that is sympodial rather than unilinear.13
contributions to this discipline by a variety of The early writings of Della Porta and Lavater
other field specializations. Thus, sociology, psy- on physiognomy and of Gall, Spurzheim, and
chology, psychiatry, the law, history, and biology, others in phrenology were not principally con-
with such allied fields as endocrinology, may cerned with criminal behavior, although references
individually or collectively make substantial con- to the criminal occasionally appeared in their
tributions to criminology without detracting from studies. Some historical continuity can be traced
the idiosyncratic significance of criminology as an in medical literature from these writings on
independent subject matter of scientific investi- physiognomy and on craniology and from those
gation and concern. One need not adhere to a of Pinel, Esquirol, and Rush, to Prichard, Ray,
Comtian hierarchy of the sciences to realize the and Maudsley on moral insanity; from Despine
unity of all knowledge, or, especially, to appreciate and Morel on moral degeneracy to Lombroso on
that a higher order of complexity of phenomena the born criminal and criminal type. Lombroso
such as human behavior requires the use of disci- was primarily a physician and professor of psy-
plines devoted to specific aspects of this order. As chiatry before acquiring a reputation as a criminal
the biochemist must use and rely upon research anthropologist. It was German materialism and
both in biology and chemistry in order to under- French positivism, synthesized through the prism
stand the functional interrelationship of physi- of Lombroso's medical training, that led to L'Uomo
ological processes, and as the sociologist employs Delinquente in 1876 and to the shift of emphasis
data from biology, psychology, and other disci- from the crime to the offender, from the Classical
plines to analyze the dynamic aspects of per- to the Italian School. The new emphasis gave
sonality formation within a particular cultural birth to the concentrated scientific study of
7 Vassalli, Criminologia e giustizia penale, 1 QUADERNI
crimogenesis that had long before been in em-
DI CRIMINOLOGIA CLINICA 27, 32-33 (gennaio-marzo, bryonic state.'4
1959).
8 BIANCHI, POSITION AND SUBJECT-MATTER OF CRIM- 11 For an excellent sociological analysis of the history
INOLOGY (Amsterdam 1956). For example, Bianchi of science, see Merton, Science, Technology and Society
says, "The problems of method and subject-matter in Seventeenth Century England, 4 OSIRIS 360 (1938).
are of extreme importance to criminology, particularly 12 For a general description of the important differ-
because this science is still on the very threshold ences between "idiographic" (pertaining to the descrip-
of becoming an independent science." Id. at 15. It is tion of the unique) and "nomothetic" (pertaining to
our belief that criminology has now passed over this generalizations and established law), see Becker, Cul-
threshold. ture Case Study and Greek History: Comparison Viewed
9 Grassberger, Qu'est-ce la criminologie? in REVUE DE Sociologically, 23 AM. Soc. REV. 489 (1958).
CRIMINOLOGIE ET DE POLICE TECHNIQUE (1949), cited 13 Lester F. Ward speaks of social evolution gen-
by Vassalli, supra note 7. erally as having been sympodial. See his PURE SOCIOL-
10 Pinatel, La definition criminologique du crime et le OGY 71-79 (2d ed. 1925).
caractere scientifique de la criminologie (Chronique de 4 For discussions of this historical development
criminologie), in REWE DES SCIENCES CRIMINELLES ET leading up to Lombroso, see ANTINORI, I PRECURSORI DI
DU DROIT PENAL COMPARE (1957). LOMBROSO (Torino, 1950); BONGER, AN INTRODUCTION

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1963] CRIMINOLOGY AND THE CRIMINOLOGIST 157

But increasing specialization and delimitedpreconceptions,

con- premises, frames of reference
centration ultimately lead to ever-wider areas of
and techniques common to sociology, in which
inquiry. By probing his subject matter in he depth,
is trained to do research. Psychologists,
the scientist eventually reaches a point in his
psychiatrists, endocrinologists, geneticists, and
inquiry and hypothesis construction where the he
representatives of many other disciplines
asks questions, answers for which must come from contribute to criminological knowledge
similarly
more than one discipline. In more advanced only to the extent that they use their specialized
stages of scientific inquiry, multi-dimensionality training and funded knowledge in exploring
and inter-disciplinarity are almost inevitable. problems of significance to an understanding of
Modifying but not abandoning his ideas of the criminality. This is the inevitable result of the
atavistic criminal, Lombroso late in his career growing specialization of scientific work."'7
came to see (with the help of Ferri) the importance This diversity of approaches may lead some
and necessity of examining the social "causes and observers to believe that there is not a single
remedies of crime."l5 separate scientific discipline of criminology. On
We thus see that maturity of a discipline the one hand, a macroscopic perspective views
involves increasing interdependence. The en- criminology as a study of crime that includes in-
vironmental approach in criminology, historically stitutional patterns of law and the social reaction
developing from roots distinctly different from to crime in the form of adjudication and the in-
Lombrosian precursors, eventually merged with tegrated system of penal sanctions.'8 The analysis
the latter. Contemporary American criminology of crime from this institutional framework is well
can be said to have an historical linkage with illustrated by Jerome Hall's'9 study of theft, by
Guerry, Quetelet, and de Champneuf, who repre- Radzinowicz's20 review of the history of English
sented the cartographic school of the 19th century, criminal law, and by the general field of the
as well as with Tarde's law of imitation, Durk- "sociology of law."21 On the other hand, micro-
heim's sociological determinism, and the environ- scopic analyses of criminal behavior or personality
mental approaches of Ferri, Garofalo, Colajanni, that attempt to measure significant differences
and others.l6 The literature on crime, from an between criminals and non-criminals take the form
environmental perspective, may have grown from of biologic, psychologic, psychiatric, and sociologic
ideological bases quite different from those of emphases. In the best sense of eclectic positivism,
Lombroso; yet the synthesis has occurred and is the Gluecks have generally proceeded in this
even now constantly recurring while inquiry and manner in their contributions to criminological
research proceed in both areas. From medicine, research during the past 30 years.22 It is common-
clinical psychiatry, and anthropology, as well asplace in the field of criminology to refer to studies
from "political arithmetic" and positivistic at-
17 Sellin, supra note 16.
tempts at societal reconstruction developed the
18 This kind of analysis of institutional patterns is
sympodial branches of criminology that today suggested by Talcott Parsons in his discussion of "in-
appear to be emerging as an independent disci- tegrative institutions," which is part of his structural-
functional theoretical system. See PARSONS, THE
pline. SOCIAL SYSTEM (1951), and ESSAYS IN SOCIOLOGICAL
The diversity of present-day approaches to THEORY (rev. ed. 1954).
the study of crime and criminals can hardly be 19 HALL, THEFT, LAW, AND SOCIETY (2d ed. 1952).
20 1-3 RADZINOWICZ, A HISTORY OF ENGLISH CRIMI-
denied. Sellin has remarked in his introduction to NAL LAW AND ITS ADMINISTRATION FROM 1750 (1948 &
the Swedish handbook of criminology: 1957).
21 The works of TIMASHEFF, AN INTRODUCTION TO
"The sociologist studies crime as a social
THE SOCIOLOGY OF LAW (1939), and of GURVITCH,
phenomenon and approaches this study with SOCIOLOGY OF LAW (1941), have been standard and well
known. For a recent published concern with this topic,
TO CRIMINOLOGY (van Loo transl., London 1936); DE
see Symposium on Law and Social Problems, 7 SOCIAL
QUIROS, MODERN THEORIES OF CRIMINALITY (de Salvio PROBLEMS (1959).
transl. 1911). See also, the discussion and bibliography 22 Such as the following major works of Sheldon and
in Wolfgang, Cesare Lombroso, PIONEERS IN CRIMINOL- Eleanor Glueck: 500 CRIMINAL CAREERS (1930); ONE
OGY ch. 9 (Mannheim ed. 1960). This article also ap- THOUSAND JUVENILE DELINQUENTS (1934); FIVE HUN-
peared in 52 J. CRIM. L., C. & P.S. 361 (1961). DRED DELINQUENT WOMEN (1934); LATER CRIMINAL
15 As is reflected in his CRIME: ITS CAUSES AND CAREERS (1937); JUVENILE DELINQUENTS GROWN UP
REMEDIES (1913). (1940); CRIMINAL CAREERS IN RETROSPECT (1943);
16 See, e.g., DE QUIROS, op. cit. supra note 14, UNRAVELING
and JUVENILE DELINQUENCY (1950); PHY-
SIQUE AND DELINQUENCY (1956); PREDICTING DELIN-
Sellin, En historik aterblick, in AGGE et al., KRIMINOLOGI
Ch. I (Stockholm 1955). QUENCY AND CRIME (1959).

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158 MARVIN E. WOLFGANG [Vol. 54

of identical twins, endrocrinology, and somato- and convincing. If we examine other disciplines,
types in the biological approach; to psychometricwe see similar diversities and problems of oper-
testing of intelligence, personality attributes, ational definitions. History is not only a meth-
forensic medicine, and Freudian psychiatry odological
in the tool, it is a field of study as well. As
psychological approach; and to ecologicalsuch, history includes an obvious diversity of
areas,
differential association, culture conflict, role dimensions to which politics, economics,
space-time
theory, and reference groups in the sociological medicine, technology, art, etc., contribute sub-
approach. stantive data and provide theoretical insights.30
Neither the definition of "crime" nor that of Definitions and delimitations of historical periods
the "criminal" is standardized or universally still create problems for historians. Because the
Middle Ages and the Renaissance merge "like a
accepted as a unit of criminological research. Per-
haps more in the United States than elsewhere trainwreck in time" there is no universal agree-
there are vital and critical differences in con- ment about the designation for the period known
ceptualism of these two terms. It is not merely commonly as "the Renaissance." Similarly with
that criminal statistics are subject to criticism terms
in such as "classical," "Romantic," "Baroque,"
etc., debates in historical analysis continue. The
this country because of state variations in criminal
statutes; the Uniform Crime Reports published study of art can no longer be made on the basis of
by the FBI under the auspices of the Department aesthetics alone, but increasingly requires knowl-
of Justice serve a useful though not totally ade- edge of the culture milieu in which the artist and
quate basis for establishing a crime index for thestyle were born and flourished, and even of psy-
nation. The problem is deeper than this, however. chological insights into the artist's personality.3'
The formal legalistic definition of crime as the Is the relatively new area of industrial sociology a
unit of criminological research is posited againstcontribution to an understanding of industry or of
the broader conceptualism of conduct norms,23 sociology? It is patently both. Does research with
anti-social or deviant behavior,24 and "white- lysergic acid contribute to bio-chemistry or to
collar crime."25 The classic report of Michael andpsychiatry? Again, both. The cultural anthro-
Adler26 and the writings of Tappan27 and Jeffery28pologist who studies the law of primitive man32
adds to the accumulated literature of both an-
suggest that the major perspective of crime
thropology and criminology. We need not
should be a legal one. But like Sellin and Suther-
land, Gillin has emphasized the need for a wider,belabor the point further, for differential ap-
sociological unit for analysis by defining crime proaches
as to the same subject-matter are man-
"an act that has been shown to be actually harmful
ifestly present in all disciplines. The predominantly
biological and legal orientation of some European
to society, or that is believed to be socially harmful
criminology, which has a long historical tradition,
by a group of people that has the power to enforce
its beliefs and that places such act under the ban
and the predominantly environmental orientation
of positive penalties."29 of American criminology, which is equally linked
Can these diversities of approach and of oper-to its own historical continuity, are simply different
ational definitions be considered as parts of approaches
a to the scientific study of crime and
unitary whole? I think the answer is definitely
the criminal. So long as theory and research of
in the affirmative. Analogy is not one of the crime, criminals, and social reaction to both are
based
strongest forms of argument, but it is often useful upon a normative orientation that is
23 SELLIN, op. cit. supra note 5, at 57-116. scientific and the goals of which constitute a
24 CLINARD, SOCIOLOGY OF DEVIANT BEHAVIOR description, measurement, analysis, or interpre-
(1957).
tation of patterns, uniformities, causal relation-
25 SUTHERLAND, WHITE COLLAR CRIME (1949).
26 MICHAEL & ADLER, CRIME, LAW, AND SOCIAL ships, and probabilities, we may assert that such
SCIENCE (1933). theory and research comprise the field and our
27 Tappan, Who Is the Criminal? 12 AM. Soc. REV. 96
(1947); and his recent textbook, CRIME, JUSTICE ANDmeaning of criminology.
CORRECTION (1960).
28 Jeffery, Crime, Law and Social Structure, 47 J.30 In support of this analogy, see THEORIES OF
HISTORY (Gardiner ed. 1959).
CRIM. L., C. & P.S. 423 (1956); and Pioneers in Crimi-
nology. The Historical Development of Criminology, 50 1-2 HAUSER, THE SOCIAL HISTORY OF ART (1957),
31
id. 3 (1959). and THE PHILOSOPHY OF ART HISTORY (1959).
29 GILLIN, CRIMINOLOGY AND PENOLOGY (3d ed. 32 HOEBEL, THE LAW OF PRIMITIVE MAN: A STUDY IN
1945). COMPARATIVE LEGAL DYNAMICS (1954).

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1963] CRIMINOLOGY AND THE CRIMINOLOGIST 159

Finally, if all knowledge is unitary andinclude

separate
the subjects of probation, parole, imprison-
disciplines are but artifacts of analysis, we should
ment, and other treatment or punishment pro-
expect any single discipline to make contributions
cedures in the latter section of the book. May we
to other and especially closely relatedlegitimately
fields. include "corrections" or "penology"
Specifically, criminology must be more than
under oura meaning of criminology? The answer, I
recipient of empirical data and theory; it must
believe, should be negative if by "corrections" is
also give something of substantial value to related
meant the social work activities of probation and
areas of science. In this criterion of scientific parole officers, the organization and administrative
specificity, criminology shows its weakest functions
side. of the police, or the management of
Probably because criminology is still a youngpenal institutions. The answer should be affirma-
science and temporally close to its nascency,tive,ithowever, if we mean, as previously indicated,
has not given as much as it has received. We the scientific analysis, measurement, and in-
terpretation of patterns, regularities, causal or
cannot here engage in the polemics of measuring
or reciting the quantity or quality of research
associational relationships and probabilities of the
and theory that freely flows to and fromsame the subareas of criminology. If control and
field. However, despite its acknowledged indebted-
prediction in experimentation are integral goals of
ness to other disciplines, criminology has made
research and, regardless of the substantive area, if
analysis proceeds by means of the scientific
important contributions to the fuller understand-
ing of deviant behavior, conduct norms, per- method, then we may include within the scope of
criminology any correctional research that em-
sonality formation, biological and psychological
mechanisms of individual behavior, subcultural
braces these goals and this method.4 Matters
patterns of institutionalization, the structural-
purely of public administration may have periph-
eral interest but do not constitute a science of
functional approach of social analysis, learning
theory, class and status hierarchies, role theory,
crime. Technical operations in the management of
psychopathology, law, history, and philosophy.33
a police force or of a prison do not fall within our
Moreover, criminology has used practically framework
every of reference to criminology. Historical
particular tool of scientific research and has that trace the evolution of punishment, if
studies
thereby strengthened and embellished properly
these conceived and executed, may very well be
techniques through usage. The statistical, included
his- in criminology. Various kinds of analyses
torical, clinical, life-history, experimental,ofetc.,
the police, judicial, and penal statistics are part
have been employed to advantage in every country
of criminology, but the mere tabulation of a prison
where criminology has achieved the status population
of a certainly is not. Any study of the
offender after the crime that seeks to understand
university discipline. That teaching and research
in criminology may be performed principally the incausal or treatment process and that employs
schools of law or medicine in one countrya or scientific perspective and method is contained
region (as is the case in Europe) and mostly in our meaning of criminology. Group or
within
departments of sociology in another countryindividual
(as is psychotherapeutic analyses, as well as
the case in the United States) affects onlyprisonthe community and parole prediction studies
should be included. Phenomenological studies of
primary orientation of criminology. But differences
in administrative localization also add to the such crimes as homicide, embezzlement, narcotics,
diverse contributions that criminology may etc., and even taxonomic exercises establishing
make.
Increasingly in the future, criminology should Weberianbe ideal types for purposes of analysis are
able to absorb disciplinary diversity and legitimate
to pro- areas of criminology.
vide more theoretical and empirical services The toquestion whether it is necessary to divide
related disciplines, whether these areas be the law,
discipline into "pure" criminology and "ap-
history, sociology, psychology, or biology.plied" criminology is now rarely raised in the
We have said nothing thus far about penology.United States, although the dichotomy of pure
It is standard textbook practice in America and applied
to sociology has been an issue in that
discipline since the days of Auguste Comte and
33 See Clinard, The Sociology of Delinquency more and
especially in America since the writings of
Crime, in REVIEW OF SOCIOLOGY: ANALYSIS OF A DEC-
34 For recent discussions of the meaning of criminol-
ADE ch. 14 (Gittler ed. 1957); also, Clinard, Criminologi-
cal Research, in MERTON, BROOM & COTTRELL,ogy SOCIOL-
in the area of penology, or corrections, see the entire
OGY TODAY: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS ch. 23 (1959). issue of 40 THE PRISON JOURNAL (1960).

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 160 MARVIN E. WOLFGANG [Vol. 54

Lester Ward. A socially utilitarian end that directs

the Gluecks and suggested by them as an ap-
the course and sets the framework for analysis in
propriate guide in sentencing, is not engaging in a
a research design has been considered applied scientific pursuit. What the Gluecks have done is
research;35 thus practical and almost immediate
criminology; what the judge does with the results
application of research for preconceived admin-
of criminology is public administration.
istrative purposes would connote "applied crim- Thus we see that application of scientific re-
inology." If the research aided the police tosearch
make findings is not criminology-with one
investigations or to collect evidence leading to exception: If these research findings are
obvious
the arrest of an offender, or if research helped theby another researcher in criminology, either
used
probation or parole officer to work more effectively
in the form of a replicated study as documentary
among those in their charge, the research support
would or as propositions upon which new hy-
appear to be "applied" criminology. As Green- potheses are constructed, a form of application is
wood36 has indicated, this original dichotomy manifestly for scientific purposes, is absorbed once
between pure and applied research is breaking again into the scientific process, and is quite
down today. Because an administrative organiza-different from application in criminal policy.
tion designates the area of interest and thereby to
Therefore, in slight modification of our original
some extent sets the limits to the number and contention we may say that application of scientific
kinds of variables to be measured or to the research
goals for scientific research is criminology;
of research, this action does not per se reduce the
whereas, application of research in nonscientific
"purity" of scientific analysis. A public authority
pursuits is not criminology.
that offers direction to investigation may in fact
WHO Is A CRIMINOLOGIST?
be an encouragement to research; and whether or
not the findings have practical applicability does
Having defined and described the meaning of
not determine the scientific character of research.37
criminology, we have simplified our task of de-
But interference in the scientific process, public termining who is the criminologist. Generally
policy that alone dictates choice of research speaking we shall contend that a criminologist is
methods or suppression, distortion, or falsification anyone engaged in the pursuit of learning em-
of data are among the things that destroy scien- braced by our meaning of criminology. A crim-
tificity. These are the major considerations of inologist is one whose professional training, oc-
consequence in so-called "applied" criminology. cupational role, and fiduciary reward are con-
Rather than the question of "pure" versus centrated toward a scientific approach, study,
"applied" criminology, the primary question is and analysis of the phenomena of crime and
whether the process of application of criminological criminal behavior.39 However, because we have
research findings should be labeled criminology. referred to the wide diversity of approaches to the
Our reply is negative and concurs with earlier understanding of crime, questions may arise
related remarks made by Sellin.38 Use of scientific regarding the designation of "criminologist"
findings in social work relationships with clients when applied to specific individuals who contribute
(or, more precisely in this consideration, with segmental information to the field from other
criminal offenders) may be highly desirable but disciplines.
does not constitute science, hence, is not crimi- A physical anthropologist who participates in
nology. The juvenile court judge who would make an interdisciplinary research on delinquency or
use of the "Social Prediction Scale" devised by crime, making anthropomorphic measurements of
35 Cf. BIANCHI, op. cit. supra note 8, at 19-23. a control group and an experimental group of
36 Greenwood, Social Science and Social Work. A delinquents, is not, by reason of this isolated
Theory of Their Relationship, 29 SOCIAL SERVICE REV.
20 (1955). activity, a criminologist. Hooton's40 excursion in
37 This issue has been discussed in more detail: Wolf- 1938 with The American Criminal did not gain
gang, Research in Corrections, 40 THE PRISON JOURNAL
37 (1960), 39 The general criteria of the "professional role" of
38 SELLIN, op. cit. supra note 5, at 3, where he says, the criminologist are substantially the same as those
"The term 'criminology' should be used to designate used by Parsons in his discussion of the meaning and
only the body of scientific knowledge and the deliberate role of the "sociologist." See, Parsons, Some Problems
pursuit of such knowledge. What the technical use of Confronting Sociology as a Profession, 24 AM. Soc. REV.
knowledge in the treatment and prevention of crime 547 (1959).
might be called, I leave to the imagination of the 40 HOOTON, THE AMERICAN CRIMINAL: AN ANTHRO-
reader." POLOGICAL STUDY (1939).

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1963] CRIMINOLOGY AND THE CRIMINOLOGIST 161

for him a high status in criminology, although

dominate his thinking, but the present pedagogic
there was no impairment of his reputation arrangements,
as a at least in American universities,
physical anthropologist. William Sheldon41would make such a person a rarity. Consequently
likewise
our generalization
is not a criminologist because of his Varieties of must be that although the
criminologist
Delinquent Youth any more than is Seltzer,42 who usually has a simultaneous or anti-
aided the Gluecks in Unraveling Juvenile De- training in some discipline other than
cedent
linquency. This is not to say that a physical
criminology, the other discipline becomes the
anthropologist cannot also be a criminologist.
avenue through which he enters criminology. The
Should the application of anthropometry beorientation
made is that which he brings into play as
principally and regularly in the pursuit heofengages
hy- in study and research in criminology.
potheses regarding crime and criminals, Thus, and
the anthropologist, psychiatrist, psy-
should the body of scientific knowledgechologist,
accum- and sociologist who have also obtained
ulated in general criminology be absorbed mastery,
by theunderstanding, and knowledge of the
anthropologist in his training, then he bodymost
of information and research contained in the
field of criminology and whose professional roles
properly may bear the mantle of criminologist.
Correspondingly, the psychometrician orare centered around the study and research of
clinical
psychologist does not ipso facto become crimea crim- or of criminal behavior are all criminol-
inologist because he submits a Wechsler Bellevue
ogists.43
At present the title of criminology is indis-
Test to criminal subjects or because he interviews
200 inmates in a prison. Application of the criminately
Ror- used to refer to anyone whose pro-
schach test to 500 delinquents does notfessional
qualify activity is focused on criminals. The
the administrator as a criminologist. And the officer, the psychiatrist in a penal in-
probation
stitution, the technician in a ballistics section of
sociologist who teaches a single undergraduate
course in criminology as his only professional
a police department, the lie-detector analyst, the
contact with the field is a sociologist but investigator
does not for the district attorney's office, and
meet our standards for a criminologist. even the professor of criminal law have occa-
It becomes clear then that regardless sionally
of the been referred to as "criminologists." It is
diverse nature of contributory professions our contention
to that none of these persons, by
reason of to
criminology there is an independent discipline only one of these professional roles, is a
be learned and a special professional role to be and that none of the results of per-
criminologist,
forming these roles constitute criminology. What,
performed. Whereas it is true that no criminologist
can function as a "pure" criminologist then, can we say about the police officer, the
without
lawyer, the judge, the prison superintendent,
some other type of training and orientation
(sociology, psychology, psychiatry, the law,probation
etc.),and parole officers, and persons engaged
there are a unit of analysis, a framework ofin similar
refer- tasks? There is, of course, no simple or
ence, and a body of collected, organized, and
categoric answer but there is an answer consistent
analyzed knowledge available constituting with re-
our foregoing remarks about the meaning of
quired learning before an individual can criminology
functionand the function of a criminologist.
If any one of these persons in pursuance of his
as a scientific student in any field of criminology.
occupational role is principally devoted to the
Probably no scientist exists who is unadulterated
task of scientific study, research, and analysis of
by the data or theory of some other discipline
the phenomenon of crime, criminal behavior, or
than his own. (Perhaps only the mathematician
can be "pure" in this sense, but then we treatment
mightof the offender, his role is that of a
contend that mathematics is either a tool or, in It is generally unlikely that any of
criminologist.
the aforementioned
its higher complexities, sophisticated artistry and persons is thus occupied. In
not a science.) The student of criminology 43 could
Cf. Sellin who says: "The 'criminologist' does not
conceivably be trained with so broad an eclecticism
exist who is an expert in all the disciplines which con-
that no single disciplinary orientation verge
would in the study of crime." Op. cit. supra note 5, at 4.
Concerned with this same problem, Bianchi seems to
41 SHELDON, VARIETIES OF DELINQUENT YOUTH: AN
feel differently: "Any psychiatrist entering into the field
INTRODUCTION TO CONSTITUTIONAL PSYCHIATRY of criminology
(1949). and reckoning delinquents among his
patients, has to be a criminologist into the bargain,
42 Seltzer, A Comparative Study of the Morphological
Characteristics of Delinquents and Non-Delinquents,
from which infollows that he should be well acquainted
with the entire field and know all the details of the prob-
S. & E. GLUECK, UNRAVELING JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
Appendix C (1950). lems of crime and man." Op. cit. supra note 8, at 22-23.

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162 MARVIN E. WOLFGANG [Vol. 54

most cases the closest they need come to being

merely by reason of their occupational relationships
"scientists" is in the application of criminological
to crime and criminals, any more than the crim-
research findings, but as we have elsewhere in- who does research on the sentencing
inologist
power and functions of judges is a judge. That
dicated this kind of application is not criminology.
We may refer to some of them, as Sellin has two compatible professional roles may be per-
earlier
done, as "technologists," and the work informed
whichsimultaneously is, of course, possible, so
they are engaged as "crimino-technology."44 that a prison administrator may also be a crim-
Working with criminal offenders or having one's if he should design, direct, or supervise
inologist
daily work principally connected with criminals is
a criminological research program in his institu-
not a sufficient criterion for designation asBy
tion. a the same logic a criminologist may be
criminologist; else we would be at the reductio ad
administrative chairman of a university depart-
absurdurn of claiming that a criminal himself
ment of sociology; the two statuses are compatible
should bear the label of criminologist. Thebutrole of
distinctly different.
a peace officer consists of preventing, detecting,
By now it should be obvious that probation
and investigating crime; arresting and inter-
and parole officers may apply knowledge ac-
rogating criminals; and making them availablecumulated from research in social work, psy-
for judicial action. He may make use of scientific
chology, and psychiatry but that they are not
knowledge such as may be found in chemical criminologists. The art of working with people,
analyses of blood stains, in ballistics reports, and supervising, directing, operating upon,
of guiding,
even in using encephalographic machinery,orbut he
controlling others remains an art whether or
is engaged in application not in production of
not scientific principles are applied in such inter-
scientific knowledge. He may be partially re- Similarly custodial officers in a prison,
action.
sponsible for providing the raw datum to be usedsurrounded by and working constantly
though
later in research, but obviously this activity is not
with prisoners, are not criminologists.
science (any more than that of the census enumera-
tor). If application of scientific research were CONCLUSION
criminology then the criminal who used a revolver
I believe that we have provided a logically con-
(which is a material culture trait resulting from
sistent and circumscribed position: a criminologist
scientific research in the use of explosive elements)
is one whose professional role is devoted to crim-
instead of a bow and arrow would be scientific and
inology. Any definition of criminology inferentially
a criminologist. The absurdity of this examplesets limits to the role of a criminologist. Our
should make abundantly clear the meaning thatdefinition of criminology, though wide in the
must be given to the term "criminologist." scope of subject matter contained within the
Our conception of criminology has not been so
field, is narrow in terms of procedural processes
narrow that the study of criminal law, judicialand purposive goals. There are differences of
process, and penal treatment of the offender has
opinion among criminologists about the inclusion
been excluded. Thus, study, research, and analysis
and emphasis of certain types of subject matter
that proceed along methodological lines embraced in criminology. This is a substantive and theoreti-
by science can be made by the student of law,cal matter for discussion and debate. However,
members of the judiciary, and administrators orit should be clear and unmistakable that crim-
executors of penal treatment. However, the inology means the use of scientific methods in the
practicing attorney, the sitting judge, and the
study and analysis of regularities, uniformities,
superintendent of the prison are not criminologists
patterns, and causal relationships concerned with
44 SELLIN, op. cit. supra note 5, at 3. crime, criminals, or criminal behavior.

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