GST 111: USE OF ENGLISH

COURSE OUTLINE

1. Homonyms
2. Plurals
3. Tense
4. Genitives
5. Phonetics
6. Concord
7. Minutes of a Meeting
8. Memoranda
9. Formal Letter

HOMONYM
Since words are the cement and sand with which sentences are built, it is important that one acquires as
many words as possible so as to be able to construct sound sentences

The word 'homonym' comes from the Greek word 'homonymos' which means 'having the same name'.
The prefix 'homo' means the same, and the suffix 'nym' means name. Therefore, homonyms are two
words that look and/or sound exactly alike!

One of the most common homonyms examples in English is the word 'bat'. 'Bat' can mean a piece of
equipment you use in some sports, and it's also the name of an animal. However, they both sound
exactly the same when you say them out loud, and they're spelt exactly the same way, too.

What's the difference between homonyms, homographs, and homophones?

Before we go on to look at some examples of homonyms, it’s important for us to know
that homonyms can be separated into two groups: homographs and homophones. Let’s examine the
difference between these two similar-sounding terms so we’re less likely to get them mixed up.

HOMOGRAPHS

While homonyms can have different spellings, homographs are words that share the same spelling but
don't share the same pronunciation. The word 'graph' in homograph means written, which means these
kinds of words are written in the same way. For example, the homographs ‘bank’, 'bow', 'tear', 'record',
and 'bark' all have at least two different meanings. The words are all still spelt the same, regardless of
the meaning and how you pronounce them. Bow as in bowtie and bow as in to bow down. Tear to tear a
piece of paper and to shed tears. Record as in audio recorder and a record (a tape) etc

HOMOPHONES:

Homophones are words that sound the same or share the name pronunciation, regardless of their
spelling. The word 'phone' in homophone means sound. Examples of homophones include the words
'write' and 'right', 'knight' and 'night', and the words 'see' and 'sea'.
Even though they're spelt differently, when you say them out loud, you say them in the same way. Some
persons mixes up homophones because they usually use sounds to determine the spelling of words, but
that's not possible with these words. When writing it down, you have to use the context surrounding the
word to determine its correct spelling.

BOTH A HOMOGRAPH AND A HOMOPHONE

There are also homonyms, which are both homographs and homophones. These words are both spelt
the same and have the same pronunciation. The only difference between these words is their meaning,
and the only way we can understand which one is meant is by reading the rest of the text or listening
more to gain some context clues.

What are some homonyms examples?

The English language contains several homonyms. Here is a list containing some of the most common
homonym words. You’ll also be able to see whether these homonyms examples are homographs,
homophones or both!

Homonyms examples.

Homograph or
Homonym Meanings of Homograph
Homophone

Current
Both A flow of water / Up to date
(currant)

Kind
homograph A type of something / Caring

Ring Both To call someone on the phone / A band on a finger

Right Both Correct / Opposite of left

Rose Both To have got up / A type of flower

Spring Both A season / Coiled metal

Bright Both Smart or intelligent / Filled with light

Match Both A game of sport / Small wooden stick used for lighting fires

It went positively / A structure made to access water

Well homograph
underground

homo
Fly An insect / To hover and move above the ground

pray/prey homophone To worship / An animal hunted by a predator

hi/high homophone A greeting / At a great height

idle/idol homophone Lazy / Someone you admire

know/no homophone To have knowledge / Opposite of yes

lessen/lesson homophone To reduce / A period of learning

waste/waist homophone Use excessively / Part of the human body

stare/stair homophone To look at something / Structure designed to go up a level

meet/meat homophone Greet someone for the first time / Flesh from an animal

weak/week homophone Not strong / The duration of Monday - Sunday

pair/pear homophone Two of something / A type of fruit

 Polite gesture of bending the waist (b-ow) / A hair accessory
bow homograph
(boh)

close homograph To make shut (klohz) / To be nearby (klohs)

wind homograph Movement of air (wind) / To wrap around something (wine d)

wound homograph An injury (woo und) / Past tense of 'wind' (wownd)

bass homograph A species of fish (bas) / A type of guitar (base)

dove homograph A white bird (duv) / Past tense of 'dive' (dohve)

A piece of evidence about the past (rec ord) / To film something

record homograph
with a camera (re cord)

tear homograph A rip in something (tare) / Droplets that fall when you cry (teer)

does homograph Female deer (dohs) / To do something (duhz)

sow homograph Female pig (sow) / To plant a seed (sohw)

Now that we’ve seen a few homonyms examples, here are just a couple of other words in English that
sound the same:

Bare and bear

Bare (adjective): If something is described as bare, it is basic or uncovered.

Bear (noun): A large mammal.

Cell and sell

Cell (noun): A cell is a small room that is usually found in a prison. Another meaning of cell is the
smallest unit that can live on its own and that makes up all living organisms and the tissues of the body.

To sell (verb): 'To sell' is a verb meaning to exchange either a product or service for money.

Dew, do, and due

Dew (noun): Dew is the small water droplets that gather on plants and other objects outside during the
night.

To do (verb): 'To do' is a verb used to indicate an action.

Due (adjective): This word is often used when discussing deadlines or when something is scheduled to
happen.

Been/being, ply/apply, round up round off, there/their, cite/site/sigh.

Correct these commonly misused homonyms.

1. Your going to pay me back for my bread, meat and egg.

2. The constantly changing springtime whether is driving us crazy.

3. He wore a plane shirt to the dance.

4. The seen was taken out of the final movie.

5. The boat over their is there boat and they’re going to take me fishing in it.

PLURALS
r
A plural noun is a word that refers to more than
one person, place, thing, or idea. There are three
Car cars
types of plural nouns: regular, irregular, and
zero. Irregular plural nouns are words that don't
follow the same spelling conventions as regular House houses
plurals, and don't become plural by adding a "-s"
or "-es" suffix. For example, the plural of "leaf" is Book books
"leaves", not "leafs".

In general, the plural of a noun is formed by Bird birds

adding -S to the noun.
Pencil pencils

Singula Plural
However:
1. When the noun ends in S, SH, CH, X or Z*, we
add -ES to the noun. Singular Plural

Singula Party Parties

Plural
r
Lady Ladies
Kiss Kisses
Story Stories
Wish Wishes
Nanny Nannies
Match Matches
City Cities
Fox Foxes

Quiz quizzes*
4. If the noun ends in F or FE, we remove the F/FE
and add -VES to the noun.
 I have a box in my bedroom.
 I have three boxes in my bedroom.
Singular Plural
* With words that end in Z sometimes we add an
extra Z to the plural form of the word (such as
Life Lives
with the plural of quiz).

Leaf Leaves

Thief Thieves
2. When the noun ends in a VOWEL + Y, we add -S
to the noun. Wife Wives

Singular Plural Some exceptions: roof - roofs, cliff - cliffs, chief -

chiefs, belief - beliefs, chef - chefs

Boy Boys

Holiday Holidays
5. If the noun ends in a CONSONANT + O, we
normally add -ES to the noun.
Key Keys

Guy Guys Singular Plural

Tomato Tomatoes

Potato Potatoes
3. When the noun ends in a CONSONANT + Y, we
remove Y and add -IES to the noun.
Echo Echoes Sheep Sheep

Hero Heroes Deer Deer

Some exceptions: piano - pianos, halo - halos, Moose Moose

photo - photos

NOTE: Volcano has two correct forms of plural. Aircraft Aircraft

Both volcanos and volcanoes are accepted.
Swine swine
6. There are a number of nouns that don't follow
these rules. They are irregular and you need to
Deer Deer
learn them individually because they don't
normally have an S on the end.

 I can see a sheep in the field.

Singula  I can see ten sheep in the field.
Plural
r
Sometimes you will hear the
word fishes (especially in songs) though it is
Man Men
grammatically incorrect.

Woman Women The next rules are a lot more advanced and
even native speakers have difficulty with these.
Child Children Unless you are an advanced student, I wouldn't
recommend learning them just now.
Foot Feet

Tooth Teeth 8. If the noun ends in IS, we change it to ES.

Words that end in IS usually have a Greek root.
Goose Geese
Singula
Mouse Mice Plural
r

 There is a child in the park. Analysis Analyses

 There are many children in the park.
Basis Bases

Crisis Crises
7. There are some nouns in English that are the
same in the singular and the plural. Axis Axes

Singular Plural Thesis Theses

Fish Fish
9. If the noun ends in US, we change it to I. mean that the irregular form is more widely
Words that end in US usually have a Latin root. accepted than the regular form..

aircraft aircraft
Singula
Plural alumna alumnae
r
alumnus alumni
Cactus Cacti
analysis analyses
Fungus Fungi antenna antennae or antennas

Alumnus Alumni antithesis antitheses

apex apices or apexes
Stimulus Stimuli
appendix appendices or appendixes
Syllabus Syllabi
axis axes

Focus Foci bacillus bacilli

bacterium bacteria
basis bases
beau beaux or beaus
10. If the noun ends in UM, we change it to A.
The plurals of some of these words are far bison bison
better known than their singular counterparts. bureau bureaux or bureaus
cactus cacti or cactus or cactuses
Singular Plural
château châteaux or châteaus
Bacterium Bacteria child children

Curriculum Curricula codex codices

concerto concerti or concertos
memorandu
Memoranda
m corpus corpora
crisis crises
Stratum Strata
criterion criteria or criterions
curriculum curricula or curriculums
In the list below, you'll find singular noun forms
in the left column and the corresponding plural datum data
forms in the right column. When a noun has deer deer or deers
more than one plural form, the irregular one
appears first, though that doesn't necessarily diagnosis diagnoses
 memorandum memoranda or memorandums
die dice or dies minutia minutiae
dwarf dwarves or dwarfs moose moose
ellipsis ellipses mouse mice
erratum errata nebula nebulae or nebulas
faux pas faux pas nucleus nuclei or nucleuses
fez fezzes or fezes oasis oases
fish fish or fishes offspring offspring or offsprings
focus foci or focuses opus opera or opuses
foot feet or foot ovum ova
formula formulae or formulas ox oxen or ox
fungus fungi or funguses parenthesis parentheses
genus genera or genuses phenomenon phenomena or phenomenons
goose geese phylum phyla
graffito graffiti quiz quizzes
grouse grouse or grouses radius radii or radiuses
half halves referendum referenda or referendums
hoof hooves or hoofs salmon salmon or salmons
hypothesis hypotheses scarf scarves or scarfs
index indices or indexes self selves
larva larvae or larvas series series
libretto libretti or librettos sheep sheep
loaf loaves shrimp shrimp or shrimps
locus loci species species
louse lice stimulus stimuli
man men stratum strata
matrix matrices or matrixes swine swine
medium media or mediums syllabus syllabi or syllabuses
symposium symposia or symposiums synopsis synopses
tableau tableaux or tableaus vita vitae
thesis theses vortex vortices or vortexes
thief thieves wharf wharves or wharfs
tooth teeth wife wives
trout trout or trouts wolf wolves
tuna tuna or tunas woman women
vertebra vertebrae or vertebras These rules for irregular plural nouns must
vertex vertices or vertexes simply be memorized, although it is helpful
to understand the pattern first.

GENETIVE CASE

Genitive case definition: The genitive case is an English grammatical case that is used for a noun,
pronoun, or adjective that modifies another noun. The genitive case is most commonly used to show
possession, but it can also show a thing’s source or a characteristic/trait of something. Typically, forming
the genitive case involves adding an apostrophe followed by “s” to the end of a noun.

In English, case is a grammatical category for the inflection of nouns and pronouns that shows the
relationship of those nouns and pronouns to other words in a sentence. There are four main cases in
English.

NORMATIVE CASE

What is the nominative case? The nominative case refers to the grammatical case used for a noun or
pronoun when it is the subject of a verb.

 They lost their dog.

 Subject/Nominative case: They
 Verb: Lost

They is in the nominative case because it is the subject of the sentence.

GENITIVE CASE
What is the genitive case? The genitive case refers to the case used for a noun, pronoun, or adjective to
show ownership of a noun.

 They lost their dog.

 Possessive pronoun/Genitive case: Their
 Possessed noun: Dog
Their is in the genitive case to show its relationship to dog.
ACCUSATIVE CASE
What is the accusative case? The accusative case refers to the case used for a noun or pronoun that is a
direct object.
 They lost their dog.
 Verb: Lost
 Direct object: Dog
Dog is in the accusative case, although it doesn’t change its form like pronouns.

DATIVE CASE
What is the dative case? The dative case refers to the case used for a noun or pronoun that is an
indirect object.
 They bought a dog for him.
 Verb: Bought
 Direct object: A dog
 Indirect object in the dative case: Him
Him is in the dative case to indicate its function as an indirect object.

GENITIVE CASES VS. POSSESSIVE CASE.

The genitive and the possessive case look very similar because they both pertain to ownership.
However, where the possessive case always refers to ownership of a noun, the genitive case is not
strictly used for ownership.

Examples will best demonstrate the difference.

Suzie’s toy is new.

 “Suzie’s toy” is an example of the genitive case and the possessive case. The toy belongs to
Suzie (the toy of Suzie). This is an example of a noun possessing a noun using the
apostrophe “-s” ending.
 The men’s clothing section is downstairs.
 In this example, the clothing does not belong to the men. Rather, this refers to clothing for
men. This sentence demonstrates the genitive and not the possessive case.
 The artist’s paintings were on display.
 In this example, the genitive case is used. The meaning is not one of possession, i.e., they
are not paintings owned by the artist (although the artist might own them). Here, the
apostrophe “-s” ending means the drawings by the artist.

GENETIVE ADJECTIVE AND PRONOUNS.
Possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns also belong to the genitive case. A noun is changed in the
genitive case according to its use to show possession.
Noun/Possessive Adjective:
 I/my
 You/your (singular/plural)
 He/She/It = his/her/its
 We/our
  They/their
Example:
 I took my car for a spin.
 “My” is in the genitive case showing that the car belongs to the subject “I.”
Noun/Possessive Pronouns:
 I/mine
 You/yours (singular/plural)
 He/She/It = his/hers/its
 We/ours
 They/theirs
Example:
 Sarah forgot hers.
 “Hers” is in the genitive case showing that the item Sarah forgot belongs to her.

SUMMARY:
Define genitive case: the definition of genitive case is the grammatical case used to show a thing’s
source, a trait or characteristic, or possession or ownership.
In, summary, the genitive case:

 is a grammatical case nouns, pronouns, and adjectives.

 is used for modification of nouns and pronouns.
 is usually formed with an apostrophe “-s” added to the end of a noun.

TENSES

In English grammar, verbs are often used in a way that it indicates or denotes the time when
an event occurred. These verbs that take up different forms to indicate the time of an action, event or
condition by changing its form are called as tenses. Tenses can be broadly classified into three broad
categories:

 THE PRESENT TENSE

 THE PAST TENSE
 THE FUTURE TENSE

1. THE PRESENT TENSE: This tense reports actions that takes place in the present time.

 The Simple Present Tense: Reports an action that occurs often.

For example- Mary tells lies.

 The Present Continuous Tense: It reports actions that are still in progress at the time of the
report.

For Example- The children are playing.

  The Present Perfect Tense. It expresses completed action and uncompleted action in the present
time.
 For Example- I have done the job. The worker has not finished the job.
 The Present Perfect Continuous Tense: It expresses that a particular continuous action that
started in the past and has lasted for a period of time.

For Example- The man has been sleeping. Prof Obi has been lecturing in our school since 1980.

2. THE PAST TENSE

 Simple Past Tense: This tense expresses completed actions in the past. They have no form of
connection with the present. For Example- I went to see Mary.
 Past Continuous Tense: It expresses continuous action in the past. Sometimes it expresses two
actions showing that one action interrupted the other. For Example- We were receiving English
Language lecture when it began to rain.
 Past Perfect Tense: It reports two actions but it makes clear that one action had taken place
before the other. For example- Mr Okoro had divorced his first wife before he married his
present wife.
 Past Perfect Continuous Tense: It expresses actions that had begun in the past and were still in
progress when another action took place. For Example: Faith had been attending the college of
Education when she gained admission into the university.
It’s also used for past habitual actions. Such as: Peter used to type very fast. The man of God
used to commit crimes.

3. FUTURE TENSE

This tense is use to express the simple future event. Events that are to take place after the
present time.
 Simple Future Tense: It expresses future action that is a mere probability in the future. Here
there is a combination of the persons and the modal auxiliary verb “shall or will”.
For Example: The soul that sin shall die. You will be there. We are going to Lagos tomorrow.
 Future Continuous Tense: By this Time next year I shall be preparing for my wedding.
 Future Perfect Tense: The English students would have read many books by the time they finish
their course.
 Future Perfect Continuous Tense: By November next year, shade would have been writing her
project.
 Future in the past Continuous Tense: Ngozi said she would have been sleeping by the time we
got to her house
 Future Perfect in the Past Tense: It expresses completed future action that is assumed to be
past. For Example- Ngozi would have graduated if she were hard working.
CONCORD

WHAT IS CONCORD?

Concord means harmony. It means two things working together. In English grammar concord is the
grammatical agreement between two parts of a sentence. It is the agreement between the subject and
the verb. For a sentence to be grammatical and acceptable, its subject must agree in number with its
verb.

For Example: The pages are held together by a staple.

We see that ‘Pages’ is a plural subject and ‘are’ is a plural verb too.

CONCORD RULES
1. Singular Subject takes Singular Verb and Plural Subject Takes Plural Verbs:

For Example:

 The child wakes up every day becomes the children wake up everyday
 The young boys on the pitch play beautiful football.

2. When a subject is joined to another noun by a subordinator, disregard the subjoined noun and focus
on the main noun.

For Example:

 The senior prefect as well as other students never likes the Fine Art teacher.
 The chairman alongside other members of staff visits the orphanage quarterly.

NOTE: The main subject determines the verb of the sentence.

3. When ‘more than one’ is used as the subject of a verb in simple present tense, the verb should be
singular because the headword is one.

For Example:

 More than one student was suspended for the offence.

 More than one mango was shared by the children.

4. When two nouns refer to one person at the subject position the verb should be singular because it is
one person.

For Example:

 My husband and boss never goes late for meetings.

 The class captain, my best friend is just too proud.
5. When an indefinite pronoun pre-modifies a subject or acts as the main verb, the verb should be
singular.

For Example:

 Everyone loves to be respected.

 Nobody cares for everybody’s job.

6. Some nouns ends with ‘s’ but they are singular. Such nouns are meant to go with singular verbs.

For Example:

 Measles is caused by uncleanliness.

 Mathematics is a difficult subject.

7. When a relative or adjectival clause qualifies a noun, the verb in the relative or adjectival clause works
with the noun it qualifies.

For Example:

 One of the girls that sit at the front has been suspended.
 Dr. Usifo is one of the lecturers who teaches well.

8. When a generic reference is used with the definite article ‘the’ as a subject of the verb, the verb
should be plural.

For Example:

 The rich also cry.

 The wise don’t talk too much.

9. When an uncountable noun is introduced with a quantifier or percentage, It attracts a singular

verb.

For Example:

 A quarter of the land is occupied by the Hausa’s.

 Two cups of flour is enough for the cake.

In the same vein when a countable noun is introduced in percentage. It goes with a plural verb.

For Example:

 Only Ten percent of people in the world actually believe in God.

 Two third of EGOMOG force were involved.

MINUTES OF MEETINGS
MINUTES OF MEETING

Minutes of a meeting are the accurate summary of records of what is said and decided at the meeting,
especially of a society or committee. Minutes can also be said to be a way of recording discussions,
comments and decisions in a very clear, understandable and concise form. Minutes are written or
should be written in plain language. In some places, minutes are usually entered into a minute book-
usually a big book that could take many records of minutes. In some government offices, summaries of
minutes of meetings are printed out and circulated to members.

You also need to know that minutes of meetings can be tendered as evidence before panels
investigating some delicate issues at times. In fact, if the executive members of an association want to
open an account with a bank, the bank usually asks for the minutes of the meeting where that decision
was made and the individuals involved. Relevant details such as the attendance, the date, the decision
to open an account, which bank to use and who the signatories should be will be requested for.

Organising your minutes of meeting very well helps in the understanding and search for particular bits of
information from the minutes. There are some things that should be in the minutes of meetings and
these are the things that will be discussed in this section.

They are:

1. Title

2. Attendance/Membership

3. Preliminary discussion

4. Adoption of the minutes of the last meeting

5. Matters arising

6. Items for consideration

7. Adjournment

8. Endorsement by the chairperson

A good format to follow in the writing of minutes is as indicated in the introduction and below. a notice
of meeting has to be passed round to the members before the meeting. This notice has to indicate the
title, name of the club, society or institution, date, venue, time, convener, agenda etc. It is also
important to note that whoever is developing the section on matters arising, should number it e.g.
Minute 1,2,3,4 etc depending on how the items were recorded.

3.1 Title At a glance, there should be a clear indication of the group holding the meeting, at what place,
and time and for what purpose. Below is an example.
MINUTES OF THE MEETING OF ACADEMIC STAFF UNION OF UNIVERSITIES – (ASUU) AGBA OSELU
UNIVERSITY BRANCH, ILE-IFE, NIGERIA HELD ON TUESDAY, DECEMBER 15, 2007 AT AUDITORIUM 1,
HUMANITIES BLOCK 1, AGBA OSELU UNIVERSITY, ILE-IFE.

3.2 Attendance/Membership

This section is a highlight of the names of all those who were present at the meeting. It also indicates
those who were absent (with or without permission). If there are new members/observers etc, this will
be indicated here as well. Below is an example: 3.2.1 Membership

3.2.1.1 Present

1. Mr. J.A. Adigun Chairman

2. Mr. O.O. Ogungbe

3. Mr. J.S. Otunbo

4. Mr. J.B. Jumbo

5. Mr. O.B. Jegede

6. Mr. A.A. Fabusuyi

7. Mr. O.O. Adeojo Secretary

3.2.1.2 Absent (with Permission)

1. Mrs. J.A. Oni

3.2.1.3 Absent (without Permission)

1. Engineer O.O. Alebiosu

2. Chief O.O. Ogunleye

3. Mr. O.O. Adelaja

3.2.1.4 In Attendance

1. Mrs. J.O. Bolarinwa (Town planner)

2. Mrs. O.O. Ojo (Business woman)

It could also be a list of all the members, indicating absentees with abs, abswa or *, **, *** in the
margin. Abswa means absent with apology.

3.3 Preamble

This is not a compulsory part or feature of minutes of meetings. It can be included in the minutes if the
chairperson makes some preliminary remarks by welcoming members, introducing a new member or
visitor, giving apologies for lateness or apologies sent in by members, etc. Remarks on a member’s new
status, addition to a family or news of bereavement could also be included in this section. The preamble
usually takes place before the meeting proper.

3.4 Adoption of Minutes of the Previous Meeting.

There are two ways of distributing the minutes of a previous meeting. The first one is by getting it ready
and sending it to members before the day of the next meeting so that members will enable to go
through and have their comments ready for the meeting. In this way, time will not be wasted reading
through the minutes. The chairperson calls for any observation on the minutes. If there are none, he
then calls for the adoption of the minutes. The other way which is common in most organisations,
societies, or high school staff meetings is the method of reading the minutes of the last meeting while
members are seated. The members are advised to listen attentively while the secretary or any other
designated person reads the minutes. While going through the minutes or having gone through the
minutes, observations such as the following can be taken and addressed:

A. Omission of a member’s name

B. Misspelt names
C. Mis-representation by the secretary, etc.

3.5 Matter Arising.

In this section, the chairperson does a follow-up on the assignments given to members or report on
actions taken on some issues that had been previously discussed. This section emphasises the need for
members to work on the implementation of decisions taken at meetings so that the society or
organisation can move forward. For example, the following can be part of what is discussed at a
meeting:
Chairperson: Mr Adagunodo was asked to see to the purchase of a new piece of land for the building of
a new business office complex for the society. Can you please give us a report on that?
Mr Adagunodo: Thank you
Mr Chairperson. I visited the surveyor and he promised to release the land on the condition that we pay
the amount for the land once.
Chairperson: Do we all agree to do that?
Members: Yes.
In taking the minutes of such a meeting, the secretary can write that the members agreed to pay for the
proposed piece of land upfront.

3.6 New Items for Consideration

In this section, the chairperson takes the members through the new items listed for discussion and
consideration at the meeting (that is, the list of items to attend to). These may include, for example:
a) Members’ participation at their old students’ founder’s day celebration (for an association)
b) Application for sabbatical leave for some members of a department (institution)
c) Discussion of the new year budget (Ministry or parastatal)
d) Promotion cases (institution, etc.)

3.7 AOB (Any Other Business)

At times members have some observations, contributions or requests which have not been listed as part
of the agenda for the day. Such comments or contributions can be discussed and recorded in this
section.
3.8 Adjournment
This is a move to bring the meeting to a close. After all items on the agenda might have been discussed,
the chairperson can then call for an adjournment of the meeting. This should be moved by a member
and supported by at least another member. For example, the secretary could write: The adjournment of
the meeting was moved by Mr. A.O. Ajayi and supported by Mr. A.K. Akamo. The meeting came to a
close at exactly 6.45pm.

3.9 Endorsement
Spaces must be created at the end of the minutes for the secretary and chairperson to put their
signatures and date. Below is an example:
Signature/Date Signature/Date Secretary Chairperson
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3.10 Sample Minutes of Meeting

MINUTES OF MEETING OF THE LOCAL ORGANISING COMMITTEE OF THE NIGERIA NATIONAL

BOOKFAIR, WESTERN ZONE, HELD AT AGBA OSELU UNIVERSITY PRESS, ODE-IRELE ON JANUARY 19,
2007.

3.10.1 Attendance

Mr. Ade Fatomilola Chairman

Dr. G.A. Adeowo

Mrs. O.M. Olaoba

Mr. T.A. Agbakuru Secretary

Dr. M.A. Adetayo

Mrs. B.J. Adeojo

Mr. O.M. Bintu Alhaji O.T. Balewa

10. 2 Preamble

The meeting started at 12.15p.m with a prayer by Mrs Olaoba. The Chairperson reported that Mrs Dada
and Dr Adetayo sent in apologies for their absence. He also reported that Mr Olorunwa would join us at
the Vice Chancellor’s office at 2.00 p.m.

3.10.3 Adoption of Previous Minutes The minutes of the meeting held on July 20, 2007 were read
through by members. The motion for the adoption was moved by Mrs Olaoba and it was seconded by
Mr Bintu.

3.10.4 Matters Arising

3.10.4.1 Publicity

Mr Jide Omisola was being expected to give details of his plans. Members reiterated the earlier
decisions on publicity to go out early enough, get more posters pasted and handbills well distributed
aside the usual newspapers, TV and radio advertisement.

3.10.4.2 Cultural Activities

Dr Kola Adeowo apologised for not being able to attend the last meeting. He brought and submitted his
plans as well as the financial implication of the programme he drew up. It was being planned that Irele
Outreach Performers would perform at the opening ceremony while a full length play would be fixed for
one of the nights during the Book Fair. The total cost was put at about N95, 000.

3.10.4.3 Children’s Programme

Mrs Olaobaju said that she was still working on the activities for the children’s programme. She
promised to package it up and submit soonest. 3.10.4.4 Lectures Prof. Eniayekan and others would be
contacted on the lectures as planned. It was also reported that Mrs Odunsi already saw the Principal
Personal Secretary (PPS) to the Odia State Governor, and that there was every hope that the
government would be adequately represented at the Book Fair. The Ministry of Education had also been
contacted.
3.10.5 New Items for Consideration.

The following items were listed for consideration 3.10.5.1 Topics for the Seminar Session and Keynote
Speaker Members discussed the need to inform the keynote speaker and other discussants concerning
the following topics: a) The Role of Children in Functional Education. b) Children and Functional
Education. c) The Role of Government in Functional Education.

3.10.5.2 Visit to the Vice Chancellor.

The visit to the Vice Chancellor scheduled for 2.00pm was discussed and finalised. Members agreed to
visit the Vice Chancellor at the appointed time to discuss the possibility of getting some financial support
for the programme.

3.10.5.3 Date for the Next Meeting

The date for the next meeting was tentatively fixed for January 21st 2027

3.10.6 Adjournment.

In the absence of any other thing to discuss, the meeting was adjourned at 1.40 p.m. to give members
enough time to prepare for the visit to the visit vice chancellor.

3.10.7 Endorsement

…………………………… . ……………………….

Secretary Chairperson

LETTER WRITING (Formal Letters)

All forms of writing are important because they can easily be kept and documented. As a result of the
importance of letters, even the unlettered employ the services of people who can write to help them
write to their loved ones, children and relatives in far away places or when they need to apply to
establishments as supporting staff etc. At one point in time or the other in life, you may need to write
formal letters or help someone do so. Do you know that many applications for jobs, appointments and
requests end up in the trash can because of the inability of the applicant to fulfil the writing
requirements and standard? Some unknowingly write formal letters the way they speak while some are
simply very rude in their use of language while writing.

Formal letters are meant to serve some official purposes and these are needed almost all the time.
Formal letters also have features which unlike informal letters, must be adhered to strictly.
3.1 The Writer’s Address and Date

As we have in informal letters, the address and the date are compulsory and these usually appear at the
top right hand corner but recently as mentioned in informal letters, some people have shifted the
address and date emphasis to the left. Thus, you have people using the traditional method of writing the
address and date on the right while some use the latest one which starts all on the left. The all-left style
is, however, not yet popular with many people.

3.2 The Addressee’s Address and Date

This section is not required in informal letters and it has always been on the left hand margin about two
lines below the date. Usually, the official designation of the person being addressed is used. But
occasionally the name is included. For example,

B 44 Surulere Quarters,
Aba Iyagani, Ode-Irele.
Eruobodo State.
18th January, 2023.

The Managing Director,

Opec Engineering Company,
Oregun. Eruobodo State.

Dear Sir,
APPLICATION FOR THE POST OF A CLERICAL ASSISTANT

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.3 The Salutation and Subject Heading.

The normal salutation for people in their official capacity is Dear Sir, if the person is known to
be a man, and Dear Madam, if the person is known to be a woman. The salutation is always
written close to the left hand side of the margin about two lines below the last line of the
addressees’ address.

The subject heading usually comes between the salutation and the opening of the letter. If you
receive a reply to your letter with an official heading as the one above, the heading, preceded by
Re- is used in the reply.

3.4 The Opening Paragraph.

The opening paragraph states the reason for the letter.

Below are some ways by which you could start the letter.
a) I wish to apply for the post of ----advertised recently in the The Nation.

b) It gives me great pleasure---- to inform you that---

c) I am writing this letter in response to your advertisement for the sale of----

d) With reference to your letter dated------

e) This is to thank you for your response to my request on-----

f) I regret to inform you that----.

g) You may remember telephoning me on the issue of the accommodation of your office staff
last -----etc.

You should try to avoid some outdated usages such as

a) I beg to apply--- (You do not have to beg. You may just simply apply).

b) I acknowledge the receipt of--- Remember to quote any reference number that is used to write
to you in your response to such a letter.

For example, a) With reference to your letter dated----

b) I wish to refer to your letter dated---in which you referred to ---

c) With reference to your letter, R/101/ATO of 16/10/2001 ---

3.5 The Body of the Letter.

The body of the letter must be divided into paragraphs just like informal letters. Any subject
matter that is not of relevance to the topic should not be included. Make yourself clear and go
straight to the point. Points should be made as briefly as possible.

Most official letters are written to fit on one page. Chief executives and business people do not
have too much time to start going over pages and pages of writing. They are very busy people so
the shorter your letter the better for maximum attention to be given to it. There is really no time
for lengthy letters. Make sure you use very simple language. Do not think you can impress your
reader by writing very complicated sentences and expressions. The simpler you make your
language, the better.

3.6 A Final Paragraph.

A final paragraph is important to convey your expectation.

You can make statements such as:

a) Looking forward to hearing from you

b) I would be grateful to have an answer as soon as possible

c) Thank you for your attention

d) Awaiting your favorable response

e) I look forward to---

3.7 Closing

The complimentary closing of “Yours Faithfully” is common in formal letters. This is followed
by the signature and the full name of the writer which is written close to the right hand or to the
left in some cases. You must create enough space for the signature between the closing and the
full name of the writer. In the past, ladies were enjoined to put Mrs, Ms (used by a woman when
she does not want to disclose her marital status) or Miss in bracket after their full name. But
recently, some of the advocates for gender equality noted that such was not necessary since men
do not put Mr in bracket after their own names. The official title should be put under the full
name when letters are written in one’s official capacity. Below is the sample of a short official
letter with all the features.

TASK:

1. Write a letter to your Head of Department informing him/her of complaints by other students
in the Department against some of the lecturers who have been accused of absenteeism, lateness
to classes, failure to prepare and give lecture notes to students etc, and the need to do something
urgently to avert an impending riot or protest by students.

2. Write a formal letter to the police giving an account of a crime you witnessed.

MEMORANDUM
A memorandum is a short, written document which addresses specific people or groups for the purpose
of giving information or generating an action for specific reasons. A memorandum (memo) is a very
precise write-up or document because most decision-makers have limited time for writing or going
through

They always want a gist of what you are trying to say so that they can give their comments in very few
words as possible. Usually, long memos do not get read easily and if and when they do, it may be
difficult going through all the sections in detail. The executive may just scan through to pick a few
essential points.
Before you write your memo, you need to know the receiver of the memo, the essential points they
need to know and how to best present it so that it can attract their attention.

3.1 Who

As mentioned earlier, one of the reasons memos are written is to generate action in the receiver. The
information you are transmitting is expected to make a point, give a timely reminder for something or
some action, note an agreement or make the receiver take some action. If the receiver is a decision-
maker, to be able to get the expected response, you must give the precise information needed.

Decision-makers also write memos to executors of projects or ideas, etc. Some of these memos are
however instructive and the receiver is expected to act promptly for specific reasons and report back
probably through another memo. For example, the chairman, committee of deans in a university can
write a memo to all heads of departments informing them of the need to get final year students’ results
ready for senate approval on or before a particular date. The writer knows the receiver is in a position to
take action and that the work would be done for the organisation to move forward.

3.2 The Content

When preparing a memo, you must determine how much information your reader needs and you
should have or be able to make a good guess how much the reader already knows. For your reader to
make good judgment, he/she assumes you are giving him/her the correct and valid information that is
needful at that moment. The reader also needs to be presented with all necessary facts- both positive
and negative, depending on the issue at hand. If you are making a request, you must make realistic ones
and give suggestions that are practicable. 3.3 How to Present the Information You must be clear in your
presentation. Make your information or presentation precise. For you to master this art of precision, you
need a lot of practice. You can start with your day-to-day interaction with people by making sure you
make your contributions clear and to the point always. You can also practice by putting whatever you
want to write down in simple, short sentences which you can later reduce to point form.

Look at the examples below.

Final year students’ results should be made ready by the 15th of February 2007 for processing to
Business Committee of Senate because final year students are going for NYSC Orientation Programme
on the 18th of February 2007.

The above can be re-written in a short form:

1. NYSC orientation programme starts on 18th February, 2007

2. Please make final year students’ results ready for processing to Business Committee of Senate on or
before the 15th February 2007.

3.4 Language
Your use of appropriate language is important while writing memos. Even though it is a precise write-up,
it should be written in well constructed language. You must check your memo for bad or wrong
spellings, tense or grammatical errors in general. Your writing must be simple, well focused and easy to
read.

3.4.1 Simplicity

This is the hallmark of good writing. You should use simple sentence patterns. Complex sentence
structure and organisation may bring confusion. You must write in a very clear manner. Read the
sentence below and also read the modifications that have been done to it.

Whether you believe it or not, and there are pieces of evidence to prove that it is likely to be true that
some of the students were responsible for beating up the Agric Master who without doubt was on his
way to the principal’s house in town. The writer above is trying to use the conversational style. This kind
of language makes things complicated.

It can be made simpler and easier to read.

Read the sentences below.

a) There are pieces of evidence to show that some students were responsible for beating up the Agric
master.

b) The Agric Master was on his way to the principal’s house in town.

3.4.1 Clarity

This involves choosing the right words and avoiding any kind of technicality except when necessary. You
should think about different ways of saying the same thing. You can use the dictionary or the thesaurus
which will help you find alternatives or synonyms of words. Civil servants tend to prefer the use of
complex phrases that seem to have some form of bureaucratic meaning. This can still be made simple
for the benefit of those who are not used to such language.

3.5 Structure of Memorandum

There are two types of memoranda.

a) Informal memorandum; and

b) Formal memorandum.

Informal memorandum is one that is circulated internally.

These are written to individuals during the course of duty by people within the same establishment or
organisation.

Memos have a format.

They are not as elaborate as formal letters. There is usually no formal address like term(s) such as Dear
Sir or Dear Madam.

Formal memorandum is usually written specially for particular persons or committees for the purpose of
providing the recipients with information on certain issues.

Memorandum of this type is always longer than the informal type.

Informal memoranda have a structure – title, introduction, body, conclusion and recommendations. It
can be presented in a letter format.

3.5.1 Title: This states the subject matter and should be stated in a clear way.

3.5.2 The Introduction: This section informs the reader what the write-up is all about.

3.5.3 The Main Body: In this section, the main points are expanded and discussed under appropriate
headings and subheadings.

3.5.4 Conclusion: This is a summary of the points and arguments that have been presented.

3.5.5 Recommendations: In this section, the logical conclusions arising out of the discussion are
presented and listed.

When writing the recommendations, use the same kind of grammatical structure to express each of
them. This will make your presentation better and clearer.

3.6 Revision of the Write-up:

Before you send your memo or present it to whoever should have it, you must revise it. Try to go over
the content again and be sure your points are well presented and that there are no contradictions. You
should also make sure that it is devoid of grammatical errors.

3.7 Electronic Mail Memos:

Today, people use the electronic mail (e-mail) on the internet to send memos and communicate. E-mail
correspondence seems to be a more rushed correspondence which presupposes that it needs even
greater brevity and clarity. In places where internet services are well developed and connected,
establishments use e-mail communication instead of the traditional memos. Please note the following
about e-mail communication.

3.7.1 It is Official.

E-mail messages are legal documents. Whatever you write through e-mail can be tendered as evidence
in a law court.

3.7.2 Spell-check your Mail.

Most users of the e-mail programmes do not check for spelling and grammar. Always check your
spellings and grammar before you send your e-mail. E-mail needs to be proofread. It is good to go the
extra mile of first going through thoroughly to check for wrong spellings of people’s names and phone
numbers before sending it to multiple users.

3.7.3 Formatting Tools

You should be clear and concise with your writing of e-mails. Your writing must be as clear as any
written document you produce. Use bullets, bold text, etc to highlight your writing so that readers can
easily find what they are looking for. Use appropriate line spacing, breaks between paragraphs and lines.
This makes your mail more visually accessible and easy to read.

Samples of informal memorandum.

Sample A
OBA AWON UNIVERSITY, ODE – IRELE, NIGERIA
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

INTERNAL MEMORANDUM

From: Ag. Head To: All Academic Staff

Department of English Department of English

Date: 29/10/07

Departmental Examiners’ Meeting- A Reminder

This is to remind you of our meeting coming up tomorrow, Tuesday, 11th October 2007. Time: 10.00am
Venue: Departmental Library

Agenda: Graduating Students’ result

AOB

Please bring along your copy of our new programme.

Thank you,

Dr W.O Adigun.

Sample B
OBA AWON UNIVERSITY, ODE-IRELE, NIGERIA

INTERNAL MEMORANDUM

From: The Secretary To: See distribution below

Oba School of English

Date: 21/09/07

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH/UNIFECS PROGRAMME

Notice of Meeting.

There will be a meeting of all members involved in this programme.

Please attend punctually.

Thanks.

Mr A.T Akande

Secretary

CC:

Mrs A.A. Akamo

Dr S.O. Olateru

Dr A.A. Winson

Sample of Format of a Formal Memorandum

No 36, Ajebandele

Ode-Irele,

Eruobodo State.

20/02/08.

The Chairman,

Furniture Allocation/ Repair Committee,

Oba Awon University.

Dear Sir/Ma,

REQUEST FOR A WORKSPACE FOR THE REPAIR OF BROKEN DOWN FURNITURE AT THE CENTRAL
CAFETERIA

On behalf of the Managing Director of Reo Engineering Company, I wish to request for the release of the
space between the Central Cafeteria and the students’ hostels as workspace for the repair of broken
down furniture.