NAME: PADAM RAJ BHATTA

ROLL NUMBER: 2314513316

PROGRAM: BBA

SEMESTER: 1ST

COURSE NAME: COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

CODE: DBB1105
 SET-1

QN.1: Illustrate the architecture of a computer system and explain the functions of various
units.

Answer :
A computer system is made up of both hardware and software components. At its core is the
central processing unit (CPU), which performs the majority of calculations and follows
instructions stored in memory (RAM). The CPU interacts with other hardware components such
as the storage device (hard drive or solid-state drive), input/output devices (monitor, keyboard,
and mouse), and networking devices (Ethernet card). The operating system (OS) is the software
component that manages all the hardware and software resources, providing a user-friendly
interface for interacting with the computer. Explain about the computer unit is below.
Central Processing Unit (CPU):

The CPU is often considered the brain of the computer. It carries out instructions from programs
by performing basic arithmetic, logic, control, and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the
instructions.

It consists of the Control Unit (CU), which coordinates the activities of the other units within the
computer, and the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical
operations.

Memory:

Memory, also known as RAM (Random Access Memory), is used to store data and instructions
that the CPU needs in real time. It is a volatile form of memory, meaning that it requires power
to maintain its data.

Memory is crucial for running programs and multitasking, as it allows the CPU to access data
quickly.

Input/Output (I/O) Devices:

These devices allow the computer to communicate with the outside world. Examples include
keyboards, mice, monitors, printers, and network interfaces.

Input devices enable users to provide data and control to the computer, while output devices
display or otherwise convey the results of the computer's processing.
Storage Devices:

Storage devices, such as hard disk drives and solid-state drives, are used to store data
persistently. Unlike memory, storage retains data even when the computer is turned off.

These devices provide long-term storage and retrieval of data and programs.

Motherboard:

The motherboard is a printed circuit board that houses the CPU, memory, and other essential
components. It provides the electrical connections between the various components and ensures
that they work together effectively.

Bus:

The bus is a communication system that transfers data between components inside the computer.
It consists of address bus, data bus, and control bus, which facilitate communication between the
CPU, memory, and I/O devices.

Overall, the CPU executes program instructions, memory stores data and instructions, I/O
devices facilitate communication with the external world, storage devices provide long-term data
storage, the motherboard provides the platform for connecting all components, and the bus
enables data transfer between different components. This architecture enables computers to
process data and perform tasks efficiently.

Q.N 2: Explain the Volatile and Non-Volatile memory.

Answer :

Volatile memory and non-volatile memory are two main types of computer memory with distinct
characteristics and functions.

Volatile Memory:

• Volatile memory is temporary and requires a constant power source to retain stored data.
When the power is turned off, the data stored in volatile memory is lost.
• The most common type of volatile memory is Random Access Memory (RAM), which is
used by computers to temporarily store data that is actively being used or processed. This
includes data for running programs, open files, and the operating system itself.
• Because of its volatile nature, RAM is well-suited for high-speed data storage and
retrieval, enabling fast access for the CPU to perform tasks.
Non-Volatile Memory:
 • Non-volatile memory retains stored data even when the power is turned off, making it
persistent and suitable for long-term storage.
• Examples of non-volatile memory include hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state drives
(SSDs), flash memory (such as USB drives and SD cards), and read-only memory
(ROM) used in computers and other electronic devices.
• Non-volatile memory is used to store the computer's operating system, programs, and
user data that need to be saved even when the computer is powered off.

In summary, volatile memory, such as RAM, is used for temporary data storage, while non-
volatile memory, such as hard drives and SSDs, is used for permanent data storage. Both types of
memory play essential roles in the operation and functionality of a computer system.

Q.N 3: What is the difference between Input and Output Devices?

Answer :
Input and output devices are crucial components within a computer system, each serving distinct
functions:
Input Devices:

• Input devices are used to provide data and instructions to the computer. They allow users
to interact with the computer system by inputting information or commands.
• Examples of input devices include keyboards, mice, touchscreens, trackpads, and
microphones. These devices enable users to enter text, move a cursor, select options, and
provide commands to the computer.
• Input devices are essential for users to communicate their requirements and instructions
to the computer, initiating actions and processes.
Output Devices:

• Output devices, on the other hand, are used to display or otherwise convey the results of
the computer's processing to the user. They provide users with the information and
feedback derived from the computer's operations.
• Common output devices include monitors, printers, projectors, speakers, and headphones.
These devices allow users to view or listen to the results of computations, processes, and
data manipulation performed by the computer.
• Output devices are vital for presenting processed information to users in a human-
understandable format, enabling them to comprehend and utilize the outcomes of the
computer's operations.
In summary, while input devices enable users to provide data and instructions to the computer,
output devices present the results of the computer's processing in a usable format for the user.
Both types of devices are essential for effective human-computer interaction and the exchange of
information within a computer system.

SET-2

Q.N 4: Briefly explain the software development process.

Answer :
The software development process encompasses a series of steps aimed at designing, creating,
testing, and maintaining software applications. This iterative and collaborative process involves
the coordinated effort of various professionals, including software developers, engineers, testers,
and project managers. The fundamental stages of the software development process include
requirement analysis, planning, design, implementation, testing, deployment, and maintenance.

Requirement Analysis:

The software development journey commences with requirement analysis, during which
professionals engage with stakeholders to gather and analyze the software's functional and non-
functional requirements. This critical phase involves understanding the users' needs, business
objectives, and technical constraints to define the scope of the software project accurately.

Planning:

Following requirement analysis, the project enters the planning phase, where detailed project
plans are formulated. This entails defining the project scope, estimating resources, establishing
timelines, and outlining the budget. Project managers collaborate with stakeholders to create a
comprehensive plan that guides the subsequent stages of the development process.

Design:

In the design phase, the software's architecture, system design, and technical specifications are
meticulously crafted based on the gathered requirements. This stage involves defining the
software's structure, modules, interfaces, and data storage mechanisms. The primary objective is
to create a blueprint that serves as the foundation for the subsequent implementation phase.

Implementation:

The implementation phase involves the actual coding of the software. Skilled software
developers write, test, and integrate code based on the design and requirements specified in
earlier stages. This stage is crucial in translating the design into functional software by applying
programming languages, frameworks, and libraries.

Testing:

Once the software is developed, rigorous testing is conducted to identify and rectify defects,
errors, and bugs. The testing phase encompasses various levels, including unit testing, integration
testing, system testing, and user acceptance testing. The goal is to ensure the software's
functionality, reliability, and compliance with the specified requirements.

Deployment:

Upon successful testing, the software is deployed to the production environment for actual use.
This phase involves installation, configuration, and setting up the software for end-users. It is
essential to ensure a smooth transition to the production environment while minimizing
disruptions to ongoing operations.

Maintenance:

After deployment, the software enters the maintenance phase, where it is continuously updated,
modified, and enhanced to address issues, introduce new features, and adapt to changing
requirements. Maintenance activities include bug fixes, performance optimization, security
updates, and the addition of new functionalities.

Throughout the software development process, communication, collaboration, and

documentation play crucial roles in ensuring that the final product meets user needs, quality
standards, and business objectives. Furthermore, the iterative nature of the process allows for
continuous improvement based on feedback and changing requirements, ultimately resulting in
robust and user-centric software applications.

Q.N 5 : Explain different stages in Software Testing

Answer :

Software testing encompasses various stages, each with distinct objectives and methodologies to
ensure the quality and reliability of the software. The stages of software testing generally
include:

1. Unit Testing:

Unit testing focuses on validating the individual components or units of the software in
isolation. Each unit is tested independently to ensure that it functions as expected. Test cases are
created to verify the unit's behavior, and any defects found are addressed before integration.
2. Integration Testing:

Integration testing involves testing the interaction and interfaces between integrated software
modules. The purpose is to uncover defects in the interfaces and interactions between the
integrated components. Different integration strategies, such as top-down, bottom-up, and hybrid
approaches, can be used to carry out this testing.

3. System Testing:

System testing verifies the entire software system as a whole. It aims to validate that the software
meets the specified requirements and functions as intended in the context of the intended
environment. Test cases cover functional and non-functional requirements to ensure that the
system satisfies user and business needs.

4. Acceptance Testing:

Acceptance testing involves evaluating the software's compliance with the end user's
requirements and determining if it is ready for release. This can include User Acceptance Testing
(UAT), where end-users validate the software in a real-world scenario to ensure it meets their
needs.

5. Performance Testing:

Performance testing assesses the software's performance, scalability, and reliability under
various conditions. This includes load testing, stress testing, and scalability testing to evaluate
how the software performs under different levels of usage and stress.

6. Security Testing:

Security testing focuses on identifying vulnerabilities and weaknesses in the software that could
lead to security breaches. It involves testing for authentication, authorization, data integrity, and
confidentiality to ensure that the software is secure against unauthorized access and malicious
attacks.

7. Regression Testing:

Regression testing is conducted to validate that recent code changes have not adversely affected
the existing functionality of the software. It ensures that new updates or modifications do not
introduce new defects or break previously functioning features.

Throughout these stages, software testing is essential for identifying and addressing defects and
ensuring the overall quality, reliability, and performance of the software.
Q.N 6 : Describe the various Computer Generations

Answer :

The evolution of computers can be categorized into different generations, each representing a
significant leap in technological advancements and capabilities. Let's explore the various
computer generations in detail.

First Generation:

Picture a room-sized computer system comprised of vacuum tubes, which were the primary
components used for computations. These early computers were large, bulky, and required a
considerable amount of power to operate. The vacuum tubes were prone to frequent failures and
generated a substantial amount of heat, necessitating meticulous maintenance. Despite their
limitations, these first-generation computers were instrumental in performing complex
calculations for scientific, military, and business applications.

Second Generation:

Imagine smaller, more efficient computers that replaced vacuum tubes with transistors. The use
of transistors made these machines more reliable, energy-efficient, and less expensive to
produce. As a result, these computers were more widely accessible. Furthermore, the
introduction of machine language and assembly language programming made it easier to interact
with these computers, facilitating the development of more diverse software applications.

Third Generation:

Visualize computers that implemented integrated circuits, providing a significant boost in

processing power and efficiency. These integrated circuits allowed for the miniaturization of
computer components, resulting in smaller and faster machines. Moreover, the development of
high-level programming languages such as FORTRAN and COBOL made software development
more user-friendly and accessible to a broader audience. This generation marked a significant
advancement in the usability and versatility of computer systems.

Fourth Generation:

Envision the emergence of microprocessors, which revolutionized the computing landscape by

integrating the entire central processing unit (CPU) onto a single chip. This breakthrough led to
the creation of highly compact and powerful computers capable of multitasking and supporting
graphical user interfaces. Additionally, these advancements facilitated the development of
personal computers, enabling individuals to harness computing power for various tasks such as
word processing, spreadsheet management, and gaming. The fourth generation of computers
brought about a paradigm shift in user interaction and productivity.

Fifth Generation:

Imagine a world where computers evolved to support artificial intelligence and advanced
computational capabilities. This generation witnessed the development of technologies that
enabled machines to interpret and understand natural language, solve complex problems, and
exhibit autonomous decision-making. The integration of artificial intelligence and expert systems
into computing systems revolutionized fields such as data analysis, robotics, and natural
language processing. This era represented a transformative stage in the convergence of human
intelligence and computational power.

The evolution of computers across these generations has profoundly influenced virtually every
aspect of modern society. From scientific research and industrial automation to communication,
entertainment, and commerce, computers have become integral to our daily lives. The continuous
advancements in computing technologies have paved the way for a digital revolution, driving
innovation and shaping the future of technology.

In conclusion, the progression of computer generations has been characterized by remarkable

advancements in hardware, software, and computational capabilities. Each generation has
contributed to the evolution of computers, making them more powerful, efficient, and user-
friendly. As we continue to witness ongoing developments in computing technologies, it is
evident that the journey through the various computer generations has laid the foundation for the
interconnected and technologically driven world we inhabit today.