Ch 4:How the processor

handles instructions
Drilling down
Data Storage

Bit: A bit is a value of either a 1 or 0 (on or off).

Nibble: A nibble is 4 bits.

Byte: A byte is 8 bits.

[Ex: 1 character, e.g., "a", is one byte.]

 Bytes

1 Kilo Byte(KB) 103 210

1 Megabyte (MB) 106 220

1 Gigabyte(GB) 109 230

1 Terabyte(TB) 1012 240

1 Petabyte(PB) 1015 250

1 Exabyte(EB) 1018 260

1 Zettabyte (ZB) 1021 270

How many bits are there in 1 byte?

Convert 500 bytes to kilobytes (KB).

A file is 2 MB. How many bytes is it?

If a text file has 1000 characters and each character takes 1 byte, what is the size of
the file?
If an image has a resolution of 1920x1080 pixels, and each pixel requires 24
bits, what is the size of the image in KB?

How much storage is required to store a 50-page text document if each page
contains 2000 characters and each character uses 2 bytes? Give answer in bytes,
KB and MB

How many bits are there in 5 kilobytes (KB)?

Convert 2500 bytes into kilobytes (KB).

You have a hard drive with 1 terabyte (TB) of storage. How many gigabytes (GB)
is that?
A book contains 1,000,000 characters. Each character takes 1 byte, and the book is
divided into 5 files. What is the size of each file in kilobytes (KB)?

If a file is 4 megabytes (MB), how many bytes

does it contain?

If a system processes 2 gigabytes (GB) of data every second, how many bytes are
processed in 5 minutes?
 If a text file is 500 kilobytes (KB) in size, how many bytes is it equivalent to?
•A 500 KB text file is equivalent to 512,000 bytes because 1 KB equals 1,024 bytes.

If an image file is 2 megabytes (MB) in size, how many kilobytes is it equivalent to?
•A 2 MB image file is equivalent to 2,048 kilobytes (KB) because 1 MB equals 1,024 KB.

If you have a 1-gigabyte (GB) USB flash drive and want to know how many megabytes it can store, what calculation
do you need to perform?
•To determine how many megabytes a 1 GB USB flash drive can store, you need to multiply by 1,024. So, it can store
approximately 1,024 megabytes (MB).

If you have a 500-gigabyte (GB) hard drive and want to store 1 terabyte (TB) of data, how many hard drives of that size
would you need, and what would be the remaining storage capacity?
•You would need 2 hard drives of 500 GB each to store 1 TB of data. The remaining storage capacity on the second drive
would be 500 GB.

If a movie file is 2.5 gigabytes (GB) in size and you want to transfer it over an internet connection with a speed of 10
megabits per second (Mbps), how long will it take to transfer the file?
•It will take approximately 16 minutes and 40 seconds to transfer the 2.5 GB movie file over a 10 Mbps internet connection.
(Conversion: 1 byte = 8 bits)
Types of software
Types of software
• Application software: Software designed to do a particular task
• System Software: Software that manages all the hardware and
application software available on a digital device
• Operating system: Acts as an interface between computer hardware
components and the user and provides a platform where applications
can run
• Utilities software :software that helps maintain the smooth
functioning of a digital device by helping the operating system
manage tasks and resources
Operating System
• Manages the hardware
• Runs applications
• provides user interface
• manages the storage and retrieval of files
Utilities software
• Device drivers: Software program that operates a hardware device
connected to a computer (plug and play devices )
• Security software: Securing passwords, personal identification
numbers, biometric security, facial recognition ,fingerprint
recognition ,voice pattern recognition ,Firewalls, antivirus ,anti-
spyware, anti-malware
• Disc defragmenter:It is a utility that rearranges fragmented data on a
hard drive to improve storage efficiency and access speed.
 SOUND REPRESENTATION
Analogue sound signals are continuous where as digital signals are discrete:
SOUND REPRESENTATION
SOUND SAMPLING

The process of converting an analogue signal into a digital one is known as sampling. Sampling
involves taking a sample of the analogue signal at set intervals:

To convert the
analogue data to
digital, the sound
waves are sampled at
regular
time intervals.
 The Y Axis represents the bit depth. In this
SOUND REPRESENTATION case there are 16 different possible notes
(0 - 16), to represent 16 different states
you need 4 bits. This means that each
sample is 4 bits.

The number of bits per sample is known as

bit depth. So, in our example, the sampling
resolution is 4 bits.

The number of samples for each second is

known as sample rate.
Write 5 sample values
Computer programming languages
• What is a computer program?
A set of instructions given to computer to perform a task.
• High level languages(HLL) are used to write programs
• CPU understands instruction set written in Binary(Machine code or
Low level language LLL)
Each HLL instruction is often made up of more than 1 LLL instruction
LLL instruction- easy to understand for processor but not for programmer
Assembly language- each instruction corresponds to 1 LLL
Computer Programming languages
Computer architecture
IPO
Von Neumann Architecture
His computer
architecture design
consists of a
• Control Unit
• Arithmetic and Logic
Unit (ALU)
• Memory Unit
• Registers
• and Inputs/Outputs.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• The Central Processing Unit
(CPU) is the electronic circuit
responsible for executing the
instructions of a computer
program.
• It is sometimes referred to as
the microprocessor or processor.
• The CPU contains the ALU, CU
and a variety of registers.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

• This is an internal part of CPU that carries out

calculations on data.
• Two parts:
• Arithmetic part: usual operators like + - / *
• Logic part :comparisons(> < >= etc., AND OR NOT)
• Multiplication and division are carried out by a sequence
of addition, subtraction and left or right logical shift
operations.
• Values need to be stored in Accumulator for calculations
to be carried out.
Control Unit (CU)

➢signals are generated along the control bus to tell

the other components in the computer what to do.
Registers
• Registers are high speed storage areas in the CPU.
• These are the internal memory locations within the CPU.
• All data and instructions must be stored in a register(temporarily)
before it can be processed.
• Registers are used to move data and instructions into and around the
different components of the CPU.
Fetch –Decode-Execute cycle
• CPU executes one instruction at a time
It has 3 stages
Fetch: The CPU fetched an instruction from a location in memory
Decode:works out the meaning of the instruction
Execute:carries out the instruction
Automated systems/Computerisation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2EA5BMGrWjI&ab_channel=InsiderFood

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8_lfxPI5ObM&ab_channel=WIRED

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mog8Quosmec&t=35s&ab_channel=DixonAutomaticTool%2CInc.
 Automated system used in the Brazil
irrigation system
Machine Learning algorithms
• Makes programs smarter
• Automatically learn from data

The algorithm is mainly divided

into:
• Training Phase
• Testing phase

Teachable machine
Training Phase & Testing Phase

More training data more accuracy

Updates rule by itself
use the same algorithm to train different models
How bankers approve loan applications
search in a matter of seconds, it also suggests and autocorrects
our typed sentences.

Alexa, Google Assistant, Cortana, Siri are some

very common examples of the voice assistants
To help us navigate to places

A lot of games nowadays are backed up with AI which helps in

enhancing the graphics, come up with new difficulty levels,
encourage gamers
platforms like Netflix, Amazon, Spotify, YouTube etc. show us
recommendations on the basis of what we like, dislike and our
habits.

connecting with friends on social media platforms.

customized notifications about our online shopping
details, auto-create playlists according to our requests
and so on
 A lot of chatbots and other health apps are available, which
continuously monitor the physical and mental health of its
users.

biometric security systems like the face locks we have in our

phones, real-time language translators, weather forecasts
Gmail
Gmail automatically
classifying emails as
‘Spam’ and ‘Not Spam’.
Spam emails being
automatically sent to the
Spam folder saving a lot of
your time.
Shopping recommendations
Flipkart or Amazon
recommending you to buy
products of your choice.
Youtube
• YouTube recommending you to
watch videos of certain genre
and the recommended videos
matching your choice of videos
to a great extent.
Industry 4.0
Industry 4.0 : describes the current trend of automation and data
exchange in manufacturing.
It involves technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial
intelligence, and robotics to make factories smarter and more efficient.
It's like making factories more connected, intelligent, and capable of
optimizing production.
Improving Technology
Prototype
Points to be considered:
• User experience
• Accessibility
• Ergonomics
• Emerging technologies