EXCEL & SUCCEED

JUNIOR SECONDARY

MATHEMATICS

FORM ONE

Florence Thomo
Kinyua Mugo
Lucy Maina
Jared Ondera
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© Florence Thomo, Kinyua Mugo, Lucy Maina, Jared Ondera, 2012.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher.

First published 2012

Design and layout done by Jane Munjiru

ISBN 978 9996 014 10X

Printed by English Press Ltd, Off Enterprise Road, Industrial Area,

P.O Box 30127 – 00100,
Nairobi, Kenya.
 Contents
Chapter 1: Number systems
Introduction
Base ten numeration
Numbers in words
Natural numbers and whole numbers
Whole numbers
Even numbers
Odd numbers
Prime numbers
Integers
Rational numbers
Numbers and numerals
The abacus
Number bases
The binary system (base 2)

Chapter 2: Sets 1
Definition of a set
Notation
Types of sets
Other sets
Comparison of sets
Operations with sets
Complement of a set
Venn diagrams
Cardinality of sets
Chapter 3: Lines and Angles
Angles
Degree measure of an angle
Types of angles
Complementary and supplementary angles
Angles on a straight line
Angles on parallel lines

Chapter 4: Algebraic expressions

Symbolic representations
Terms, coefficients variables and constants
Simplification of algebraic expressions
Multiplication and division with algebraic terms
Substitution and evaluation

Chapter 5: Approximation, estimation and accuracy

Rounding off numbers
Significant figures
Estimation
Approximation
Squares and square roots
Cubes and cube roots

Chapter 6: Directed numbers

Introduction
Operations on integers
Subtraction involving negative numbers
Multiplication of integers
Division of integers
Order of operations and brackets
Mixed operations
Operations on larger intergers
Application of integers

Revision exercise 1

Chapter 7: Social and commercial arithmetic

Commission
Taxation
Direct taxes
Indirect taxes
Insurance
Simple budgets
Bills
Inflation
Devaluation
Appreciation and depreciation

Chapter 8: Geometrical constructions

Definition of a geometric construction
Constructing angles
Bisecting a given line segment
Bisecting an angle
Constructing parallel lines
Proportional division of a line segment
Construction of triangles

Chapter 9: Coordinates
Position of a point on a line
Position of a point on a plane surface
The Cartesian plane
Plotting points and choice of scale

Chapter 10: Number patterns

Introduction
Number patterns
Sequences

Chapter 11: Algebraic processes 1

Factors
Prime factors
Highest common factor
Least common multiple
Use of brackets
Factorisation of algebraic expression
Word problems
Linear equations
Meaning of letters in algebra
Solving equations
Algebraic fractions

Revision exercise 2

Chapter 12: Linear graphs

Introduction
Linear graphs
Drawing and interpreting graphs

Chapter 13: Triangles

Types of triangles
Angle properties of triangles
Lines of symmetry in isosceles and equilateral triangles
Congruence
Congruent triangles:

Chapter 14: Reflection and Rotation

Symmetry
Symmetry in solids
Reflection
Reflection on the cartesian plane
Geometric deductions using reflection
Vertically opposite angles
Chord of a circle
Rotational symmetry
Rotation as a transformation
Properties of rotation
Rotation on the cartesian plane

Chapter 15: Linear equations

Introduction
Equations
Equations involving brackets
Forming and solving linear equations
Equations of a straight line

Chapter 16: Statistics I

Introduction
Collecting and organising data
Frequency distribution table
Presentation of data
Line graphs
Averages

Chapter 17: Convex polygons

Polygons
Types of polygons
Angle properties of triangles
General formula for sum of interior angles of a polygon

Revision exercise 3:

Evaluation exercise:
 1 NUMBER SYSTEMS

Introduction
One of the oldest ways of writing number s was using tally marks (also
called tally scores ).
Ancient cave paintings, like the one shown in Fig. 1.1 , show a series of
strokes after the picture. The eight strokes probably represent 8 antelopes
killed in a hunt.

Fig 1.1
Writing larger numbers such as 37 using tally scores, soon proved difficult
and people had to invent other ways of writing them. But what are numbers?
Numbers are mathematical symbols used to denote quantity or value as in
counting things. 0, 1, 2, 3… are some of the symbols (or digits or numerals)
in common usage.

These symbols are known as Hindu-Arabic numerals because they were

developed by Hindus (from India) and later refined by the Arabs (mainly
from Egypt).
In a more strict sense, “numerals” and “digits” have slightly different
meanings.
Numerals refer to any symbol that represents a number, while digit usually
refers to any of the ten symbols in Hindu-Arabic system .

Base ten numeration

In base ten number system, numbers are grouped in tens (probably because
people have ten fingers). The digits in base ten numeration are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
Zero (0) has no value and is simply used to hold place in a number.
In the Hindu-Arabic numeral system, the value given to any digit, depends on
its position, as in the example illustrated in Table 1.1 below.

Table 1.1

Digit 3 is written 3 times, yet each 3 has a different place value. Starting from
the right, there are three ones (units), three tens and three thousands. The zero
in the third (hundreds) column keeps a space between the tens and thousands
columns. Without it, the number 3 033 would look like 333, thus losing the
original value.
Similarly, the zero (0) in the ten millions column holds that place value in
order to preserve the value of the number 904 763 033.
Any number can be written in an expanded form , in terms of place values,
as illustrated in Example 1.1.

Example 1.1
Write the number 95 704 in expanded form, in terms of place values.

Solution
The number 95 704 can be illustrated in place values as shown in Table 1.2 .
 Table 1.2

From Table 1.2 , the expanded form of the number is

95 704 = 9 × 10 000 + 5 × 1 000 + 7 ×
100 + 0 × 10 + 4 × 1
or 95 704 = 9 × 10 000 + 5 × 1 000 + 7 ×
100 + 4 × 1

Example 1.2
Write the number whose expanded form is 1 × 10 000 + 0 × 1 000 + 6 × 100
+ 1 × 10 + 1 × 1.

Solution
1 × 10 000 + 0 × 1 000 + 6 × 100 + 1 × 10 + 1 × 1
= 10 000 + 0 + 600 + 10 + 1
= 10 611

Note: The value of a digit in a number is ‘that digit multiplied by the place
value’, e.g. the value of 5 in the number 95 704 is 5 × 1 000 = 5 000.

Numbers in words
It is important to know how to read and write numbers in words. Example 1.3
illustrates this.

Example 1.3
Write the following in words.
(a) 80 743
(b) 537 409 260

Solution
(a) 80 743 is ‘Eighty thousand seven hundred forty three’.
(b) 537 409 260 is ‘Five hundred thirty seven million four hundred nine
thousand two hundred and sixty’.

Exercise 1.1
1. What is the place value of 5 in:
(a) 453
(b) 705
(c) 570
(d) 5 160
(e) 75 326
(f) 753 689 004
2. Write down the following numbers in figures and state the number
of digits in each case.
(a) Two hundred five thousand and four.
(b) Nine hundred thirty one thousand seven hundred and thirty
one.
(c) Thirty one million thirty one thousand and thirty one.
(d) Thirty one million five hundred three thousand seven
hundred and three.
3. Write down the following numbers in words.
(a) 10 001 001
(b) 972 500
(c) 1 079 900
(d) 205 830 652
4. Write down the place value of the digit in bold.
(a) 248 964
(b) 2 04 6 924
(c) 4 30 5 600
(d) 670 08 4
 5. Write down in figures the number that is nine more than one
hundred thousand.
6. Write the following numbers in expanded form.
(a) 71 409
(b) 643 012
(c) 4 837 463
(d) 289 364 918

Natural numbers and whole numbers

Natural numbers
When counting different objects people normally start with 1, followed by 2,
then 3, and so on. These numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … are called counting
numbers or natural numbers. The three dots after 5 imply that these
numbers continue indefinitely and in the same pattern. These numbers can be
represented on a number line as shown in Fig. 1.2 .
A number line is a pictorial representation of numbers on which the numbers
are marked at unit intervals (equal single steps) increasing from 0 to the right.

Fig 1.2

Taking two numbers on the number line, the one to the right is the greater
one. For example, 6 is to the right of 5 and so it is greater.
The arrow means that these numbers continue in the direction shown, and in
the same pattern, indefinitely.

Whole numbers
If the group of natural numbers is extended to the left to include 0 (zero) i.e.
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …, the resulting new group of numbers is called whole
numbers . Whole numbers can also be represented on a number line as
shown in Figure 1.3.

Fig 1.3
Even numbers

An even number is a number that is exactly divisible by 2 i.e the

remainder is zero.

The first ten positive even numbers are:

2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20.
All even numbers end with digits 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8.

Odd numbers

An odd number is a number that is not exactly divisible by 2 i.e. the

remainder is not zero.

The first ten positive odd numbers are:

1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19.
All odd numbers end with digits 1, 3, 5, 7 or 9.
Note: The difference between any two consecutive even numbers is 2. The
same applies to any two consecutive odd numbers e.g.
4 – 2 = 2, 8 – 6 = 2,
3 – 1 = 2, 19 – 17 = 2.

Prime numbers

A prime number is a number other than 1 that can be divided by only 1

and itself.

The first ten prime numbers are:

2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29

Exercise 1.2
 1. Write down all the natural numbers
(a) between 6 and 11
(b) between 5 and 6
2. List all the even numbers between 7 and 17.
3. List down all the odd numbers between 16 and 28.
4. From the following list of numbers, pick out all the
(a) even numbers
(b) odd numbers
(c) prime numbers
12, 30, 27, 35, 56, 48, 19, 97, 49, 81, 51, 33, 144, 111,
243, 72, 125, 107, 127, 41.
5. Is it true that the sum of two odd numbers is also odd. Support your
answer with an example.
6. Between the groups of natural numbers and whole numbers, which
one is bigger?

Integers
In subtracting a larger number from a smaller one, e.g. 3 – 4, a new type of
numbers called negative numbers are acquired.

Numbers to the left of zero on a number line are called negative

numbers . Negative numbers are written with minus (–) signs before
them (e.g. – 2).
Numbers to the right of zero are called positive numbers and they may
be written with or without plus (+) signs before them, (e.g. + 5 is the same
as 5).
Negative and positive whole numbers together with zero are called
integers.
Numbers that express part of a whole are not integers,
e.g. + 2.5, etc. are not integers.
Fig. 1.4 shows a number line of integers. The numbers increase in value from
left to right.
For example, + 2 has greater value than – 5, i.e. + 2 is greater than – 5, or – 5
has lesser value than + 2, i.e. – 5 is less than + 2.

Fig 1.4

Integers which are next to each other and differ by 1 are called consecutive
integers. For example, – 5 and – 4, 1 and 0, 2 and 3, etc. are pairs of
consecutive integers.
The difference between two numbers means the number of steps, on the
number line, between the two numbers. For example, the difference between
3 and 4 or 4 and 3 is 1. The difference between two numbers is always
positive.

Exercise 1.3
1. Arrange the following numbers in increasing order.
(a) – 3, – 2, + 6, – 2, – 3
(b) – 1, – 8, – 5, +1, – 7
2. Write true or false for each of the following.
(a) – 1 is greater than – 2
(b) – 2 is greater than – 1
(c) + 2 is less than – 5
(d) – 5 is greater than + 2
(e) 0 is greater than – 6
(f) – 6 is less than 0
3. In each of the following pairs of numbers, insert the correct phrase,
“is greater than” or “is less than”, to make the statement true.
(a) – 5 … + 3
(b) + 6 … – 7
(c) – 3 … 0
 (d) + 1 … – 1
(e) – 100 … + 1
(f) – 4 … 40
4. Find the difference between:
(a) 5 and 2
(b) 1 and 7
(c) 8 and 0
(d) – 8 and 3
(e) – 2 and – 9
(f) – 5 and – 4

Rational numbers
Integers can be expressed in the form where b ≠ 0. Any number that can be
expressed in such a form is called a rational number. Thus:

A rational number is any number that can be written as a ratio , where

a and b are integers and b ≠ 0.

All integers are rational numbers as each can be written in the form . For
example etc. Other examples of rational numbers are:

Activity 1.1
Give more examples of rational numbers.
Is zero (0) a rational number?

Example 1.4
Show that the following are rational numbers.
(a) 0.134
(b) 3.45
 (c)

Solution
Writing each decimal as an exact fraction we get
(a)
Thus, 0.134 is a rational number.
(b)
Hence, 3.45 is a rational number.
(c) is converted to a fraction as follows:
Let f = 3.55
100f = 355.55….

Hence, is a rational number.

Some decimals neither terminate nor recur.

An example of this type of decimals is 0.818 118 118 … This decimal cannot
be written as an exact fraction and is referred to as irrational. An irrational
number is any number that cannot be expressed as an exact fraction since it
neither terminates nor recurs.

Representing rational and irrational numbers on a number line

To represent any positive rational number on a number line, divide the unit
interval into ‘b ’ equal parts and then take ‘a ’ of these parts along the
number line to reach the point corresponding to , to the right of zero.
The rational number is similarly represented, but to the left of zero.

Example 1.5
Represent the following rational numbers on number lines.
(a)
(b)
(c)

Solution
(a)

Fig 1.5

(b)

Fig 1.6

(c)

Fig 1.7
Since irrational numbers are decimals that neither terminate nor repeat, it is
not possible to exactly locate them on a number line. They can be
represented only by approximation.

Example 1.6
Locate π on a number line correct to 2 decimal places.

Solution
π = 3.141 592 6… ≈ 3.14 (2 d.p)

Fig 1.8

Exercise 1.4
1. Find the rational number represented by each of the following
 numbers, where is in its simplest form.
(a) 0.625
(b) 3.25
(c) – 0.04
(d) 5
(e)
(f)
2. What recurring decimal is represented by each of the following
rational numbers?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
3. Indicate whether each of the following numbers is rational or
irrational.
(a) 2.18
(b)
(c) 5.151 151 115 …
(d) 7.217 217 217 …
(e)
(f) 2.718 281 828 46…
4. Locate each of the following rational numbers on a number line.
(a) 3.4
(b)
(c)
(d) 1.27
5. Indicate the position of each of the following numbers on the
number line correct to 2 decimal places.
(a) 0.353 553 555
(b) 2.929 229 222 …
6. Given that Q represents the set of all rational numbers, Z all integers,
 T all terminating decimals, and P all recurring decimals, which of
the following statements are true?
(a) Z is wholly contained in Q
(b) Z, P and T put together make Q.
(c) There are no numbers that are in T as well as in P.

Numbers and numerals

A number is an idea, a numeral is the symbol that represents the number.
The number system that we use today is a place value system.
The advantage of this system is that the value of any of the digits in a number
depends on its position.
For example the number 7 707 contains three sevens, and each of them has a
particular value.

The first seven from the right represents 7 ones or units.

The 2nd seven stands for 100s or 102 and the 3rd seven stands for 1 000s or
103 .
The zero holds the place for the tens (10s).
Without it, the number would look like 777 which is completely different
from 7 707.

The Abacus
An abacus is a calculating device consisting of beads or balls strung on wires
or rods set in a frame. Fig. 1.9 , shows a typical abacus on which the place
value concept can be developed very effectively.
On each wire there are ten beads, let us consider the beads at the bottom of
the wire.
Beginning from the right 10 beads on wire 1 can be represented by 1 bead on
wire 2.
Similarly 10 beads on wire 2 can be represented by 1 bead on wire 3 and so
on.
 Fig 1.9

This means:
1 bead in wire 1 represents a single bead.
1 bead in wire 2 represents 10 beads.
1 bead in wire 3 represents (10 × 10) beads.
1 bead in wire 4 represents (10 × 10) × 10 beads.
So the number shown in Fig. 1.9 is 1 124.
If we had x beads in each wire such that x <10, it would mean that;
In wire 2 we had 10.x beads
In wire 3 we had 102 .x beads
In wire 4 we had 103 .x beads and so on.
The place values from right to left are:

Number bases
Why do you think we count in groups of ten?
If we had 6 fingers most probably we would count using groups of 6, if 8
fingers, groups of 8 and so on. In the system that we use, every ten items
make one basic group which is represented in the next place value column to
the left as shown in Fig. 1.10 .
 Fig 1.10

(a) The 1 bead in wire B represents 10 beads in wire A i.e. it represents a

group of 10 beads.
(b) The 1 bead in wire D represents 6 beads in wire C, thus making a
group of 6 beads.
Counting in different groups of numbers such as 10, 6, 5, 8 etc means using
different number systems. We call them base ten, base six, base five, base
eight etc.
Now consider Fig. 1.11 .

Fig 1.11

Counting in base six, what numbers do the beads on each wire represent?
(i) There are 4 beads in wire A. This represents 4 ones.
(ii) There are 5 beads in wire B. This means 5 groups of 6 beads each.
i.e. 5 × 6 = 30 beads written as 50six .
(iii) There are 3 beads in wire C. This means 3 groups of six sixes i.e. 3
× 6 × 6 = 108 beads, written as 300six .
(iv) There are 2 groups of 6 × 6 × 6 = 216 × 2 written as 2 000six .
The whole number represented in Fig. 1.11 is 4six + 50six + 300 six + 2 000 six
= 2 354six
The answer 2 354 is read as; two three five four base six.

Example 1.7
Given that the number represented in Fig. 1.12 is in base six, find the
number in base 10.

Fig 1.12

Solution
Column A represents 3 ones.
Column B represents 5 sixes.
Column C represents 2 six sixes.
∴ the number = (3 × 1) + (5 × 6) + (2 × 62 )
= 3 + 30 + 72
= 105ten
∴ 253six = 105ten
Note that 253six and 105ten are two different symbols for the same number.

Change of base
Numbers in base ten have place values denoted by powers of 10 i.e. 100 101
102 103 104 …
1 10 100 1 000 10 000
Similarly, in base six, place values are denoted by powers of 6 i.e. 60 , 61 , 62
, 63 , 64 , …
A number such as 135six = (5 × 60 ) + (3 × 61 ) × (62 × 1)
Also a number such as 65ten can be expressed as a number in base six as
65 ÷ 6 = 10 Rem 5 ⇒ 5 ones
10 ÷ 6 = 1 Rem 4 ⇒ 4 sixes
1 ÷ 6 = 0 Rem 4 ⇒ 1 six sixes
65ten = 145six

Example 1.8
Express
(a) 415six as a number in base ten.
(b) 85ten to base six.

Solution
(a) We use place values to change from base six to base 10.

415 = (5 × 1) + (1 × 6) + (4 × 62 )

= 5 + 6 + 144

= 155

415six = 155ten
(b) To change from base ten to base six or any other we do successive
division by the required base noting the remainder at every step.
85 ÷ 6 = 14 Rem 1 ⇒ 14 groups of six and 1 one
14 ÷ 6 = 2 Rem 2 ⇒ 2 groups of six sixes and 2 groups of six
2 ÷ 6 = 0 Rem 2 ⇒ 2 groups of six sixes
85ten = 221six

To convert from base ten,

(1) Do successive division by the required base noting the
remainders at every step.
(2) Write down the remainders beginning with the last one on the
left.
 (3) These remainders make up the number required.
To convert from any base x to base 10
(1) Multiply, every digit in the number by its place value i.e. 1, x, x2
, x3 etc.
(2) Add the results.

Other bases
Numbers can be expressed in other bases in the same way as we have done.
Below are some other bases and the numbers used.
Base Numerals
Nine 012345678
Eight 01234567
Seven 0123456
Six 012345
Five 01234
Four 0123
Three 012
Two 01
and so on.
In any base, the numeral equal to the base is represented by 10.
i.e. 55 =10 66 = 10 1010 = 10 88 = 10 etc When a base is greater than 10, say
12, we need to create and define a symbol to represent 10 and 11.

Exercise 1.5
1. Write the first twenty numerals of
(a) Base six
(b) Base seven
(c) Base eight
2. What does 8 mean in
(a) 108ten
(b) 180ten
(c) 801ten
(d) 88 801ten
 3. Write down in words;
(a) 203six
(b) 302four
(c) 15six
(d) 3 215eight
4. Convert the number 703eight to
(a) base 6
(b) base 10
(c) base 9
5. Convert the following into decimal system:
(a) 411five
(b) 321six
(c) 207eight
(d) 750nine
6. Express 63seven to base 5
7. Write in words the means of
(a) 12three
(b) 21four
(c) 142five
(d) 180nine
8. Use abacus to show place values for the numerals in
(a) 211five
(b) 615seven
(c) 173eight
(d) 1 254ten
9. Convert 118nine to base 5.

Operations using bases

Addition
In performing addition, whatever the base, the digits to be added must be in
the same place value. For example in 65ten , + 18ten , 5 and 8 have the same
place value while 6 and 1 have another place value.

Example 1.9
Evaluate 332six + 25six

Solution
It is best to set work vertically so that the place values correspond.
332six + 25six ⇒ 332
+ 25
(1) Illustrate the two numbers on different abaci (Fig. 1.13 ).

Fig 1.13

(2) Remove all the 5 beads from R and place them in C. One bead
remains at C another goes to B to represent another group of six
(Fig. 1.14 ).

Fig 1.14

(3) Remove the two beads from Q and place them on B to make 6 beads.
No bead remains at B, but one bead goes to A to represent another
group of six sixes. (Fig. 1.15 )
 Fig 1.15

(4) The result of addition is 401six

Alternatively,

Note: In base six, the greatest digit is 5. Thus, for any sum of 2 digits greater
than 5, we take away 6 from the sum, write the difference in the position of
the summation and carry over 6 counters as one unit (1) to the next on the
left. This applies to adding numbers in other bases but in each case a full unit
(1) has a value equivalent to the given base
e.g. base 8, → 1 unit = 8 counters.

Subtraction

Example 1.10
Use abacus to evaluate
52eight – 23eight

Solution
Fig 1.16 shows the two numbers on different abaci.
 Fig 1.16

Since we cannot subtract beads in R from beads in C,

(1) Remove one bead from B and place it on wire C so that there is a
total of 10 in C, (Fig. 1.17 )

Fig 1.17

(2) Remove 3 beads from C and R (Fig. 1.18 ).

(3) Remove 2 beads from B and Q so that the result is as represented in
Fig. 1.18 .
∴ 528 – 238 = 278

Fig 1.18

Alternatively

Exercise 1.6
1. Work out the following in base eight
(a) 17 + 211
(b) 106 + 12
(c) 257 + 462
2. Evaluate the following in base six
(a) 31 – 25
(b) 145 – 51
(c) 55 – 43
(d) 403 – 54
3. Evaluate the following in base nine
(a) 122 + 85
(b) 103 – 86
(c) 17 – 8
(d) 66 + 35
4. The following calculations are correct.
State the base used in each case.
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

5. The following calculations were done using a certain base. Two of

them are correct while two are wrong.
 Identify (i) the base (ii) the incorrect ones and explain why.
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

The binary system (base two)

A binary system is a number system that uses only two digits 0 and 1.
Numbers are expressed as powers of 2 instead of powers of 10 as in the
decimal system. Computers use binary notation, the two digits corresponding
to two switching position, on and off, in the individual electronic devices in
the logic circuits.
Compare the first ten numbers in base ten with those of base two.
Remember; in any base there is no numeral equal to the base. Such a digit or
numeral always takes the form of 10.

Table 1.3

Example 1.11
Calculate in binary
(a) 101 + 10101
(b) 1001 – 101

Solution
(a)

(b)

Exercise 1.7
1. Evaluate
(a) 10112 + 11012
(b) 100012 + 1100112
(c) 111012 + 112 + 101012
(d) 12 + 112 + 10112 + 1100112
2. Calculate
(a) 101112 – 11012
(b) 110002 – 11102
(c) 111112 – 100102
(d) 10101012 – 11112
3. Convert the following to the binary system
(a) 18ten
(b) 135six
(c) 65seven
(d) 35eight
4. Convert 10110two to base four.
5. Evaluate the following giving your answers in base two
(a) 15ten + 23ten
(b) 35ten – 12ten
 2 SETS I

Definition of a set

The terms “set” refers to a collection of things or items that have a

common characteristic.

In every day usage of the term set, one can come up with sets such as sofa
set, dinner set, etc. However, in Mathematics, sets are treated in an algebraic
manner, mostly using letters and numbers. For example, the collection of
natural numbers, the group of boys in a class both represent sets.

Notation
A set is denoted by curly brackets as {3, 5}.
They are named using capital letters such as A, B, C etc. For example,
A = {all tomatoes in a garden} is read as “A is the set of all tomatoes in a
garden.”
In every set, there are well defined items, which are referred to as “elements”
or “members” of the set.
For example, if a , b , c and d are all elements of a set B, then, B = {a , b , c ,
d}
The symbol ∈ is used to denote that a given element is a member of a given
set B. For example a ∈ B means and is read as “ a is a member of set B”.
C ∈ B means that “c is not a member of set B.”

Describing a set
There are various methods of describing a set:
1. Describing a set using words; e.g. B = {a , b , c , d } can be
described as “the set of the first four letters of the English alphabet.
 2. Describing a set by listing all the elements in it; e.g. B = {a , b , c , d
}.
3. Describing a set by using a formula; e.g. D = {x : x 2 = 9} This means
that D is “ the set of all x values such that x is a solution to the
equation x 2 = 9.

Example 2.1
List all the elements of set A given that A = { x: –3 < x < 8, x is an integer}.

Solution
The elements of set A are – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.
Example 2.2
Describe set B using words, given that B = { 1, 3, 5, 7 …}.

Solution
B is the set of all positive odd numbers.
Example 2.3
Describe set T in words, given that T = {x : x = 2n – 1, where n = 1, 2, 3, …}

Solution

Thus, T is the set of all positive odd numbers.

Example 2.4
List down the set G of vowels in the word “algebra”.

Solution
G = {a, e}

Note

Elements in a set must be written without repetition e.g. there are two ‘a’s in
the word ‘algebra’ that belong to set G, but we only listed one “a”.

Exercise 2.1
Give a precise description in words for each of the following sets.
1. {Hastings Banda, Bakili Muluzi, Bingu wa Mutharika}
2. {Daily Times, Nation, Nyasa Times}
3. {Africa, Europe, Asia, Australia, North America, South America}
4. {Machinga, Nsanje, Balake, Zomba}
5. {Lake Malawi, Lake Chiwa, Lake Malombe}

Clean water is key to good health.

Let us avoid all acts that pollute our water reservoirs.

6. {Zambia, Tanzania, Mozambique}

7. {Vwaza Marsh, Nkhotakota, Majete, Mwabvi}
8. {Escom United, Silver Strikers, Moyale Barracks}
Give a precise description of each of the following sets using listing method.
9. {The set of natural numbers}
10. {The set of squares of natural numbers}
11. {x : x is the set of even numbers less than 15}
12. {x : x 2 – 1 = 0}
13. {x : x – 1 = 1}
14. {x : x – 3 = 4}
Describe each of the following sets using a ruler.
15. {2, 4, 6, 8 …}
16. {1, 3, 5, 7 ….}
17. {0, 3, 8, 15 …}
18. {2, 5, 10, 17 …}

Types of sets
Sets may be grouped into two broad categories. These are finite and infinite
sets.
Finite sets
These refers to the sets that have known numbers of elements. For example E
= {a , b , c , d , e , f } is a finite set since its elements can be counted
exhaustively.

Infinite sets
These are those sets with infinite number of elements. The elements in these
sets cannot be exhaustively counted. For example, G = {1, 2, 3, 4, …} is
infinite, since it is not possible to count all its elements exhaustively.

Other sets

Empty set or Null set

A set which does not contain any element is called an empty set or a null set.
Examples of empty sets are;
{A set of natural numbers between – 10 and 0}.
{A set of girls in a boys only school}, etc.
An empty set is denoted as {} or Ø.

Activity 2.1
Describe ten empty sets.

Universal set
A set that contains all elements under consideration is called a universal set.
If the school above has boys and girls, then the universal set will be made up
of all students, boys and girls.
The universal set is denoted as ε or υ.

Disjoint sets
Sets which have no members in common are called disjoint sets. For
example, the set of alphabets and the set of natural numbers are disjoint sets.
 Activity 2.2
Formulate ten universal sets.

Exercise 2.2
State whether the following sets are empty, finite or infinite.
1. {Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia}.
2. {All integers between 1 and 2}.
3. {x : x < –2}.
4. {All trees in your class}.
5. {All real numbers}.
6. {Prime numbers between 1 and 10}.
Define a universal set that connects the given sets below.
7. {Boys in a class} and {Girls in a class}.
8. {Set of male teachers in a school} and {Set of female teachers in a
school}.
9. {a , b , c ,} and { a , d , e }.
10. {Consonants in the word “class”} and {vowels in the word “class”}.

Comparison of sets

Equivalent sets
Two or more sets are said to be equivalent if they have the same number of
elements. For instance set A = {1, 6, 3} is equivalent to set B = {a , b , c } as
they both have three elements each.

Example 2.5
Show that G = {7, 3, 2, 1} is equivalent to M = {a, z, w, n}.

Solution
The number of elements in set G is 4 and the number of elements in set M is
4, so the two sets G and M are equivalent.

Equal sets

Two or more sets are equal if they are equivalent and their elements are
exactly the same. For instance set N = {7, 8, 9} is equal to set M = {7, 8,
9}.

Subsets
For any two sets N and M, N is a subset of M if all elements of N are
contained in M. A subset is denoted by the symbol “⊂”.
Thus, N⊂M means, and is read as “set N is a subset of set M.”

Note
1. An empty set is a subset of all sets.
2. If all elements in N are in M and N≠M, N is said to be a proper
subset of M i.e. N⊂M.
3. If all elements in N are in M and N = M then either of the two sets is
said to be an improper subset of the other; denoted as N⊆M or
M⊆N.

Example 2.6
List all subsets of the set {1} and state their number.

Solution
The subsets of {1} are { } and {1}. So there are 2 subsets.

Example 2.7
List all the subsets of {1, 2} and state their numbers.

Solution
The subsets are { }, {1}, {2} and {1, 2}. So there are 4 subsets.
Example 2.8
List all the subsets of {1, 2, 3} and state their number .

Solution
The subsets of {1, 2, 3} are { }, {1}, {2}, {3} {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {3, 2}, {1, 2, 3}.
There are 8 subsets.

The number of subsets in a set

The number of subsets of a given set depends on the number of elements.
Set Number of subset
{} 1 = 20
{1} 2 = 21
{1, 2} 4 = 22
{1, 2, 3} 8 = 23

If the number of subsets of a given set is represented as Ns then the number

of subsets is given by;
Ns = 2n
Where n equals number of elements in the set.

Example 2.9
Set C has 5 elements. How many subsets does it have?

Solution
Since the number of elements is five (n = 5) then from Ns = 2n , the number
of subsets is Ns = 25
= 32
i.e the set has 32 subsets.

Example 2.10
A certain set has 64 subsets. How many elements are there in the set?

Solution
Number of subsets (Ns ) = 64
NS = 2n
64 = 2n
26 = 2n
n=6
i.e. there are 6 elements.

Exercise 2.3
State whether the pairs of sets in questions 1-6 below are equivalent, equal or
neither.
1. {3, 2, 1} and {1, 2, 6}
2. {a , b , z } and {z , b , a }
3. { r , s , t } and {r , s , m , t }
4. {Leah, Carol} and {Carol, Leah}.
5. {Mzuzu} and {Lilongwe, Blantyre}.
6. {Set of positive integers} and {Set of natural numbers}.
List the subsets of each of the sets in questions 7 and 8.
7. {w , z , y }
8. {a, 3, 1, 2}
9. If there are 128 subsets in a set, how many elements does the set
contain?
10. Suppose a set has 4(n –3) subsets. How many elements are in this set?
(n is the number of elements in a set.)

Operations with sets

Union

The union of two sets A and B denoted as A ∪ B is the set of elements

which are in A or B, including those that are in both A and B. These
 elements of A ∪ B are listed without repetition.

Example 2.11
If A = {1, 3, 4, 8} and B = {3, 4, 7} determine A ∪ B.

Solution
A ∪ B = {1, 3, 4, 7, 8}

Intersection

The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted as A ∩ B is the set of

elements that are common to both sets A and B. If the two sets do not
have elements in common. i.e. A ∩ B = { }, the two sets are said to be
disjoint.

Example 2.12
Given that A = {1, 3, 5, 9} and B = {3, 5, 7}, determine A ∩ B.

Solution
Since A ∩ B is the set of elements that are in both A and B, then A ∩ B = {3,
5}.

Complement of a set
If the set A is a subset of the universal set then the set of elements that are not
in A form another set called the complement of A which is denoted by A′ or
Ac .

Example 2.13
Given that ∈ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and A = {4, 5, 7}, find A′.

Solution
A′ is the set of elements that are not in A
A′= { 1, 2, 3, 6}

Exercise 2.4
Given each of the sets A and B in questions 1–4, express each pair in the
form A ∩ B.
1. A = {3, 1} and B = {3}.
2. A = {3, 1} and B = {3, 4, 1}.
3. A = {x : x even, 1 < x < 21} and B = {x : x even, 3 < x < 11}
4. A = {factors of 60} and B = {x : x 2 = 1< x < 5}
Given the sets in questions 5 – 8, form the set A∪ B
5. A = {4, 2} and B = {4}.
6. A = {4, 2} and B = {4, 5, 2}.
7. A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20} and B = {4, 6, 8, 10, 11}.
8. A = { factors of 30} and B = {x : x2 , 1< x < 4}.
9. If ε = {x : x2 = natural numbers less than 20}, A = {4, 6, 8} and B =
{2, 4, 9}.
List the elements of the following sets.
(a) A ∪ B
(b) A ∩ B
(c) A ∪ B′
(d) A′ ∩ B
(e) A′ ∩ B′

Venn diagrams
The relationship between sets may be shown using diagrams known as Venn
diagrams named so after the English Mathematician John Venn (1834–1923)
who intiated their use. In this method, the universal set is represented by a
rectangle and its subsets by rings that are drawn inside the rectangle.
Different set expressions can be shown using this method.

Example 2.14
Represent the following on Venn diagrams
 (i) A ∪ B
(ii) A ∩ B
(iii) B′

Solution
Fig. 2.1 to 2.3 show the respective sets. The convention is to shade the
region.

(i)

Fig. 2.1

(ii)

Fig. 2.2

(iii)

Fig. 2.3
The region that is shaded represents the set expression .

The above set expressions represented on the Venn diagrams are so simple
such that one can represent them in Venn diagrams very easily. However,
there are times you are given a complex set expression to be represented on a
Venn diagram. In such a case do the following.

1. Draw a Venn diagram without shading it initially.

 2. Label the regions involved as 1, 2, 3 or a, b, c, d.
3. Treat the labels as “elements” of sets to define the set expression
given.
4. Draw another Venn diagram in exactly the same way as the first
and shade the coresponding region with elements that define the
required set expression in the first drawing.

Example 2.15
Represent the following set expressions in a Venn diagram.
(a) (A′ ∪ B) ′ ∩ A
(b) (A′ ∩ B′) ∪ A

Solution
Taking the following sets
(a) ε = {1, 2, 3, 4}
B = {2, 3}
A= {3, 4}

Fig. 2.4

A′ = {1, 2}
A′ ∪ B = {1, 2, 3}
(A′ ∪ B) ′ = {4}
(A′ ∪ B) ′ ∩ A = {4}
 Fig. 2.5

So (A′ ∩ B) ′ ∩ A is represented by the above Venn diagram

(b) ε = {1, 2, 3, 4}
A = {3, 4}
B = {2, 3}

Fig. 2.6

A′= {1, 2}
B′ = {1, 4}
(A′ ∩ B′) ∪ A′ = {1, 2}
So the Venn diagram representing (A′ ∩ B′) ∪ A′ is as in Fig. 2.7 .

Fig. 2.7

(A′ ∩ B′) ∪ A′
Example 2.16
Using Venn diagram, show that
(A ∪ B) ′ = A′ ∩ B′.

Solution
The statement (A ∪ B) ′ = A′ ∩ B′, will be true if the Venn diagram of (A ∪
B) ′ is the same as the Venn diagram of A′ ∩ B′.
(A ∩ B)′ is represented as in Fig. 2.8

Fig. 2.8

The expression A′ ∩ B′ cannot be easily shown in a Venn diagram. So the

labelling technique is employed in this case.
ε = {p, q, r, s}
A = {r, s}
B = {q, r}

Fig. 2.9

A′ = {p, q}
B′ = {p, s}
A′ ∩ B′ = {p}
 Fig. 2.10

Since the Venn diagram of (A ∪ B)′ and A′ ∩ B′ are the same then

(A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B′

Example 2.17
Represent A ∪ B′ in a Venn diagram given that A and B are subsets of a
universal set.
ε = {a, b, c, d, e}
A = {a, c} and B = {b, c, d, e}

Solution
A = {a, c}
B = {b, c, d, e}
A′ = {b, d, e}
B′= {a}
A ∪ B′ = {a, c}

Fig. 2.11
The expression A ∪ B′ is represented in Fig. 2.11

Exercise 2.5
Draw Venn diagrams shading the region represented by the given set
expressions.
1. A ∩ B′
2. A′ ∪ B
3. (A ∪ B)′ ∪ C
4. (A′ ∪ B ∪ C)′
5. (A′ ∩ B′) ∪ C
Use Venn diagrams to show that
6. A′ ∪ B = (A ∩ B)′
7. (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′
8. (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)
9. (A ∩ B ∩ C) = A′ ∪ B′ ∪ C′

Cardinality of sets
The cardinality of a set refers to the number of elements in a given set.
Thus, the cardinality of set A is denoted as η (A), which is read as the
number of elements in set A”

Example 2.18
Given set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and Set B = {2, 3, 5}.
Find:
(a) η (A ∪ B)
(b) η (A ∩ B)

Solution
(a) A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
∴ η(A ∪ B) = 5
(b) A ∩ B {2, 3}
 ∴ η(A ∩ B) = 2

Consider the Venn diagram in Fig. 2.12 with A and B as subsets of the
universal set and t is the number of elements in A only, s in both A and B and
r in B only.

Fig. 2.12

From the above diagram,

η(A) = t + s
η(B) = s + r
η(A ∩ B) = s
η(A ∪ B) = t + s + r
Adding η(A) and η(B)
η(A) + η(B) = (t + s) + (s + r)
η(A) + η(B) = η(A ∪ B) + η(A ∩ B)
Making η(A ∪ B) subject of the formula
η(A ∪ B) = η(A) + η(B) – η(A ∩ B)

Example 2.19
In a group of 31 visitors from several regions in Malawi, 16 went to Fort
Lister and 18 went to Bandawe historical areas. How many visitors went to
both places?

Solution
Let η(B) be visitors who went to Fort Lister and η(T) went to Bandawe.
 Fig 2.13

η(B ∪ T) = η(B) + η(T) – η(B ∩ T)

31 = 16 + 18 – η(B ∩ T)
31 = 34 – η(B ∩ T)
η(B ∩ T) = 34 – 31
η(B ∩ T) = 3
Three visitors went to both places.

Exercise 2.6
1. If ε = {positive integers}, A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and B = {2, 3, 4, 10}
Find
(a) η(A ∩ B)
(b) η((A ∪ B)
(c) η(A ∩ B′ )
(d) η(A′ ∩ B)
2. Given that η(A) = 31, η(A ∩ B) = 5, η(A ∪ B) = 39. Find η(B).
3. In a Science department of Lisimba Secondary School which has 17
teachers, 6 teach Biology, 14 teach Physical Science and 1 teaches
neither of the two. Find the number of teachers teaching:
(a) both subjects,
(b) Biology only,
(c) Physical Science only.
4. In a recent graduation at St. Mom’s High School, 16 certificates
were given to graduands who performed well in Mathematics and
English. Certificates were awarded to graduands who are best in
English, 3 students were awarded certificates in both subjects. How
 many students were awarded certificates for being good in
Mathematics?

All children (boys and girls) need to be given equal opportunities in

education. Gender discrimination should be avoided.
 3 LINES AND ANGLES

Angles
Fig. 3.1 shows a wheel as it turns, starting from position (i) to position (vi).

Fig. 3.1

For the amount the wheel turns from one position of the wheel to another we
use the word ‘angle’ or ‘angle of rotation ’.
When the wheel turns from the position in (i) to the position in (vi), it has
made ‘one complete turn’ or ‘a whole turn’ or ‘one revolution’.
The angle turned = 1 revolution.

Look at the clocks below. From 9 o’clock (Fig. 3.2 (i)) to 10 o’clock (Fig. 3.2
(ii)), the minute hand of the clock makes one revolution as shown in Fig. 3.2
(iii).
 Fig. 3.2

Over the same duration, the hour hand turns through of a revolution as
shown in Fig. 3.2 (iv).

Exercise 3.1
Use ‘revolutions’ or ‘whole turns’ and ‘fractions of turns’ to measure angles
in this exercise.
1. Approximately, through what angle does the wheel in Fig 3.1 turn
(a) from position (i) to (iii),
(b) from position (ii) to (iv),
(c) from position (iii) to (v)?
2. Approximately, through what angle do you rotate;
(a) your head, when you turn it from facing the front of the
class to face the person sitting next to you on your right (or
left)?
(b) a key to open a door (discussion)?
(c) the school gate for a car to pass through it (discussion)?
3. Through what angle does a soldier turn when he is given the order
(a) ‘left turn’,
(b) ‘right turn’,
(c) ‘about turn’?
4. Through what angle does the minute hand of a clock turn in
(a) 3 hours,
(b) 30 min,
(c) 20 min,
(d) 12 min?
5. Through what angle does the hour hand of a clock turn
(a) from 9 o’clock to 12 o’clock,
(b) from noon to midnight,
(c) from noon to 4 p.m?
6. A bicycle travelled 3 m during one complete turn of each wheel.
Through what angle does each wheel turn when the bicycle travels
(a) 10 m
(b) 16 m
(c) 18 m
(d) 24 m
(e) 1 m
(f) m
(g) 2 m?
7. In one day, i.e. 24 hours, the earth makes one complete turn about its
axis. Through what angle does it turn about its axis in;
(a) 18 hours
(b) 12 hours
(c) 3 hours?
8. What angle is between the hour hand and the minute hand of a clock
at the following times?
(a) 6 o’clock
(b) 4 o’clock
(c) 2 o’clock
(d) 9 o’clock
(e) past 1
(f) past 5
(g) 20 minutes past 3.
Degree measure of an angle
Many people, for example surveyors and engineers, need a smaller unit of
measuring angles than ‘revolution or ‘turn’. The unit used is called a ‘degree
’. There are 360 degrees in a revolution.
This unit possibly came from the Babylonians who thought that a year
consisted of 360 days.
The symbol ° is used for degrees. 360 degrees is written in short as 360º

Example 3.1
What is the angle between the hour hand and the minute hand of a clock at
10 o’clock?

Solution
The angle between the hands is the amount the minute hand, for example,
would be moved to reach where the hour-hand is (Fig. 3.3 ). That is, of a
revolution.
Angle between hands = of a revolution =
= of 360º
= 60º

Fig. 3.3

Note that in Example 3.1, if the minute hand was allowed to move freely as
shown by the arrow in Fig. 3.4 , the angle would be
 Fig. 3.4

Exercise 3.2
1. The following are angles measured in revolutions (revs). What are
they in degrees?
(a) 1 rev
(b)
(c) 5 revs
(d) 20 revs
(e)
(f) rev
(g) rev
(h) rev
(i) rev
(j) rev
(k) revs

2. What is the angle, in degrees, between the hour hand and the minute
hand of a clock at the following times?
(a) 9 o’clock
(b) 6 o’clock
(c) 7 o’clock
(d) 4 o’clock
(e) 1 o’clock
(f) 12 o’clock
3. What is the angle, in degrees, between the hour hand and the minute
hand of a clock at the following times?
 (a) Half past twelve
(b) Half past two
(c) Half past five
(d) Half past seven
(e) Half past nine
(f) Half past ten
4. Find the angle, in degrees, between the hour hand and the minute
hand of a clock at the following times.
(a) Quarter past one
(b) Quarter past four
(c) Quarter to three
(d) Quarter to six
(e) 20 minutes past eleven
(f) 25 minutes to twelve
(g) 10 minutes to five
(h) 10 minutes past seven
(i) 25 minutes past two
(j) 20 minutes to ten

Types of angles
Fig. 3.5 shows two line segments AB and BC. They form an angle at point B.
The symbol ∠ or ∧ is used to denote an angle.

Fig. 3.5

Point B is called the ‘vertex’ of the angle between the lines AB and BC. The
angle is denoted as either ∠ABC or ∠B or A C or .
In Fig. 3.5 , AB and BC are the arms of ∠ABC.
If BC is fixed and AB is rotated we get angles of different sizes. Some of
these angles have special names.
In Fig 3.5 ∠ ABC is less than 90º ( revolution). Such an angle is known as
an acute angle.
In Fig. 3.6 ∠ ABC = 90º It is called a right angle .

Fig. 3.6

A right angle is usually shown on a diagram by drawing a small square at the

vertex of the angle.
In Fig. 3.7 , ∠ ABC is greater than 90º but less than 180º (half turn). Such an
angle is called an obtuse angle .

Fig. 3.7

In Fig 3.8 , ∠ ABC = 180º = 2 right angles. This is called a straight angle.

Fig. 3.8

In both Fig. 3.9 (a) and (b), ∠ ABC is greater than 180º but less than 360º.
Such an angle is called a reflex angle.
 Fig. 3.9

In Fig. 3.10 , ∠ ABC will refer to the acute angle in (a) or the obtuse angle in
(b).

Fig. 3.10

To refer to the reflex angle, we must specify ‘reflex ∠ABC’ or ‘reflex ∠B’.

Complementary and supplementary angles

If ∠A = 37° and ∠B = 53°, then ∠A + ∠B = 90°.
Any two angles ∠A and ∠B are said to be complementary angles if ∠A +
∠B = 90º. ∠A and ∠B are said to be complements of each other.
If ∠A = 37° and ∠B = 143°, then ∠A + ∠B = 180°.
If ∠A + ∠B = 180º, then the angles are said to be supplementary angles.
∠A and ∠B are supplements of each other.

Exercise 3.3
1. In Fig. 3.11 , name all the
(a) acute angles
(b) obtuse angles
 Fig. 3.11

2. In Fig. 3.12 , name all the

(a) acute angles,
(b) obtuse angles,
(c) right angles.

Fig. 3.12

3. In Fig 3.13 , state

(a) the type of angle for each of a, b, c, d, e, f, g.
(b) pairs of angles which are
(i) complementary
(ii) supplementary

Fig. 3.13

4. (a) State the complements of the following angles.

(i) 44º
(ii) 36º
(iii) 57º
(iv) 82º
(v) 22º
 (vi) 17º
(b) State the supplements of the following angles.
(i) 44º
(ii) 32º
(iii) 132º
(iv) 85º
(v) 124º
(vi) 176º
(vii) 180º

Using a protractor to measure and construct angles

Fig. 3.14 shows a semi-circular protractor used to measure angles
accurately.

Fig. 3.14

This kind of protractor measures angles from 0º to 180º either from left to
right (clockwise), or from right to left (anti-clockwise).
The line AOB is the zero-line. The measurements are made from the
direction OA on the outer scale, or from OB on the inner scale. The part of
the protractor shaded in the Fig. 3.14 helps to protect the zero-line. We do not
use the shaded part when measuring.
There are some protractors which are made in complete circles. These will
measure angles from 0º to 360º.

Example 3.2
(a) Measure the size of the acute ∠ PQR in Fig. 3.15 .
(b) What is the size of the reflex ∠ PQR?
 Fig. 3.15

Solution
(i) Place the protractor over the angle so that its centre O is exactly
over point Q, and the zero-line is exactly along PQ (or QR) as
shown in Fig. 3.16 .
(ii) Count the degrees from the zero-line to the arm QR (or PQ) of the
angle.
In Fig. 3.16 (a), count the degrees clockwise using the outer scale of the
protractor.
In Fig. 3.16 (b) count the degrees anticlockwise using the inner scale of the
protractor.
∠PQR = 60
Reflex ∠PQR = 360º – 60º = 300º

Fig. 3.16

Example 3.3
Construct an angle ∠ABC = 84º
Solution
Draw a line and mark on it points B and C, as shown in Fig. 3.17

Fig. 3.17

Place the protractor so that the zero-line is exactly over the line BC and the
centre of the protractor is over B.
Count 84º round the edge of the protractor from the zero-line and put a dot A
at this point (Fig. 3.18 (a)).
Remove the protractor and join AB (Fig. 3.18 (b)).
ABC is the required angle.

Fig. 3.18

Exercise 3.4
1. Use a protractor to construct an angle of
(a) 35º
(b) 47º
(c) 53º
(d) 77º
(e) 23º
(f) 15º
(g) 97º
(h) 108º
(i) 133º
(j) 145º
(k) 165º
(k) 170º
2. Use a protractor to construct an angle of
(a) 210º
(b) 260º
(c) 290º
(d) 31º
(e) 330º
(f) 285º
3. Make a tracing of a set square in your book. Using a protractor,
measure all the angles.
4. Measure the angles indicated in Fig. 3.19 (a) and (b). In each case,
find the sum of the angles.

Fig. 3.19

5. Measure the angles indicated in Fig.3.20. What do you notice about

angles
(a) i and k,
(b) j and l?

Fig 3.20
Angles on a straight line
It was pointed out earlier that for a straight line AOB, ∠AOB is a straight
angle (Fig. 3.21 (a)) and ∠AOB = 180º.
It follows that ∠AOC, ∠COD, ∠DOE and ∠EOB are angles on the
straight line AOB (Fig. 3.21 (b)). Their sum is 180º i.e.
∠AOC + ∠COD + ∠DOE + ∠EOB = 180º

Fig. 3.21

Did you discover the same when you did Question 4(a) of Exercise 3.4?
Two angles having a common line and a common vertex are called adjacent
angles. In Fig. 3.21 (b), ∠AOC is adjacent to ∠COD, ∠COD is adjacent to
∠DOE etc.

Angles at a point
When two lines intersect, they form four angles having a common vertex.
The two angles which are on opposite sides of the vertex are called vertically
opposite angles.

Fig. 3.22

In Fig. 322, ∠AOC is vertically opposite ∠BOD. ∠AOD is vertically

opposite ∠COB.
Let ∠AOC = a, ∠AOD = b, ∠BOD = c and ∠BOC = d. ∠AOD and
∠AOC are adjacent angles on a line, it follows that:
a + b = 180º (angles on a straight line).
Also b + c = 180º (angles on a straight line).
Then a + b = b + c
∠a=c
Similarly, we can show that b = d.
We conclude that vertically opposite angles are equal. Did you discover the
same result when you did Question 5 of Exercise 3.4?
Also, since a + b = 180º (angle on a straight line) and c + d = 180º (angle on
a straight line)
then a + b + c + d = 180º + 180º
= 360º
This shows that angles at a point add up to 360º. Thus, in Fig. 3.23 :
∠AOB + ∠BOC + ∠COD + ∠DOA = 360º

Fig. 3.23

Exercise 3.5
1. Find the sizes of the angles marked by letters in Fig. 3.24 (Not
drawn accurately).
 Fig. 3.24

2. Using Fig. 3.25 , find z .

Fig. 3.25

3. In Fig. 3.26 , XYZ is a straight line. Find a if it exceeds b by of a

right angle.

Fig. 3.26

4. Fig. 3.27 represents three lines intersecting at a point. Find p and q.

 Fig. 3.27

5. Fig. 3.28 is not drawn accurately.

(a) Find ∠PAT.
(b) An angle bisector is a line that divides the angle into two
equal parts. Find the angle between the bisectors of
∠RAQ and ∠RAS.

Fig. 3.28

Angles on parallel lines

Fig. 3.29 shows lines AB and CD which meet at P when produced.

Fig. 3.29

In contrast, Fig. 3.30 shows lines KL and MN which do not meet however far
they are produced. Such lines are said to be parallel . For example the
horizontal lines in your exercise book are parallel to each other. The opposite
edges of your desk are parallel to each other.
 Fig. 3.30

We show that lines are parallel by drawing arrow heads on them as shown in
Fig 3.31

Fig. 3.31

‘Line KL is parallel to line MN’ written in short as KL MN (sometimes

as KL ∠ MN).
A line which cuts a pair of parallel lines is called a transversal (Fig 3.32 )

Fig. 3.32

Fig. 3.33 shows parallel lines AB and CD and transversal PQ. The marked
angles are called corresponding angles (or F–angles).
 Fig. 3.33

Measure the corresponding angles in each case. What do you notice?

Fig. 3.34 shows parallel lines AB and CD, and a transversal PQ. The marked
angles are called alternate angles (or Z-angles).

Fig. 3.34

Measure the alternate angles in each case. What do you notice?

In Fig. 3.35 , the marked angles are called cointerior or allied angles.
 Fig. 3.35

Measure the co-interior angles in each case. What can you say about their
sum?
Did you notice the following?

1. Corresponding angles are equal.

2. Alternate angles are equal.
3. Co-interior angles add up to 180o .

Note that it is possible to have corresponding, co-interior and alternate angles

with lines which are not parallel. In Fig. 3.36 , angle s corresponds to angle t ,
angle v and w are cointerior and angle u is alternate to angle v . Since the
lines are not parallel the angles are not equal i.e. s ≠ t, u ≠ v and v + w ≠
180º.

Fig. 3.36

Exercise 3.6
1. State 5 pairs of examples of parallel lines in your classroom.
2. Fig. 3.37 shows a section of a honeycomb.
 Fig. 3.37

(a) Name all the lines parallel to AB.

(b) Name all the lines parallel to ON.
(c) Which lines are parallel to SR?
3. Using Fig. 3.38 ,
(a) Write down all the pairs of
(i) corresponding angles
(ii) alternate angles,
(iii) co-interior angles.
(b) Write down the sizes of the angles marked with letters.
(i)

(ii)

(iii)
 (iv)

Fig. 3.38
4. In Fig. 3.39 , find pairs of parallel lines.

Fig. 3.39

5. Find the angles marked with letters in Fig. 3.40 . [Hint: Copy the
given figures and insert other parallel lines at M and C respectively].
(a)

(b)

Fig. 3.40
 4 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

Symbolic representation
Algebra is an extension of arithmetic. In addition to numbers, letters are used
to represent items or numbers. The letters are treated in the same way
numbers are treated in arithmetic.
An expression in which letters are used to represent numbers is called an
algebraic expression. The following are some examples.
Statement Algebraic expression
The number of mangoes in a bag m
The number of bananas in a bunch b
The number of fruits in 2 bags of mangoes and 3
bunches of bananas 2m + 3b
The number of fruits in a bag of mangoes
subtract the number of fruits in 5 bunches of
bananas m‒5b

The choice of the letter should, as far as possible, remind one of what it
represents, as in this case, m for number of mangoes and b for number
of bananas.

Note: 1. 2m means 2 × m = m + m; 3b means 3 × b = b + b + b.

2. a × b = b × a = ab = ba (Usually we write the letters of a product in alphabetical order and without multiplication symbols).
3. a × a × a = a3 (power form).

Example 4.1
Kafele bought 5 bananas and 3 oranges. By choice of appropriate letters for
the price per fruit, find an expression for his expenditure.

Solution
Let K x be the price of a banana.
Let K y be the price of an orange.
Cost of 5 bananas = K 5x
Cost of 3 oranges = K 3y
Total expenditure = K (5x + 3y ).
In this case, letter o for oranges could be confused with the number 0 (zero),
hence the choice of the letters x and y .

We have used letters to represent quantities of different values. When letters

are used to represent any values, they are referred to as variables. In
Example 4.1, x and y represent the cost of a banana and an orange
respectively so x and y are variables.
In Algebra, we use letters and symbols to represent numbers in various ways;
1. In formulae e.g. πr2 = Area of a circle
2. As constants e.g. π in πr2 is of constant value.
3. As unknown numbers as in Exercise 4.1
4. As numbers in general terms e.g. a, b, c, d…. representing numbers.
We have applied some of these on a smaller scale but we shall apply more of
this later.

Exercise 4.1
1. Write down the following products in short form.
(a) 2 × b
(b) p × 5
(c) m × n
(d) x × x
2. Find the total mass of 2 boxes weighing
(a) 4 kg and 20 kg
(b) t kg and 20 kg
(c) x kg and y kg
3. Out of K 50 pocket money, a student spent K x . Express his balance
algebraically.
4. Represent the following statements algebraically.
(a) The number of days in x weeks.
(b) The total number of exercise books issued to a class of 40
 students, if each gets x books.
(c) The total cost of x kg of sugar at K 104 per kg and 3 packets
of maize meal at K y per packet.
5. Write down the number which is 12 times as big as m .
6. Write down the number that is 8 more than m.
7. Write down the number that is 12 more than 3 times x .
8. Think of a number. Write down an expression for 5 more than 3
times the number.
9. A certain number is multiplied by 2. By how much does 5 exceed
the result?
10. A boy takes 10 minutes longer going to the shop than when
returning home. Write down an expression for the total time taken.
11. The length of a classroom is x m and the width is 2 m shorter. Find
the total distance round the classroom.

Terms, coefficients, variables and constants

In any algebraic expression, parts connected by + or – signs are called

terms . Consider the algebraic expression

7x – 3y + 2.

It has 3 terms.
7 is the coefficient of x and – 3 is the coefficient of y. x and y can
represent any values and are referred to as variables . The last term, 2 is
fixed (constant) while the terms 7x and - 3y will vary depending on the
values of x and y. The constant term in the expression is thus 2 .
If the coefficient is 1 or – 1, just write the letter, e.g. in 4 + x – y the
constant term is 4 while the coefficients of x and y are 1 and
– 1 respectively.
Exercise 4.2
What is the coefficient of x in each of the expressions in Questions 1 and 2?

1. (a) x
(b) 3x
(c) 18x
(d) – 2x
(e) – x

2. (a) x
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
3. State the number of terms in the following expressions.
(a) 2
(b) m
(c) 4m + 2n – 3
(d)
(e) 5 × y + x × 3 – z ÷2
4. Write down the constant term, if any, in the following expressions.
(a) a + 3b – 1
(b)
(c) 3m
5. How many variables are there in each of the following expressions?
(a) 2x – y
(b) 26w + 4 – y
(c) 6m +3n – 1 + 2k

Simplification of algebraic expressions Like and unlike terms

 Terms are said to be like if they have exactly the same variable(s) to the
same power, otherwise they are unlike .

For example:
2a and 3a are like,
2ab and 4ab are like
2a and 5b are unlike
2a and 2ab are unlike
a and a2 are unlike

When simplifying algebraic expressions, first collect the like terms together.
Simplification is usually easier if the positive like terms are separated from
the negative ones.

Examples 4.2
Simplify
(a) 2a – 8a + 5a + 9a – 3a
(b) 4m + 8n – m – 3n + 2n – 5 – n +9

Solution
(a) 2a – 8a + 5a + 9a – 3a
= 2a + 5a + 9a – 8a – 3a (Grouping positive and negative
like terms).
= 16a – 11a
= 5a
(b) 4m + 8n – m – 3n + 2n – 5 – n + 9
= 4m – m + 8n – 3n + 2n – n – 5 + 9 (Collecting like terms
together).
= 4m – m + 8n + 2n – 3n – n + 9 – 5 (Grouping positive and
negative like terms).
= 3m + 10n – 4n + 4
= 3m + 6n + 4

Exercise 4.3
1. In each of the following, pick out the term which is unlike the others.
(a) 2x, 4x, 6x, 3x2 , 8x
(b) m3 , 5m2 , 6m3 , 3m3 , 10m3
(c) x2 y, xy, yx2 , 3x2 y, 4yx2
(d) 3mn, nm, – mn, m2 n,

2. Simplify the following expressions.

(a) y + y + y
(b) n + n – n + n + n – n – n
(c) f – f + f – f + f
(d) d + d + d – d – d + d
3. Simplify
(a) 3a + 3a
(b) 4b – b
(c) 6z – 2z
(d) k – k
(e) q + 2q
(f) 5p + 7p
(g) 9r – 8r
(h) w – 5w
4. Simplify
(a) 5a + a + 3a
(b) c + 2c + 4c
(c) 3b + 3b + 3b
(d) 5y – 4y + y
(e) 12w – 6w + 6w
(f) 9n – 3n + 2n
(g) 2m + 8m – 4m + m – 2m
(h) 8t – 2t – 3t + 4t – 7t
5. Simplify the following by first collecting like terms together and
grouping those with the same signs.
(a) x + y + y + x
(b) 3w + 8w + 9z – 4z
(c) 11n + 11 + n – 10
(d) 4s – 2t + 5t – 3s
 (e) 2p – 7 – 4 + 5p
(f) 14b – 9c – 6b
(g) 4m – m + 5n – 4n
(h) 10 – 5d + 2d – 15 + 4d
6. Simplify where possible.
(a) 2e + 2f – 2
(b) d – 7e + 3f + 8e + 2d
(c) 48n – 24
(d) 6m + 3n – 2 – 6m + 5
(e) 7h – 2g + 4 – 3h + 7g + 2
(f) 12 – 4e + 6e – 10h + 7k – 3e – 14

Formation and simplification of algebraic expressions

When forming algebraic expressions from word statements, remember that a
letter represents a general number. However, it may make matters easier if
you first imagined that the letter you define stands for a particular number.

Example 4.3
Write down an expression for the sum of two consecutive whole numbers and
simplify it.

Solution
The difference between two consecutive whole numbers is 1.
Thus, if the smaller number is 6, then the next number is 7 (i.e. 6 + 1); if 15,
the next is 16 (i.e.
15 + 1), etc.
Hence, if the smaller number is n, then the next number is n + 1.
∴ the sum is n + n + 1 = 2n + 1

Note : In answering a question of this type, the working should be laid out as
follows:

Let the smaller number be n

Then, the larger number is n + 1
 ∴ sum = n + n + 1 = 2n + 1

Example 4.4
Paul is twice as old as his brother Kasiya and their sister Mary is 5 years
younger than Kasiya.
Find an expression for the sum of their ages.

Solution
Let Kasiya’s age be k years
∴ Paul’s age = 2k
and Mary’s age = k – 5
∴ Sum of their ages = k + 2k + k – 5
= (4k – 5) years

Exercise 4.4
1. Write down an expression for the sum of 3 consecutive
(a) whole numbers
(b) odd numbers
2. A carpenter has two planks of wood. One is three times as long as
the other. What is the total length of the two planks?
3. A lady went on a diet and reduced her mass by one-fifth. What is her
new mass?
4. A woman had a number of eggs in a basket. She sold three-fifths of
them and three got broken. How many eggs were left in the basket?
5. In a gathering attended by as many men as women, a total of 120
people were present. If some of the people were children, express
algebraically the number of children who attended.
6. The weekly wage of a woman is k 1 800. Her expenditure on
cosmetics is two thirds of that on food. If she saves the rest of the
money, find an expression for her weekly savings.

Multiplication and division with algebraic terms

Note the following points regarding multiplication.
(i) We have seen that 3 × a = 3a
So 2 × 3a = 2 × 3 × a
= 6a
Also 3a × 2 = 3 × a × 2 = 3 × 2 × a
= 6a
Thus 2 × 3a = 3a × 2
(ii) Just as 5 × 5 = 52 ,
so also a × a = a2
Similarly, 2a × 2a = (2a)2
And 2a × 2a = 2 × a × 2 × a
= 22 × a2
= 4a2
∴ (2a)2 = 4a2

Example 4.5
Simplify (a) 5 × 2x
(b) 3a × 6b
(c) 8p × 6pq

Solution
(a) 5 × 2x =5×2×x
= 10 × x = 10x
(b) 3a × 6b =3×a×6×b
= 18 × ab
= 18ab
(c) 8p × 6pq =8×p×6×p×q
= 48 × p2 × q
= 48p2 q

Just as we can divide a number by itself, we can also divide a letter by itself,
i.e. just as 5 ÷ 5 =1, so also x ÷ x = 1. This fact is useful in division with
algebraic terms as shown in Example 4.6.

Example 4.6
Simplify (a) 10x ÷ 5
(b) 6xy ÷ 2y

(c)

Solution
(a)

(b)

(c)

Exercise 4.5
Simplify the following:

1. (a) 3 × 4a
(b) 4m × 5
(c) 6x × 9
(d) 11 × 3q

2. (a) 3x × 2y
(b) 2a × 7b
(c) 8q × 5p
(d) y × 8x

3. (a) a × 3ab
(b) 2a × 7ab
(c) 7y × 4yx
(d) 13st × 11t

4. (a) 5 × 2m2
(b) 15pq × p2
(c) (3q)2 × pq
(d) 3p2 × 2q2

5. (a) 24m ÷ 8
 (b) 18x ÷ 6
(c) 27p2 ÷ 9
(d) 143t ÷ 13

6. (a) 16xy ÷ x
(b) p2 ÷ p
(c) 27w2 m ÷ 9w
(d) 54p2 q ÷ 9pq

7. (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

8. (a) 3m × 2 – 5m
(b) 15 ÷ 3 + 6y × xy
(c) 18x ÷ 6 + x + 2 × 5x
(d) 5 × 6x – 5x × 0 – 8x × 4
9. abc + 5bca + abd – 3acd – 2cba + 4dac – bda + 3bcd

Substitution and evaluation

Substitution involves replacing variables, in an algebraic expression, with
specific values. The expression may then be evaluated.

Example 4.7
If x = 3, y = – 2 and z = 5, find the value of
(a) xy + z2
(b) (x + y)(3x – 4z)

Solution
(a) xy + z2 = 3 × – 2 + 52
= – 6 + 25
= 19
(b) (x + y)(3x – 4z) = (3 + – 2)(3 × 3 – 4 ×5)
 = (1)(9 – 20)
= 1 × – 11
= – 11

Exercise 4.6
1. If m = 4 and n = 3, evaluate
(a) 3m + 3
(b) 4m – 5n
(c)
(d)
(e) 5m – 5
(f) 6m +2n
(g) 3m – 4n
(h)
(i) 3n2
(j) 2mn2
(k) mn – n
(l) m(n– m)
(m) 2m3
(n)
(o) m2 – n2
2. If a = 5, b = 9 and c = 1, evaluate
(a) a ÷ (b + c) + 6
(b) (b – 2c) ÷ (4a – 2b)
(c)

(d)

3. If E = mv2 , find E when m = 27 and v = .

4. If xy = 5 and y = 2, find
(a) x
(b) 2(x + y)
5. If F = 32 + C, find the value of F given that
(a) C = 20
(b) C = 42
(c) C = 75
5 APPROXIMATION, ESTIMATION AND ACCURACY

Rounding off numbers

In real life situations, there are times when obtaining or using exact answers
is not practical. For example, the accuracy of a measurement depends on its
purpose or the method employed in obtaining it. Usually, we indicate the
degree of accuracy by means of:
(a) Rounding off numbers to the required number of;
(i) decimal places,
(ii) significant figures.
(b) Stating the smallest unit of measurement used.
Consider the number 7 352.
This number lies between 7 350 and 7 360. It is closer to 7 350 than it is to 7
360. So, the number is approximately equal to 7 350 since we have
considered the tens only. This is written symbolically as
7 352 ≈ 7 350 (to the nearest ten).
The same number 7 352 lies between 7 300 and 7 400. It is closer to 7 400
than to 7 300. So we can write
7 352 ≈ 7 400 (to the nearest hundred).
When we write 7 352 as 7 350 or as 7 400, we say that we have rounded off
the number to the nearest ten or to the nearest hundred, respectively.

To round off a number to a given place value, locate the required place
value and:
1. 1. If the first digit after the required place value is a digit from 5
to 9, add 1 to the last digit in the required place value (i.e. round
up the number) and replace the digit(s) after it with zero(s).
2. 2. If the first digit after the required place value is 4 or less, leave
the digit in the required place value unaltered (i.e. round down
the number) and replace the digit(s) after it with zero(s).

Example 5.1
Round off 764 293 to the nearest:
(a) hundred
(b) ten thousand.

Solution

Note: The digits after the required place value must be replaced with zeros in
order to keep the place values in the number correct.

Decimal places

When a fraction is written with a power of 10 as its denominator, it is

called a decimal fraction or simply a decimal . For example:

The dot is called the decimal point and it is used to separate whole
numbers from the fractional parts. A digit after the decimal point is said
to stand in a certain decimal place.
Rounding off to a number of decimal places
Consider the following case:
The length of a line segment is stated as 15.695 cm.
It is highly unlikely that a measurement can be taken to the nearest
thousandth of a centimetre. For all practical purposes, this length can be
stated as 15.7 cm (to the nearest tenth or to 1 decimal place (1 d.p)). We say
that the length has been rounded off to the nearest tenth or correct to 1
decimal place.

Example 5.2
Write the number 7.852 63 correct to
(a) 4 d.p
(b) 3 d.p
(c) 2 d.p
(d) 1 d.p
(e) the nearest whole number.

Solution
(a) 7.852 63 ≈ 7.852 6 (to 4 d.p)
(b) 7.852 63 ≈ 7.853 (to 3 d.p)
(c) 7.852 63 ≈ 7.85 (to 2 d.p)
(d) 7.852 63 ≈ 7.9 (to 1 d.p)
(e) 7.852 63 ≈ 8 (to the nearest whole number)

In writing a number correct to a given number of decimal places, count

from the first digit after the decimal point.
(a) If the first digit after the required decimal place is a digit from 5
to 9, add 1 to the digit in the required decimal place (i.e. round
up the number).
(b) If the first digit after the required decimal place is 4 or less, then
the digit in the required decimal place remains unaltered (i.e.
round down the number).
Significant figures
Consider the following statements:
1. A new car costs K 1 994 751.90.
2. The distance between Cairo and New York is 8 891.74 km.
3. My height is 168.782 cm.
All these measurements are given with what we might call ‘unreasonable
accuracy’.
The following would probably be more reasonable statements:
1. A new car costs K 1 990 000.
2. The distance between Cairo and New York is 8 900 km
3. My height is 169 cm.
In each case, it is only the first few figures which are important (or
significant ) for each measurement to be accurate enough.
K 1 990 000 is the price of the car to 3 significant figures (3 s.f.).
The distance between Cairo and New York is 8 900 km to 2 s.f.
169 cm is my height correct to 3 s.f.

Rounding off to a number of significant figures

Consider the number 652.73.
1. 652.73 ≈ 700 since 652.73 is closer to 700 than 600.
2. 652.73 ≈ 650 since 652.73 is closer to 650 than to 660.
3. 652.73 ≈ 653 since 652.73 is closer to 653 than 652.
4. 652.73 ≈ 652.7 since 652.73 is closer to 652.7 than to 652.8.
In 1, importance (i.e significance ) is given to only the hundreds place
value, so that 652.73 = 700 to 1 significant figure.
In 2, significance is given to both the hundreds and tens place values, so that
652.73 = 650 to 2 significant figures.
Likewise, 652.73 = 653 to 3 significant figures, and 652.73 = 653.7 to 4
significant figures.
 Thus, the phrase ‘significant figures (s.f.)’ refers to the number of place
values, starting from the left-most non-zero digit, to which importance is
attached in order to give an approximate value of a number.
Note:
1. If the next digit after the last significant digit is 4 or less, the
number is rounded down. If it is 5 or more, the number is
rounded up.
2. Zeros that lie between non-zero digits are significant.

Example 5.3
Approximate the following to
(i) 1 s.f.
(ii) 2 s.f.
(iii) 3 s.f.
(iv) 4 s.f.
(a) 40 256
(b) 69.048 2
(c) 0.008 421 09

Solution
The approximate values are as shown in Table 5.1 .

Table 5.1
Example 5.4
Write the following correct to the number of significant figures given in
brackets.
(a) 546.52 (3)
(b) 546.52 (4)
(c) 8.029 6 (1)
(d) 8.029 6 (2)
(e) 0.009 25 (1)
(f) 997 375 (3)

Solution
We start counting the significant figures from the first non-zero digit at the
left of the number.
(a) 546.52 = 547 to 3 s.f.
(b) 546.52 = 546.5 to 4 s.f.
(c) 8.029 6 = 8 to 1 s.f.
(d) 8.029 6 = 8.0 to 2 s.f. (In this case, the zero must be given after the
decimal point; it is significant.)
(e) 0.009 25 = 0.009 to 1 s.f. (9 is the first non-zero digit. The two zeros
after the decimal point are not significant figures. However, they
must be written down to keep the place value correct.)
(f) 997 375 = 997 000 to 3 s.f. (The last 3 zeros must be written down to
keep the place value correct.)

Example 5.5
Write 0.081 043 correct to 5, 4, 3, 2, 1
(a) decimal places
(b) significant figures

Solution
Table 5.2 shows the approximations.
 Table 5.2

Exercise 5.1
1. Round off the numbers in Table 5.3 to the indicated nearest place
value.

Table 5.3

2. To what nearest place value has each of the following numbers been
rounded?
(a) 876 ≈ 1000
(b) 580 694 ≈ 580 700
(c) 564 444 ≈ 564 440
(d) 64 293 ≈ 60 000
(e) 3 456 023 ≈ 3 000 000
(f) 954 999 ≈ 950 000
3. Express each of the following correct to
(i) one decimal place
 (ii) one significant figure.
(a) 7.82
(b) 12.19
(c) 50.701
(d) 38.09
(e) 4.98
(f) 8.056
4. Write each of the following correct to the number of significant
figures indicated in brackets.
(a) 3.141 6 (2)
(b) 0.589 63 (3)
(c) 19.189 8 (4)
(d) 0.006 193 (2)
(e) 10.046 (3)
(f) 4.078 6 (4)
5. Express each of the following numbers to 1, 2, 3 and 4 significant
figures.
(a) 60 539
(b) 78 949
(c) 20 909
(d) 80 099
(e) 79 990
(f) 49 801
(g) 90 199
(h) 45 999
(i) 209 009
6. Express each of the following numbers to 1, 2, 3 and 4 significant
figures.
(a) 2.456 2
(b) 94.126 7
(c) 192.090
(d) 8.000 38
(e) 18.982 09
(f) 6.809 91
(g) 4.590 84
 (h) 205.498
(i) 7.999 98
7. Express each of the following numbers to 1, 2 and 3 significant
figures.
(a) 0.145 2
(b) 0.567 05
(c) 0.036 06
(d) 0.009 680 9
(e) 0.060 59
(f) 0.999 9
8. Copy and complete Table 5.4 .

Table 5.4

9. Express the following correct to one decimal place.

(a) 3.43
(b) 5.28
(c) 6.48
(d) 5.46
(e) 8.37
10. Write the following correct to 3 significant figures.
(a) 19.045
(b) 43.588
(c) 31.52
 (d) 0.034 56
(e) 0.054 6
11. State the number of (i) decimal places (ii) significant figures in:
(a) 0.23
(b) 0.1
(c) 18.000 6
(d) 0.565
(e) 0.006 5
(f) 33.076
12. Evaluate the following giving your answers correct to
(i) 3 decimal places
(ii) 3 significant figures.
(a) 15.43 ÷ 0.8
(b) 11.78 ÷ 0.6
(c) 12.47 ÷ 0.03
(d) 105.7 ÷ 2.45
(e) 613.2 ÷ 3.75

Estimation
A friendly match between the Tigers FC and the Blue Eagles FC at the
Kamuzu Stadium was attended by 55 298 people. A television commentator
told his viewers that about 55 000 people attended the match. Do you think
he lied to the viewers?
The commentator did not lie. His interest was to inform the viewers of the
number of spectators correct to the nearest 1 000. He was stating the number
correct to 2 significant figures (2 s.f.). The commentator would still have not
lied had he given the number as 60 000 or 55 300.
Thus 55 ≈ 60 000 correct to the nearest 10 000 (or 1 s.f.)
298
≈ 55 000 correct to the nearest 1 000 (or 2 s.f.)
≈ 55 300 correct to the nearest 100 (or 3 s.f. or 4 s.f.)
We use significant figures when estimating numbers or amounts and when
we are doing rough calculations or estimates.
We use estimates to help us make decisions. Estimates are only meant to give
rough guidelines.
In order to estimate the answer to a calculation, we round off each number to
its highest place value and then compute.

Example 5.6
Find a rough estimate of the sum of
1 497 + 2 565.

Solution

In this case, the sum 4 000 is an estimate of (1 497 + 2 565), i.e. 4 062.

Example 5.7
Find a rough estimate of .

Solution
Round off each number to 1 s.f., then proceed.

Approximation
Consider the following:
(a) Calculate the following exactly:
 (i) 7.2 × 1.2
(ii) 0.64 × 0.914
(iii) 0.75 ÷ 1.25
(iv) Area of a square of sides 11.2 cm
(b) Measure the width of your Mathematics textbook using a ruler and
compare your answer with those of other members of your class.
In (a), your answers will agree with those of other members of your class, i.e.
(i) 8.64
(ii) 0.584 96
(iii) 0.6
(iv) 125.44 cm2
In (b), some answers may agree with yours, while others may be quite
different. So, whose answer is exactly correct? None of the answers are exact,
but all may be correct depending on the degree of accuracy stated.
All measurements, no matter how sophisticated the measuring instruments
are, are always approximated. When we say, for example, that the length of a
line segment AB = 7.4 cm (1 d.p.), we mean that the length of AB can be
anywhere between 7.35 cm and 7.45 cm.
So, 7.35 ≤ 7.4 < 7.45, which means that the true length must lie between 7.35
inclusive and 7.45 exclusive i.e 7.35 ≤ 7.4 < 7.45.

Activity 5.1
1. 1. Use your ruler to measure the length of your Mathematics textbook
correct to (i) 1 d.p. (ii) the nearest cm (iii) 2 s.f.
Compare your answers with those of other members of your class.
Determine which of the answers give the best approximation and why.
2. 2. Do you think it is more accurate to use a pair of dividers and a ruler
to measure lengths than to use a ruler only? Why? Do you think there
are any limitations to the use of dividers? Discuss.

Example 5.8
A lorry driver is contracted to transport 20 000 building blocks to a site. The
lorry has a capacity to hold 5 120 blocks. Estimate the number of lorry loads
necessary to transport the blocks.

Solution
In this case the most significant figure in 5 120 is 5.
So, 5 120 may be estimated as 5 000 (1 s.f.)
Total number of blocks = 20 000
∴ Number of lorry loads is

We see that approximately 4 lorry loads are required to transport 20 000

blocks.
This is an example of an estimate necessary to help make a decision and plan.

Exercise 5.2
1. Express 67 348.07 m to the nearest
(a) m
(b) 10 m
(c) 100 m
(d) 1 000 m.
In each case, state the smallest unit of measurement.
2. A factory worker making precision instruments is told that the
diameter of a piston he is making is to be 6.7 cm with a 0.01 cm
tolerance. State
(a) the least possible diameter,
(b) the largest possible diameter.
3. Work out rough estimates of the following.
(a) 275 × 992
(b) 8 806 × 0.845
(c) 67.4 × 0.001 2
(d) 25.04 ÷ 0.45
(e) 375 × 569 ÷ 42.3
(f) 0.006 43 ÷ 5.81
4. Estimate how much it would cost to buy a copy of this textbook for
every student in your school given that a copy costs K 825.
 5. You wish to paint two surfaces measuring 6.4 m by 4.6 m and 10.8
m by 6.7 m. Each tin of paint is expected to cover 12 m2 and costs K
2 500. Estimate the number of tins of paint you should buy.
Roughly, how much do you expect the paint to cost?
6. Estimate the total area of paper, in square metres, used to produce
this textbook. Explain your answer.
7. A metal rod is measured as 3 m long (1 s.f.) and another as 4 m long
(1 s.f.). Do you think it is true to say that the total length of the rods
is 7 m (1 s.f.)? Discuss.

Squares and square roots

Squares
Numbers that can be represented by a square pattern of dots are called perfect
squares or simply square numbers.

This pattern is a square with two dots on each side. It has 2 × 2 dots = 4 dots

This pattern is a square with 3 dots on each side. It has 3 × 3 dots = 9 dots.

This pattern is a square with 4 dots on each side. It has 4 × 4 dots =16 dots.
This pattern of dots can be continued indefinitely.

Finding squares by estimation

 Numbers such as 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, … are known as square numbers or
perfect squares.
The square of a number is found by multiplying the number by itself.
The squares of the first 10 natural numbers are:
1 × 1 = 12 = 1
2 × 2 = 22 = 4
3 × 3 = 32 = 9
4 × 4 = 42 = 16
5 × 5 = 52 = 25
6 × 6 = 62 = 36
7 × 7 = 72 = 49
8 × 8 = 82 = 64
9 × 9 = 92 = 81
10 × 10 =102 = 100

Example 5.9
Find the squares of
(a) 42
(b) 48

Solution
(a) 42 lies between 402 and 502 .
∴ 422 lies between 402 and 502
40 = 1 600 and 50 = 2 500
Thus, 42 lies between 1 600 and 2 500.
Since 42 ≈ 40 (1 s.f.)
Then 422 ≈ 1 600
(b) 48 lies between 40 and 50.
∴ 482 lies between 1 600 and 2 500
Since 48 ≈ 50 (1 s.f.)
 Then 482 ≈ 2 500

Finding square roots using calculators

Calculators are used to ease numerical computations. A scientific calculator
is recommended for use since it has more operations and functions. Some of
the commonly used keys are as shown in Table 5.5 .

Table 5.5

Most calculators give answers to an accuracy of eight or more digits. For

example, on an 8-digit screen, the smallest and largest positive numbers that
can be displayed are 0.000 000 01 and 99 999 999 respectively.
Examples 5.10 and 5.11 illustrate the use of a scientific calculator in finding
squares.

Example 5.10
Use a calculator to evaluate the following
(a) 39
(b) 839
Solution
(a) The procedure is as follows:
Key in 39, press , press
The answer obtained is 1 521.
(b) Key in 839, press , press
The answer obtained is 703 921

Example 5.11
Find the squares of (a) 0.7526 (b) 12.74

Solution
(a) Key in 0.752 6, press , press
The answer obtained is 0.566 406 76.
(b) Key in 12.74, press , press
The answer obtained is 162.817 6

Important point

You may have found out that with some calculators, the sequence in
Examples 5.10 and 5.11 does not work. This happens because different
calculators are programmed differently. It is important, therefore, that you
study the manual of your calculator know how it works

Exercise 5.3
1. Find the squares by estimation
(a) 3
(b) 4.5
(c) 25.8
(d) 55
(e) 720
(f) 3 150
(g) 0.031 7
(h) 318
(i) 70.8
 (j) 30.08
2. Use a calculator to find the squares of the numbers in Questions a to
x.
(a) 8
(b) 39
(c) 839
(d) 8.39
(e) 5.34
(f) 669
(g) 7.432
(h) 446.9
(i) 0.851 6
(j) 5.276 4
(k) 0.504 3
(l) 0.092 7
(m) 38.426
(n) 8341
(o) 59 648
(p) 0.064 72
(q) 100.7
(r) 0.899 98
(s) 99.99
(t) 530 829
(u) 0.07 264
(v) 9.090 11
(w) 0.020 67
(x) 227.84
3. Use calculators to find the value of a2 – b2 if
(a) a = 43.2 and b = 21.9
(b) a = 0.724 and b = 0.516
(c) a = 8.72 and b = 5.41

4. (a) Find the square of 228

(i) by estimation,
(ii) using a calculator
(b) Find the difference between your answers in part (a)
 above.

Square roots
If x and y are numbers such that y 2 = x, we say that y is the square root of x,
written as y =
For example:

This pattern continues indefinitely.

We know that and 36 = 4 × 9.

In general,

Square roots of numbers by estimation

Example 5.12
Find the square root of 30 by estimation

Solution
30 lies between 25 and 36.
∴ lies between 5 and 6
Taking a rough estimate of as 5.5, we get 5.52 = 30.25.
Since 30 is less than 30.25, then lies between 5 and 5.5 and is
closer to 5.5 than 5.
To get a better estimate of , we take a rough estimate as 5.45
5.452 = 29.702 5 which is closer to 30.
Hence ≈ 5.45

Finding square roots of numbers using a calculator

Example 5.13 illustrates the use of a calculator in finding square roots of
numbers.

Example 5.13
Use a calculator to find the square roots of the following numbers.
(a) 49 263
(b) 0.000 18

Solution
(a) The procedure is as follows: Press , key in 49 263, press The
answer obtained is 221.952 697 7
(b) The procedure is as follows: Press , key in 0.000 18, press
The answer obtained is 0.013 416 407.

Note: Study the manual of your calculator to know how it works.

Exercise 5.4
1. Use estimation to find the square roots of the following.
(a) 69
(b) 220
(c) 580
(d) 1 300
(e) 780
(f) 3 970
2. Find the square roots of the following.
(a) 0.09
(b) 0.64
(c) 0.81
(d) 0.004 9
(e) 1.21
 (f) 2.56
(g) 1.69
(h) 2.25
3. (a) Given that a = 16 and b = 9, evaluate
(i)
(ii)
What do you notice?
(b) Given that a = 25 and b = 16, evaluate
(i)
(ii)
(c) What do you notice? Are your observations in (a) and (b)
always true.
4. Write down the value of
5. State the two immediate perfect squares between which the
following numbers lie.
(a) 2.54
(b) 44.6
(c) 4.977
(d) 51.32
(e) 15.663
(f) 67.45
6. Use a calculator to evaluate the square roots of the following.
(a) 25.7
(b) 8.84
(c) 41.84
(d) 96.62
(e) 32.32
(f) 59.7
(g) 94.36
(h) 50.7
(i) 4.007 4
7. Using a calculator, evaluate the square roots of the following.
(a) 562.4
 (b) 8 161
(c) 3 274
(d) 842
(e) 9 216
(f) 4 040
(g) 12 544
(h) 51 984
(i) 213 44
8. Use a calculator to solve the following;
(a) If x 2 = 130, find x
(b) If c = evaluate c given that a = 7 and b = 12.
(c) If p = and a = 9 and b = 11, calculate the value of p
correct to 1 decimal place.

Cube and cube root

Cubes

Activity 5.2
Study the number pattern 1, 8, 27, 64. State the next five terms. Compare
your answers with those of other members of your class and discuss how
you arrived at your answers.
From your discussion, you should have noticed that each of the numbers can
be written as a product of three identical numbers; that is, multiplying a
number by itself thrice.
i.e. 1 = 1 × 1 × 1 = 13
8 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 23
27 = 3 × 3 × 3 = 33
64 = 4 × 4 × 4 = 43

Numbers such as 1, 8, 27, 64……are known as cubes .

Finding cubes by estimation

The cubes of the first 10 natural numbers are
1 × 1 × 1 = 13 = 1
2 × 2 × 2 = 23 = 8
3 × 3 × 3 = 33 = 27
4 × 4 × 4 = 43 = 64
5 × 5 × 5 = 53 = 125
6 × 6 × 6 = 63 = 216
7 × 7 × 7 = 73 = 343
8 × 8 × 8 = 83 = 512
9 × 9 × 9 = 93 = 729
10 × 10 × 10 = 103 = 1 000

Example 5.14
Find the cube of 13. by estimation

Solution
13 lies between 10 and 20
103 = 1 000 and 203 = 8 000
Thus 133 lies between 1 000 and 8 000
since 13 ≈ 10 (1 s.f)
then 133 ≈ 1 000

Finding cubes using a calculator

Example 5.15
Use a calculator to find the cube of 0.015.

Solution
The procedure is as follows:
Key in 0.015, press , press
The answer obtained is 3.375 × 10–6 .
Note : The answer obtained is in standard form.
A number is said to be written in standard or scientific form if it is written as
A × 10n, where 1 ≤ A ≥ 10 and n is an integer.

Note : Study the manual of your calculator to know how it works

Exercise 5.5
1. Find the cube of each of the following numbers by estimation.
(a) 2.3
(b) 5.4
(c) 52.0
(d) 79
2. Use a calculator to find the cubes of the numbers.
(a) 7
(b) 29
(c) 398
(d) 1 238
(e) 3.891
(f) 0.817
(g) 0.002 5
(h) 0.206 388
(i) 6.831 9
(j) 3.999 9
(k) 80.901
(l) 288.48
3. Use a calculator to evaluate x3 + y3 given that
(a) x = 63.2 and y = 41.9,
(b) x = 0.842 1 and y = 0.615 8,
(c) x = 9.872 and y = 4.518 7.

Cube roots
If a and b are two non-zero numbers such that a 3 = b, we say that a is the
cube root of b, written as a = . For example,
2 × 2 × 2 = 23 = 8 ⇒ 2 = and
– 3 × – 3 × – 3 = – 33 = – 27 ⇒ – 3 = .
Cube roots of numbers by estimation

Example 5.16
Find the cube root of 25 by estimation

Solution
since 23 = 8 and 33 = 27
lies between 2 and 3
25 is nearer 27 than 8 thus, we take a rough estimate nearer 3 than 2 as 2.8
2.83 = 21.952, thus lies between 2.8 and 3 we now take an estimate of
2.9.
2.93 = 24.389
Thus ≈ 2.9

Cube roots of numbers using a calculator

Example 5.17
Use a calculator to find the cube root of the following numbers.
(a) 36
(b) 0.000 731 9

Solution
(a) The procedure is as follows:
Press press , key in 36, then press .
The answer obtained is 3.301 927 249
(b) The procedure is as follows:
Press , press , key in 0.000 731 9, then press .
The answer obtained is 0.009 011 918 3

Note : study the manual of the calculator to know how it works.

Exercise 5.6
1. Use estimation to find the cube root of
(a) 225
(b) 350
(c) 648
(d) 576
2. Each of the numbers given in this question lies between two
consecutive perfect cubes. In each case, state the two cubes.
(a) 5.831
(b) 85.76
(c) 985.3
(d) 503.77
3. Use a calculator to evaluate
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
4. Use a calculator to evaluate
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
5. (a) Given that x3 = 158, find x.
(b) If a = 8 and b = 14, evaluate
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
 6 DIRECTED NUMBERS

In Chapter 1, we studied a group of numbers called natural or counting

numbers. We also learnt about a wider group of numbers known as integers.
We shall now use the number line to carry out the operations of addition and
subtraction of integers.

Directed numbers (integers)

In chapter I we represented positive and negative numbers on a number line.
We will review this then perform operations of +, –, ÷ and ×.

Negative and positive numbers are called directed numbers because

they carry signs which show their directions from zero . Whole directed
numbers, together with zero, are called integers . Directed numbers that
express part of a whole are not integers,
e.g. etc. are not integers.

Fig. 6.1 shows a number line of integers. It is helpful to think of it as sloping

upwards from left to the right as the numbers increase in value. For example,
+ 2 has greater value than – 5, i.e. + 2 is greater than – 5, or – 5 has less value

than + 2, i.e. – 5 is less than + 2.

The phrases ‘greater than’ and ‘less than’ can be replaced by the symbols >
and < respectively.
Thus + 2 > – 5 means + 2 is greater than – 5 and – 5 < + 1 means – 5 is less
than + 1.
Note: The narrow end of the symbol always points to the smaller number.
 Fig.6.1: A number line sloping upward to show increase in value

Operations on integers

Addition involving negative integers

To add a positive integer using a number line, start from the first number
and move right a number of steps equal to the integer being added.
To add a negative integer , start from the first number and move left a
number of steps equal to the integer being added.

Example 6.1
Perform the addition:
(a) – 4 + 6
(b) 5 + – 7
(c) – 2 + – 3

Solution
 Fig. 6.2

So, – 4 + 6 = 2.
Since 6 – 4 = 2, then – 4 + 6 =6+–4
=6–4

(Order does not matter in addition)

Fig. 6.3

So, 5 + – 7 = – 2.
Since 5 – 7 = – 2
then 5 + – 7 = 5 – 7
= – (7 – 5)
=–2

(Subtract the smaller number from the larger one and change the sign of the
answer).

Fig. 6.4

So – 2 + – 3 = – 5 (Two negative numbers must add up to a negative).

Note:
(a) If the sum of two numbers is zero (0), the numbers are said to be
addition inverses of each other, e.g. 5 is the addition inverse of – 5
and vice versa.
(b) If we add zero (0) to any number, the number remains the same.
Zero (0) is said to be the addition identity .
Exercise 6.1
1. Copy and complete the following number pattern.
6 + (+ 4) = 10
6 + (+ 2) = 8
6+0=6
6 + (– 2) =
6 + (– 4) =
6 + (– 6) =
6 + (– 8) =
2. Using a number line, work out the following.
(a) 4 + – 3
(b) 9 + – 8
(c) 9 + – 15
(d) – 3 + 6
(e) – 4 + 8
(f) – 2 + – 7
(g) – 6 + – 5
(h) – 3 + + 3
3. What must be added to
(a) 3 to make 7
(b) – 1 to make 3
(c) 15 to make 5
(d) 2 to make – 7
(e) – 30 to make – 22
(f) 24 to make – 2?
4. Copy and complete the addition Table 6.1 .
 Table 6.1

5. Copy and fill in the boxes in the following.

(a) 2 + = 5
(b) + 4 = 7
(c) 6 – 2 + 4 =
(d) 3 + + 2 = 9
(e) 5 + 3 – = 3
(f) 6 + = 6

Subtraction involving negative numbers

Consider 5 – 2. This is the same as asking, ‘what must be added to 2 to make
5?’
Since 2 + 3 = 5, then 5 – 2 = 3.
Similarly, 6 – – 3 is the same as asking, ‘what must be added to ‘– 3 to make
6?’. Since – 3 + 9 = 6 (Fig. 6.5 ), then the answer is 9, i.e. 6 – – 3 = 9.
 Fig. 6.5

This is the same as adding 3 to 6, i.e.

6––3=6+3=9
Now consider – 7 = – 4 +
We have to find the number that must be added to – 4 to make – 7. This is – 3
(since if we start at – 4, we move 3 steps to the left to stop at – 7 (Fig. 6.6 ).

Fig. 6.6

Thus, – 7 – – 4= – 3, which is the same as adding 4 to – 7, i.e.

–7 – – 4 = –7 + 4 = – 3.
Note that:

Subtracting a negative number from any number is the same as adding

the equivalent positive number.

An alternative approach, when subtracting a number from another using the

number line is:
1. Locate the two numbers on the number line.
2. Find the difference between the two numbers.
3. Determine the direction you move from the second number to the
 first. If to the right , the answer is positive and if to the left , it is
negative

Example 6.2
Use the number line to perform the following subtractions.
(a) 5 – – 2
(b) – 5 – + 2
(c) – 8 – – 3
(d) Temperature in a freezer rose from – 10° to – 2°. What is the rise in
temperature?

Solution

Fig. 6.7

So, 5 – – 2 = 7.
Since 5 + 2 = 7, then 5 – – 2 = 5 + 2.

Fig. 6.8

So – 5 – + 2 = – 7 (negative answer since + 2 > – 5)

Since – 5 + – 2 = – 7, then – 5 – + 2 = – 5 + – 2.
 Fig. 6.9

So, – 8 – – 3 = – 5 (since – 3 > – 8)

Since – 8 + 3 = – 5, then – 8 – – 3 = – 8 + 3

Fig. 6.10

So, – 10 – – 2 = – 8 (since – 2 > – 8)

Since – 10 + 2 = – 8, then – 10 – – 2 = – 10 + 2

Exercise 6.2
1. Copy and complete the following number pattern.
–4–+4=–8

–4–+2=–6
–4–0=–4
–4––2=
–4––4=
–4––6=
–4––8=

2. Using a number line, work out the following.

(a) 5 – 2
(b) 3 – 7
 (c) – 3 – 6
(d) – 6 – 2
(e) – 3 – – 5
(f) – 8 – – 1
3. Copy and complete the subtraction Table 6.2 .

Table 6.2

4. Work out the following.

(a) 4 – 2
(b) 8 – 6
(c) 9 –10
(d) 7 – 12
(e) 5 – – 3
(f) 6 – – 7
(g) 8 – – 10
(h) – 2 – – 5
(i) – 6 – – 12
(j) – 10 – – 3
(k) – 24 – – 17
(l) – 3 – 4
(m) – 13 – 7
 (n) 0 – 4
(o) 0 – – 3
5. Evaluate the following by first changing the subtraction into
addition.
(a) + 3 – 8
(b) – 5 – (– 6)
(c) – 5 – + 5
(d) 9 – 6
(e) – 5 – (– 3)
(f) – 8 – – 6
(g) 9 – – 4
(h) 6 – (– 9)
6. Write down the answers to the following.
(a) 2 – – 2
(b) – 2 – (– 2)
(c) – 2 – 2
(d) 0 – 5
(e) (– 3) – 0
(f) 0 – – 5
7. Work out the following.
(a) 2 + – 3 + 6
(b) 8 + 9 + – 10
(c) 4 + – 15 + 8
(d) – 5 + – 4 + 12
(e) – 9 + 15 + – 3
8. Evaluate the following.
(a) 15 – 16 – 10
(b) 8 – 5 – (– 2)
(c) 39 – 12 – (– 29)
(d) 12 – (– 15) – (– 1)
9. Work out the following by first changing the addition into
 subtraction.
(a) 4 + – 3
(b) 9 + – 8
(c) 9 + – 15
(d) – 3 + 6
10. Simplify the following.
(a) – 3 – 4 + 10
(b) – 8 + 12 – (– 2)
(c) + 3 – (+ 7) + (– 2)
(d) – 3 – – 4 – – 10

Multiplication of integers

Multiplication of numbers can be treated as repeated addition or

grouping .
For example, 3 × 5 means 3 groups of 5 i.e. 3 × 5 = 5 + 5 + 5 = 15.
Also, 5 × 3 means 5 groups of 3 i.e. 5 × 3 = 3 + 3 +3 + 3 +3 = 15.
Thus, 3 × 5 = 5 × 3 i.e. order does not matter in multiplication. We say
that multiplication of numbers is commutative .

Example 6.3
Work out 3 × – 5

Solution
3 × – 5 = 3 groups of – 5
= – 5 + – 5 + – 5 = – 15.
Also, – 5 × 3 = – 15 (since order does not matter)

Study the number patterns below:

Pattern (a) Pattern (b)
+ 3 × +2 = + 6 +3×–2=–6
+2×+2=+4 +2×–2=–4
+1×+2=+2 +1×–2=–2
 0×+2=0 0×–2=0
–1×+2=–2 –1×–2=2
–2×+2=–4 –2×–2=4
–3×+2=6 –3×–2=6
–4×+2=–8 –4×–2=8

In both patterns (a) and (b),

(1) when both numbers are positive, the product is positive.
(2) when one number is negative, the product is negative.
(3) when both numbers are negative, the product is positive.

Thus:

The product of two numbers with like signs is positive while that of two
numbers with unlike signs is negative .

Exercise 6.3
1. Copy and complete the following number patterns.
(a) 5 × 4 = 20 –1×4=
4 × 4 = 16 –2×4=
3 × 4 = 12 –3×4=
2×4= –4×4=
1×4= –4×4=
0×4= –5×4=
(b) 5 × – 2 = – 10 –1×–2=

4×–2=–8 –2×–2=

3×–2=–6 –3×–2=

2×–2= –4×–2=

1×–2= –5×–2=

0×–2=
(c) – 5 × 5 = – 25 –5×0=
– 5 × 4 = – 20 –5×–1=
–5×3= –5×–2=
–5×2= –5×–3=
–5×1= –5×–4=

2. Work out the following.

(a) (– 3) × (+ 7)
(b) + 4 × – 6
(c) – 15 × 3
(d) 13 × – 9
(e) – 6 × 8
(f) – 8 × 5
(g) 7 × – 5
 (h) – 9 × + 9
3. Evaluate the following.
(a) (– 3) × (– 2)
(b) – 4 × – 6
(c) – 11 × – 5
(d) – 8 × – 5
4. Copy and complete the multiplication Table 6.3 .

Table 6.3

5. Work out the following.

(a) – 3 × – 4 × 2
(b) – 5 × 4 × – 3
(c) (+ 2) × (– 7) × 3
(d) – 6 × – 2 × –3

Division of integers
We know that:
(+ 3) × (+ 4) = + 12
(– 3) × (– 4) = + 12
(+ 3) × (– 4) = – 12
 (– 3) × (+ 4) = – 12
Division simply means the reverse of multiplication e.g. 6 ÷ 2 is the same as
asking ‘What number multiplied by 2 gives 6?’
Thus,
(+ 12) ÷ (+ 3) = + 4 since (+ 3) × (+ 4) = (+ 12)
(– 12) ÷ (-3) = + 4 since (– 3) × (+ 4) = (– 12)
(+ 12) ÷ (-3) = – 4 since (– 3) × (– 4) = (+ 12)
(– 12) ÷ (+ 3) = – 4 since (+ 3) × (– 4) = (– 12)

Note that:

The quotient (i.e. result of division) of two numbers with like signs is
positive while that of two numbers with unlike signs is negative .

Example 6.4
Divide (a) – 24 by 3.
(b) – 18 by 6.

Solution
(a) – 24 ÷ 3 = – 8 since – 8 × 3 = – 24
(b) – 18 ÷ – 6 = 3 since – 6 × 3 = – 18

Exercise 6.4
1. Divide
(a) (+ 10) by (+ 2)
(b) 42 by 6
(c) 126 by 9
(d) 1 by 1
(e) – 140 by – 20
(f) ( – 24) by ( – 8)
2. Evaluate
(a) 16 ÷ 2
 (b) 90 ÷ 10
(c) ( – 96) ÷ (+ 4)
(d) – 125 ÷ 25
3. Work out
(a) 50 ÷ – 25
(b) 36 ÷ – 9
(c) 24 ÷ – 8
(d) (+ 96) ÷ ( – 4)
4. Simplify the following:
(a) ( – 2) × (+ 12) ÷ – 6
(b) ( – 6) × ( – 10) ÷ ( – 4)
(c) – 28 ÷ (+ 7) × – 3
5. Copy and fill in the boxes in the following:
(a) 12 ÷ = – 2
(b) – 27 ÷ = 3
(c) ÷ (+ 4) = – 6
(d) ÷ – 5 = + 7

Order of operations and brackets

Addition and subtraction

Consider 23 – 7 – 2
Do we
(i) Subtract 7 from 23 and then subtract 2 from the result, or
(ii) Subtract 2 from 7 and then subtract the result 5 from 23?

We need to know the order in which the operations are to be carried out.
A way of doing this is to use brackets , and work out what is in brackets
first.
If the operations are to be carried out as in (i), we would write (23 – 7) –
 2.
If the operations are to be carried out as in (ii), we would write 23 – (7 –
2).
Normally, however, we do the operations in the order in which we read
them , so that 23 – 7 – 2 means ‘start with 23, take away 7, then take
away 2’ which gives the value 14.
Thus, 23 – 7 – 2 means (23 – 7) – 2 and not 23 – (7 – 2). In the same
way,
22 – 5 + 6 = (22 – 5) + 6 = 23
19 – 6 + 2 = (19 – 6) + 2 = 15
4 – 9 + 11 = (4 – 9) + 11 = 6

Work out the following pairs:

(i) 23 + (7 + 11), 23 + 7 + 11
(ii) 23 – (9 + 15), 23 – 9 + 15
(iii) 23 + (7 – 11), 23 + 7 – 11
(iv) 23 – (9 – 15), 23 – 9 – 15
In which pair(s) are the results the same?
Is 16 + (11 – 5) the same as 16 + 11 – 5?
Conclusion: The ommission of brackets makes a difference only when we
are subtracting what is in brackets.

Multiplication and division

Work out the following pairs:
(i) 24 ÷ (2 × – 3), (24 ÷ 2) × – 3
(ii) 24 ÷ (4 ÷ 2), (24 ÷ 4) ÷ 2
(iii) 4 × (3 × – 2), (4 × 3) × – 2
(iv) 24 × (4 ÷ – 2), (24 × 4) ÷ – 2
In which pair(s) are the results the same?
Is 12 × (4 ÷ 2) the same as (12 × 4) ÷ 2?
Is 12 ÷ (4 × 2) the same as (12 ÷ 4) × 2?
Is 12 ÷ (4 ÷ 2) the same as (12 ÷ 4) ÷ 2?
Again, we see that different positions of brackets can give different answers.
Thus,
 We normally do the operations of multiplication and division in the
order in which we read them , so that
12 × 4 ÷ 2 means ‘start with 12, multiply by 4 and then divided by 2’ i.e.
12 × 4 ÷ 2 = (12 × 4) ÷ 2.
24 ÷ 4 × 2 means ‘start with 24, divide by 4 and then multiply by 2’ i.e.
24 ÷ 4 × 2 = (24 ÷ 4) × 2.
Note: If multiplication comes before division, we can do the operations
in that order, or do division first and then multiply. However, if division
comes before multiplication, the operations should be done strictly in the
order we read them.
Note: If division is followed by division, we do the divisions in the order
we read them, e.g. 32 ÷ 8 ÷ 2 = (32 ÷ 8) ÷ 2 = 2 and not 32 ÷ (8 ÷ 2) = 8.

Combining addition or subtraction with multiplication or division

5000 – 300 × 2 is understood to mean

5000 – (300 × 2) and not (5000 – 300) × 2, i.e.
we do the multiplication before the subtraction.

If there are no brackets, we do multiplication (and division) before

addition (and subtraction). If there is doubt, it is better to put the brackets
in, so that
7 + 2 × 3 means 7 + (2 × 3)
3 × 4 + 2 means (3 × 4) + 2,
72 ÷ 2 + 6 means (72 ÷ 2) + 6,
4 × 3 – 8 ÷ 2 means (4 × 3) – (8 ÷ 2)

Exercise 6.5
1. Which of the following are correct?
(a) 27 + 7 – 3 = (27 + 7) – 3
(b) 27 – 7 – 3 = 27 – (7 – 3)
(c) 27 + 7 × 3 = (27 + 7) × 3
 (d) 27 × 7 + 3 = (27 × 7) + 3
(e) 27 ÷ 3 × – 2 = (27 ÷ 3) × – 2
(f) 27 × – 2 ÷ 3 = 27 × (– 2 ÷ 3)
2. Copy and complete the following by putting in signs to make them
correct.
(a) 14 + 10 – 2 = 14 (10 2)
(b) 14 – 12 – 3 = 14 (12 3)
(c) 12 + 8 + – 9 = 12 (8 – 9)
(d) 12 – 6 + 7 = 12 (6 7)
3. Write the following expressions without brackets.
(a) 16 + (1 + 5)
(b) 25 + (8 – 3)
(c) 9 – (6 + 12)
(d) 3 × 2 – (7 – 4)
4. Find the value of:
(a) – 2 × 3 + 5
(b) – 2 – 3 × 5
(c) – 2 × – 2 + 3
(d) – 2 × 5 ÷ 2 + – 2
(e) – 2 × – 2 + 3 × 3 – 5 ÷ 5
5. Simplify:
(a) – 5 × (– 2 + – 8)
(b) – 6 × (– 3 × – 5)
(c) 12 × (– 7 + 7)
(d) (– 2 × – 3) + (– 5 × – 5)
(e) (4 × – 4) – (– 6 × + 7)

Removing brackets
Brackets are used to indicate which part of an expression must be worked out
first.

If a positive sign occurs before brackets containing only + or – signs,

 then the ommission of brackets does not alter the result.
i.e. 7 + (3 + 2) = 7 + 3 + 2;
7 + (3 – 2) = 7 + 3 – 2

Now work out the following pairs:

(i) 7 – (3 + 2), 7 – 3 – 2
(ii) 7 – (3 – 1), 7 – 3 + 1
(iii) 7 – (3 + 2), 7 – 3 – 2
(iv) 7 – (3 – 1), 7 – 3 + 1
You must have discovered that:

If a negative sign occurs before brackets, then the brackets may be

removed and the operation inside altered as follows:
18 – (5 + 3) = 18 – 5 – 3;
18 – (5 – 3) = 18 – 5 + 3.

Example 6.5
Work out (a) 101 – (100 +1)
(b) 101 – (100 – 1)

Solution
(a) 101 – (100 + 1) = 101 – 100 – 1 = 0
(b) 101 – (100 – 1) = 101 – 100 + 1 = 2

Mixed operations

When the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division

occur in the same expression without brackets, we do division first,
followed by multiplication, then addition and finally subtraction. This can
easily be remembered using the abbreviation DMAS .
Example 6.6
Simplify 39 – 5 + 6 × 8 ÷ 2

Solution
First divide 8 by 2: We get 39 – 5 + 6 × 4
Multiply 6 by 4: We get 39 – 5 + 24
Adding before subtraction: We get 63 – 5
Finally subtraction gives us 58

or

First divide 8 by 2. We get 39 – 5 + 6 × 4

Multiply 6 by 4. We get 39 – 5 + 24
Working in the order in which subtraction and addition occur we get 34 + 24
= 58.

Exercise 6.6
1. Copy and complete the multiplication Table 6.4 .
 Table 6.4

2. Use the completed Table 6.4 to show that:

(a) 7 × 9 = 7(10 – 1) = 7 × 10 – 7 × 1
(b) 6 × 7 = (5 + 1)7 = 5 × 7 + 1 × 7
3. Work out the following products by first introducing brackets.
(a) 98 × 73
(b) 46 × 999
(c) 102 × 56
(d) 33 × 1 003
4. State the products of the following (Hint: Identify the pair that gives
a product which easily multiplies with the third number):
(a) 2 × 9 × 5
(b) 4 × 78 × 25
5. Use the completed Table 6.4 to find:
(a) 7 × 16
(b) 9 × 17
(c) 13 × 15
(d) 18 × 16
(you will have to split the 16)
6. Work out by first removing the brackets, then check your answers by
evaluating what is within the brackets first.
(a) – 8(10 – 1)
(b) 5(– 10 + 2)
(c) 30 + – 2(– 1 – 4)
7. Evaluate the following by removing the brackets first.
(a) 8 + (4 + 6)
(b) 8 – (4 + 6)
(c) – 8 – (4 – 6)
(d) – 8 – (– 4 + – 6)
(e) 8 – 2(– 4 + 6)
8. Evaluate
 (a) 18 ÷ – 2 × 3
(b) – 24 × 36 ÷ – 9
(c) – 12 ÷ – 2 ÷ – 3
9. Simplify
(a) – 2 × + 15 ÷ – 6
(b) – 6 × – 8 ÷ – 6
(c) + 9 × + 12 ÷ – 3
10. (a) What number gives – 8, when divided by 3?
(b) What number divides 40 to give – 8?
11. Calculate
(a) 56 – 7 × 8 ÷ 4
(b) 56 – 7(8 ÷ 4)
(c) 56 – (7 × 8) ÷ 4
(d) 56 – [(7 × 8) ÷4]
(e) (56 – 7) × 8 ÷ 4
(f) (56 – 7)(8 ÷ 4)
12. Simplify the following by first removing the brackets.
(a) 30 – (14 – 8)
(b) 25 – (– 8 + 2)
(c) 16 – (– 8 – – 4)
13. Copy and insert the missing signs or numbers to make the following
statements true.
(a) 10 – 8 – ___ = 10 – (8 __ 1)
(b) 12 – (___ – – 4) = 12 – 6 ___ 4
(c) (9 – 1) – (6 __ 2) = 4
(d) (18 – ___) – (10 ___ 3) = 10
14. Evaluate
(a) 3 × 4 + 18 ÷ – 3
(b) 12 ÷ 6 + 8 × 3 + – 4 + 2
(c) – 2 × 3 + – 8
(d) – 3 × – 8 ÷ (4 + – 2)
 (e) 8 × 4 – 2 × 4 + 21 ÷ 3
(f) 90 ÷ – 6 + (8 × 15) – 14 × – 5
15. Work out
(a) 3 × – 2 – 3
(b) – 2 × 4 ÷ 4 – 3
(c) – 2 × 3 × 4 – 3
(d) 2 × 4 – 3 × – 2 + 3
(e) 2 × 12 × – 2 × 3 – 4

Operations on larger integers

Addition and subtraction

It is easy to add or subtract small numbers using a number line. However, for
larger integers using a number line is not practical. We therefore need to
know how to add or subtract numbers by arranging them columnwise by
place value.

Example 6.7
Work out (a) 348 + 75
(b) 5 083 – 567

Solution

Exercise 6.7
1. Work out the following.
(a) 38 + 82
(b) 248
+ 59
726
 (c) 633
+ 615
743

2. Calculate the following.

(a) 87 – 32
(b) 1 083 – 767
(c) 1 000 – 4 283
(d) 20 827 – 9 308
3. Chafulumisa had 170 cows and 139 goats. He teamed up with
Chubale who had 165 cows and 44 goats. They sold 56 cows and 13
goats because the grazing field was small. How many animals of
each type did they remain with?
4. For subtraction from 100, 1 000, 10 000, etc., simply proceed as
follows.

Use this method to calculate the following.

(a) 100 – 87
(b) 1 000 – 647
(c) 10 000 – 5 382
(d) 6 000 – 1 264
5. Write down the answers to the following. (Hint: first add the pair
that will give a sum which adds easily with the third number).
(a) 9 + 7 + 1
(b) 36 + 78 + 64
(c) 102 + 327 + – 2
(d) 382 + 796 + 618
(e) 1 725 + – 568 + 4 568
 6. Work out
(a) 62 + – 45
(b) 29 – 69 – (– 40)
(c) 71 + – 58 + – 23
(d) 379 – 480
(e) – 273 + (+ 324)
(f) – 726 – (– 96)
Copy and fill in the boxes in Questions 7 and 8.
7. (a) – 3 201 + = – 943
(b) + 296 + + – 69 = 78
8. (a) – – 546 = 36
(b) – – 491 – 702 = – 111

Multiplication and division

Multiplication and division of integers are done in the same way as the
multiplication and division of natural numbers. However, when negative
integers are involved, disregard the sign(s) during the working and insert
the appropriate sign only after getting the result, recalling that two
numbers with like signs give a positive result while unlike signs give a
negative result.

Example 6.8
Evaluate (a) – 372 × 645 (b) – 2 784 ÷ 13

Solution
 (b) Divide as positive numbers:

Since unlike signs always give a negative quotient and a negative

remainder, then
– 2 784 ÷ 13 = – 214 rem – 2

Exercise 6.8
1. (a) Work out the following:
(i) 1 000 × 28
(ii) – 723 × 5 016
(iii) – 2 740 × – 59
(b) Work out the following stating the remainder if it exists.
(i) – 27 ÷ 8
(ii) 1 620 ÷ – 36
(iii) 4 004 ÷ 44
(iv) – 70 599 ÷ 485
(v) – 18 792 ÷ 87
2. Work out the following by doing multiplication first. Work them out
 again by taking the order of precedence of operations into
consideration.
(i) 5 × 8 ÷ 2
(ii) 36 × 42 ÷ 7
(iii) 18 × 425 ÷ 17
(a) Are the two answers the same?
(b) Which operation perfomed first, will make the work easier?
3. Evaluate
(a) 100 ÷ 10 × 5
(b) 72 ÷ 12 × 3
(c) 216 ÷ 24 × 9
4. Find the least number that must be
(a) subtracted from
(b) added to 4 651 to get a number divisible by 62.
5. When 1 597 is divided by a certain number,the quotient is 25 and the
remainder is 47. Find the number.
6. Thenga miscopied 98 as 89. He multiplied 89 by a certain number
and got 4 005. Find that number and the correct product.
7. Calculate how much could be received from 12 sacks of beans each
80 kg if packed in 1 kg packets each costing K 200.
8. 2 438 books are parcelled in groups of 10. The parcels are then
arranged in piles of 8. How many parcels are not in piles and how
many books are not parcelled?
9. A farmer has 63 goats and twenty times as many sheep. If the
number of sheep he has is thirty times the number of his chicken,
find the total number of legs of the animals (including those of
chicken).
10. Write true or false for each of the following statements and where
false, give an example to support your answer.
(a) The product of any negative number by zero is always zero.
(b) The product of two negative numbers is always positive.
(c) The product of zero and any positive number is always
positive.
 (d) The product of a negative number and a positive number is
always negative.
(e) If the product of two numbers is negative, then one of them
is negative and the other is positive.
(f) If the product of two numbers is positive, then both numbers
must be positive.
(g) If the product of two numbers is positive then both numbers
must be negative.
(h) If the product of two numbers is positive, either the two
numbers are both positive or they are both negative.

Application of integers
The knowledge of integers finds a lot of application in real life situations. In
such applications, measurements below zero are written as negative numbers
while those above zero are written as positive numbers. The words used, such
as left/right, above/below, east/west, etc., suggest a reference point as well as
what is positive or negative. For example, a temperature of 5°C below
freezing point is said to be – 5°C.

Example 6.9
On a certain day, the temperature at the top of Mulanje Mountains was –
10°C and down at Mkhoto was + 35°C. What was the difference between the
two temperatures?

Solution
Difference = 35°C – – 10°C = 45°C

Exercise 6.9
1. A man owes a bank K 10 000. Another has K 2 400 in the bank.
What is the difference in the deposits of the two men?
2. A lake is 1 340 m deep at its deepest point. The surface of the lake is
1 000 m above sea level. What is the height of the deepest point
above sea level?
3. A school in a semi-arid region sunk a bore hole 40 m deep. The
water was to be pumped into an overhead tank whose top is 20 m
above the ground. The level of water in the pipe when pumping
started was 30 m below the ground and it rose by 5 m every second
(Fig. 6.11 ).
(a) What is the vertical length of the pipe?

Fig. 6.11

(b) How long will it take for the water to start entering the tank?
(Ignore the horizontal distance travelled by the water).
(c) State the height of the water levels at intervals of 2 seconds
after the pumping started.
(d) How long will it take for the water level to rise from – 30 m
to 10 m above the ground?
4. Table 6.5 shows the Malawian education system that was completed
by various learners in December 1996.
Name Level
Mphatso Primary 2
Mabruto Primary 4
Kausiwa Primary 5
Mesi Primary 7
Kwayera Form 2
Mwai Form 3
Mleng Form 4

Table 6.5
 By taking completion of primary education as the reference point
(zero),
(a) illustrate the information in the table on a number line and
use the number line to work out the number of years.
(i) Mleng is ahead of Mesi.
(ii) Mphatso is behind Kausiwa.
(b) name the opposite pairs (i.e. one beyond Primary 7 just as
the other one is behind).
5. (a) If the temperature of a liquid changes from – 15°C to – 8°C, find
the rise in temperature.
(b) Town A is 250 m above sea level and point B is 25 m below
sea level. How far, vertically, is A above B?
(c) In a financial institution, if a pay-in is denoted by + and a
withdrawal by –, find the state of the account after the
following transactions:
+ K 8 300, – K 61.40, + K 280, – K 4 040

6. In a maths quiz, every correct answer scores 2 marks, – 1 mark for

every wrong answer, and no mark for no answer. The test has 30
questions.
(a) Find
(i) the maximum possible score,
(ii) the minimum possible score.
(b) If June has 20 correct answers, 8 wrong answers and 2 no
answers, what mark does she get?
(c) Mary scores 23 marks, having got 5 answers wrong. How
many answers does she get right?
7. At a meteorological station, temperatures are recorded (in degrees
Centigrade/Celcius) every three hours as in Table 6.6 .
(a) Copy the table and fill in the missing temperatures if the
temperature rose by
(i) 6°C between 6 a.m. and 9 a.m.
(ii) 12°C between 9 a.m. and noon.
(iii) 4°C between noon and 3 p.m.
(iv) 16°C between 3 p.m. and 6 p.m.
 (v) 6°C between 6 p.m. and 9 p.m.
(vi) – 5°C between 9 p.m. and midnight.

Table 6.6

(b) In which three hour period was

(i) the rise in temperature greatest?
(ii) the fall in temperature greatest?
8. An account is overdrawn by K 160 000. How much must be
deposited in order to have a credit of K 300 000?
9. An aircraft flying at a height of 1 500m above sea level lands on an
air field 600 m above sea level. What height does it loose on
landing?
10. What is the longitude difference between two places 70° W and 30°
E?
 1 – 6 REVISION EXERCISES 1

Revision exercise 1.1

1. (a) Write the following numbers in words.
(i) 370 204
(ii) 99 099 099
(b) Write the following numbers in figures.
(i) Nine million, two hundred and twenty three
thousand and thirty.
(ii) One hundred forty five million and one.
2. (a) State the place values of the digits in bold.
(i) 2 22 2 222
(ii) 33 4 443 343
(b) The value of digit 5 in bold in 545 55 4 555 is 5 × 10 000 =
50 000.
What is the value of the digit in bold in each of the
following?
(i) 91 911 119
(ii) 273 712
(iii) 3 03 455
(iv) 80 1 235 104
3. Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the following sets
(a) no girls are boys
(b) all sweet bananas are bananas
(c) some quadrilaterals are polygons.
4. Two sets A and B are such that η(A) = 12, η(A ∩ B) = 4 and η(B) =
10. Use a Venn diagram to find η(A ∪ B)
5. (a) Through what angle does the minute hand of a clock turn in
 (i) 18 min
(ii) 27 min
(iii) 42 min
(iv) h
(v) h
(vi) h?
(b) Through what angle does the hour hand of a clock turn in
(i) 20 min
(ii) 35 min
(iii) 55 min
(iv) h
(v) h
(vi) h?

6. Find the sizes of the angles marked by letters in Fig. R 1.1 .

Fig. R 1.1

7. Remove brackets and then simplify.

(a) 3m + 2(m + 2n)
(b) 7x –(5x + 2x)
(c) 5r – (r – 3r)
(d) 5t – 3(u + 2t)
(e) 2(x – 3y) + 3(x + y)
(f) (12p + 9q – 15r) – 3(p + q – r)
 8. One student got x marks in a test. Another student got 8 marks less.
If the first student got times of what the second one got, find how
many marks each got.
9. Express each of the following correct to the number of :
(i) decimal places;
(ii) Significant figures indicated in brackets
(a) 3.141 6 (2)
(b) 0.589 63 (3)
(c) 19.189 63 (4)
(d) 0.006 193 (2)
(e) 10.046 1(3)
(f) 4.078 66(4)
10. (a) Find the squares of the following using a scientific calculator.
(i) 11
(ii) 111
(iii) 2 024
(iv) 2.14
(v) 12.04
(vi) 23.056
(vii) 8.946 49
(viii) 0.924
(ix) 0.024 89
(x) 0.000 564 294
(b) Use estimation to find the square roots of
(i) 90
(ii) 44
(iii) 148
(iv) 194
11. Work out
(a) + 4 + – 6
(b) 6 + – 5
(c) + 5 – + 8
(d) – 5 – – 5
(e) – 7 + – 8 + + 12
 (f) – 7 – – 8 + – 12
(g) – 2 × – 4 × 5
(h) – 12 × 0
(i) (– 7)2
(j) – 5 × 2 × – 4
(k) 18 ÷ – 3
(l) 36 ÷ – 9
12. To make a pair of trousers, a tailor requires m of cloth. How
many pairs of trousers can the tailor make from m of cloth?

Revision exercise 1.2

1. Find the rational number represented by each of the following
numbers, where is in its simplest form.
(a) 0.625
(b) 3.25
(c) 0.04
(d) 5
(e) 4
(f)
(g)
(h)
2. Write true or false against each of the following statements.
(a) All real numbers are also integers.
(b) Integers greater than zero are also natural numbers.
(c) The set of real numbers is bigger than the set of natural
numbers.
(d) There is no rational number that belongs to the set of
integers.
(e) Irrational numbers are not real numbers.
3. A and B are intersecting subsets of a universal set E. Draw a Venn
diagram to represent:
(a) (A ∩ B)′
 (b) (A ∪ B)′
(c) A′ ∩ B
4. X, Y, Z are three sets such that Y ⊂ Z and X intersects both Y and
Z.
(a) Represent these sets in a Venn diagram
(b) Show by shading on the diagram the region X ∩ Y′ ∩ Z (4
marks)
5. Find the angles marked with letters in Figure R. 1.2 .

Fig. R 1.2

6. In Figure R 1.3 , find the value of

(a) x , y , and z
(b) x + y + z

Fig. R 1.3

7. Write down an expression for the sum of three consecutive.

(a) even numbers
(b) natural numbers
 8. A woman had a number of eggs in her basket. She sold three fifths
of them and three got broken. How many eggs were left in her
basket?
9. Round off each of the following to
(i) 2, 3 and 4 s.f.
(ii) 2, 3 and 4 d.p.
(a) 0.063 76
(b) 3.002 04
(c) 0.256 781
(d) 0.000 081
10. (a) Using a calculator, evaluate
(i) 1.53
(iii) 2.313
(ii) 4.813
(iv) 5.013
(b) Find the cube root of the following numbers by estimation
method.
(i) 61
(iii) 684
(ii) 300
(iv) 522
11. Farmer A harvested 710 mangoes and 390 oranges. Farmer B
harvested 641 oranges and 330 mangoes. They teamed up and sold
366 oranges and 450 mangoes. 240 mangoes and 74 oranges went
bad. How many fruits of each kind were they left with?
12. Simplify
(a)
(b) (– 5 ÷ 10) + (– 4 × 6)
(c) – 50 × (– 12 + – 18)
(d) – 40 + – 10 + – 8 + 30

Revision exercise 1.3

1. (a) Work out the following.
(i) 79.3 + 7.93 + 0.793
(ii) 80.5 – 8.05 – 0.805
(iii) 0.005 9 × 100
(iv) 20.05 ÷ 100
(v) 70.4 × 102
(vi) 70.4 ÷ 103
(b) Evaluate
(i) 0.35 × 0.008
(ii) 3.172 ÷ 0.52
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)

2. (a) Convert 1000110two to base five.

(b) Convert ab 112 to base 10 given that a represent 10 and b
represents 11.
(c) Evaluate (i) 4658 + 7568
3. In a residential estate, 100 heads of families were interviewed
regarding patronage of the social clubs A, B, C in their
neighborhood.
The results were as follows:
10 people said they patronise all the three,
17 patronise clubs A and B,
19 patronise B and C,
18 patronise A and C,
15 patronise A only,
18 patronise B only,
17 patronise C only,
Using a Venn diagram, find
(a) how many people patronise club A.
(b) how many patronise B and C but never A.
(c) how many people do not patronise any of the three clubs.
4. If E = {counting numbers from 1 to 6}
A = {1, 2, 5}
B = {x : 2 ≤ x ≥ 5}
List the elements of:
(a) A′
(b) B′
(c) A′ ∩ B′
(d) (A ∪ B)′
5. Find the angles marked with letters in Fig. R 1.4 .

Fig. R 1.4

6. (a) Find the complements of the following angles.

(i) 67°
(ii) 21°
(iii) 53°
(iv) 89°
(v) 39°
(vi) 73°
(b) Find the supplements of the following angles.
(i) 27°
(ii) 84°
(iii) 106°
(iv) 131°
 (v) 0°
(vi) 175°
7. Simplify
(a) 33y ÷ 11
(b)
(c) 8x – 7x + 5x
(d) 4d – 22d + 13d + l0d – 3d
(e) 9c + 10d – 5c – 4d
(f) 5x – 3y – 7x + 9y + 3x – 4y
8. Bob has 7 marbles more than Bill, who has m marbles.
(a) How many marbles does Bob have?
(b) Find how many marbles Bonnie has if he has b marbles less
than Bill.
(c) How many marbles do the three boys have altogether?
9. State the number of (i) decimal places
(ii) significant figures in
(a) 0.0321
(b) 810.074
(c) 76.3432
(d) 0.9
10. Find a rough estimate of:
(a) 40.26 ÷ 0.05
(b) 162 × 777
(c) 495 + 134
11. Evaluate
(a) 15 + (7 + 11)
(b) 15 + (7 – 11)
(c) 15 – (7 + 11)
(d) 15 – (7 – 11)
(e) 27 ÷ (3 × – 9)
(f) (– 27 ÷ 3) × – 9
(g) (12 × 4) ÷ – 2
(h) 12 × (4 ÷ – 2)
 (i) 36 ÷ – 9 × – 3
(j) – 36 × – 9 ÷ – 3
12. Carol borrowed K 150 000. She paid back K 25 000 in the first
month, K 15 000 in the second month and K 34 000 in the third
month. She paid the rest in equal amounts for two months. How
much did she pay for each of the last two months?
7 SOCIAL AND COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC

Commission
A person who sells goods to the public is known as a salesperson. A
salesperson’s wage depends on the value of goods he/she sells.
Many salespeople are paid a certain percentage of the value of the goods they
sell. This is called commission . The more the goods they sell, the more
commission they get.

Example 7.1
In one month, a motor vehicle saleslady sold 3 motor vehicles, one at K 3
million, another at K 1.5 million and the other at K 0.4 million. If he is paid
a commission of 7%, how much did he get?

Solution
Total value of vehicle sold
= K 3 + K 1.5 m + K 0.4 m
= K 4.9 million

= K 0.343 m

Example 7.2
Calculate a % commission on a sale of goods worth K 420 112

Solution
Value of the goods sold is K 420 112 Commission is % of the value

Thus commission =
= 31 508.40
Commission is K 31 508.40
Exercise 7.1
1. Calculate the amount of commission, in kwacha,
(a) at 8% on K 7 200 worth of sales
(b) at 7 % on $ 3 500 worth of sales
2. Find the commission percent in the following.
Commission Sales
(a) K 4 000 K 200 000
(b) K 7 812 K 111 600
(c) K 1 536 K 51 200
(d) K 1 296 K 14 400

3. Mr. Chavula earns a commission as follows: 5% on sales up to K 12

000 worth of goods 10% on additional sales from K 12 000 to K 48
000
15% on additional sales in excess of K 48 000
Find his commission on sales worth K 72 000.
4. A salesman sold goods worth K 53 920 and received a commission
of K 1 618. What was the rate of commission?
5. Lydia received K 4 320 commission on newspaper sales. Her rate of
commission was 20%. How much worth of newspapers did he sell?
6. Mr. Bulla receives a salary of K 40 000 per month plus a
commission of 10% on all sales over K 1 200 000. Last month, his
sales amounted to K 1 700 000. How much did he earn?
7. A show ticket seller gets a commission of K 20 on every ticket that
he sells. If he got K 26 400, how many tickets did he sell? If this
commission is 2%, what is the sale price of each ticket?

Taxation
Taxation is the means by which a central government of any country raises
funds to finance its spending such as defence, health, education and so on.
Taxation is levied annually on all individuals and companies who earn an
income either by employment or business or any other means that generates
an income. In Malawi, a government institution called Malawi Revenue
Authority (MRA) is mandated to collect taxes and review the tax rules
whenever it is necessary. There are two major categories of tax namely direct
and indirect tax. Two examples of direct taxes are Income Tax and Pay-as-
you-earn (PAYE) .

Direct taxes

Income tax
This is a tax payable by individuals, companies, partnerships and sole
proprietors assessed on the income generated. The total amount which an
individual or a company earns is called gross income . Before tax is
calculated, some deductions may be made from the gross income and tax is
then calculated on the remaining amount. The amount on which the tax is
calculated is called the taxable income .

Thus:
Taxable income = gross income – allowable deductions, plus any other
employment benefit

Tax rates
Individual tax payers are assessed using graduated scale rates. Table 7.1
below shows the income tax rates applicable in Malawi.
Income tax levied on companies, is charged at a constant rate of 30%.
Taxable income in Kwacha Rate of tax
ANNUAL
1st 144 000 0%
Next 36 000 15%
Excess of 180 000 30%
MONTHLY
1st 12 000 0%
Next 3 000 15%
Excess of 15 000 30%
FORTNIGHTLY
1st 5 538.46 0%
Next 1 384.62 15%
Excess of 6 923.08 30%
WEEKLY
1st 2 769.23 0%
Next 692.31 15%
Excess of 3 461.54 30%

Table 7.1

1. Earnings in Malawian Kwacha are either yearly, monthly,

fortnightly or weekly, hence PAYE can be paid accordingly.
2. Any other allowance (income) i.e. house allowance, is grossed up
(added) with the basic pay then taxed using the above rates.
3. Income from non-local sources is not taxed.

Example 7.3
Kamageni earns a salary of K 26 000 per month. How much tax does he
pay?

Solution
From PAYE Tax Table
Tax on first K 12 000 at 0% = 0
Tax on next K 3 000 at 15% = K 450
Tax on remaining K (2 6000 – 1 5000)
= 11 000 × 30% = K 3 300
= K 3 750

PAYE
This tax is deducted by the employers from their employees’ salaries every
month. This money is then remitted to the Malawi Revenue Authority. It
therefore forms another category of direct tax. What the employee receives
after PAYE is deducted is called net salary .
Other sources of taxable income include: royalties, dividends, interest,
professional fees and so on.

Indirect taxes
Indirect taxes are levied on goods and services. Examples of such taxes
include; value added tax (VAT), excise tax, stamp duty, withholding tax etc.
VAT is charged at 16.5%. The details concerning rates of these taxes are
detailed in the country’s tax guidelines.
Exercise 7.2
1. Find the tax due by the following:
(a) A man with an income of K 25 000 per month.
(b) A person who earns K 36 500 per month.
(c) A worker who earns K 3 500 per week.
(d) A person on contract earning K 50 000 fortnightly.
2. A businesslady earns K 336 000 per month. She pays her tax
monthly and repays a loan at the rate of K 15 000 per month. How
much is she left with?
3. Malavi has a monthly salary of K 30 400 and gets a house allowance
of K 1 700 and bonus of K 2 400 monthly. How much tax does he
pay?
4. Mr Jones works with an international organisation and is paid in US
dollars. Annually, he is paid US$ 100 000 as salary, US$ 20 000
bonus, US$ 10 000 living allowance, US$ 12 000 house allowance,
US$ 5 000 interest income from non-local sources.
How much tax does he pay annually?
(Use: US$ 1 = Malawi Kwacha 150)
5. Masamba pays K 22 950 as tax from his salary. How much is he
paid as salary?
6. Find the tax due by:
(a) A man who earns K 50 000 per month
(b) A person whose income is K 73 000 per month

Insurance
A home is probably one of the most expensive purchases a person can make.
To enable a person to protect himself against risks of heavy loses, the owner
makes annual payments to an insurance company so that the company can
compensate the owner should the risk occur. The owner is paid a sum of
money at which the damage or loss is assessed. The sum to cover the risk is
paid annually and is called the premium . The contract signed between the
company and the insurer is called the insurance policy . The premium is
calculated based on the value insured and the likelihood of the risk occurring.

Points to note
1. It is illegal to knowingly insure a property for more than its
value.
2. It is illegal to insure against a risk in which the insurer has no
financial interest.

Other forms of insurance include:

Car insurance, life insurance, endowment policy, medical, burglary and loss
of household property and so on.
Below are some examples to illustrate some of these forms of insurance.

Example 7.4
A businessman insures goods valued at K 42 625 000 at the rate of K 13 640
for every K 341 000 worth of goods. What annual premium does he pay?

Solution
Premium for K 341 000 is K 13 640
Premium for K 42 625 000

= 1 705 000
He pays annual premium = K 1 705 000

Example 7.5
A man took a life insurance policy for K 272 800 on his 25th birthday. He
paid a premium of K 3 574 yearly. He died at the age of 65 years. The
company paid into his estate the whole amount of his insurance policy. How
much more than his premium contribution did the company pay into the
man’s estate?

Solution
From age 25 years to age 65; 40 premiums were paid. Amount paid in
premiums:
3 574 × 40 = 142 960
Policy value was K 272 800
Difference: 272 800 – 142 960 = 129 840
The company paid K 129 840 above his contribution premiums.

Exercise 7.3
1. Goods in transit worth K 95 480 were insured against damage at K
682 in every K 27 200 worth of goods.
Find the premium for insuring the goods.
2. John takes out a 20-year K 836 000 endowment policy and pays K 7
160 in K 167 200 of the coverage. Find the total premiums.
3. Anne’s policy is K 527 per year for each K 167 200 of goods
coverage. If the goods are estimated to have a replacement value of
K 11 787 600, find the premium.
4. A property sells for K 81 092 000. The new owner has taken a policy
coverage of K 41 800 000. What would be your advise to him
regarding the coverage?
5. A business premises was insured for K 2 450 000. The insurance
company promised to pay 50% of the sum insured incase the
premises got destroyed. How much money will the company pay if
the premises is destroyed?

Simple budgets
Consider a family with a monthly total income of K 78 370 it may spend it as
follows:
Food K 21 600
Clothing K 3 200
Rent K 10 800
Medical expenses K 4 360
School fees K 7 600
Taxes K 17 250
Utility bills K 4 340
(water and electricity)
Leisure K 3 220
Savings K 6 000

Note:
The amount spent on an item may vary from month to month.

A budget is a list of the total income and the planned expenses. Household
budgeting involves identifying the sources of income and planning for the
expenditure. It ensures appropriate spending and saving.

Some families do not make a budget and likely to overspend on unimportant

items or underspend on important items. It is therefore necessary to budget on
a weekly or monthly basis so as to ensure the money is reasonably spent.

Schools, organisations and the government have also to prepare annual

budgets so as to use the available resources as effectively as possible.

Example 7.6
Lorna has K 4 800 to spend on provisions.
She makes the following list.
Rice K 1 500
Maize meal K 1 200
Bananas K 120
Soap K 125
Cooking oil K 590
Tomatoes K 150
Paraffin K 1 030
Salt K 85

What percentage is spent on (i) rice (ii) maize meal (iii) other non-food
items.

Solution
(i) Fraction of money spent on rice:

(ii) Fraction spent on maize meal:

(iii) Non-food items are soap and paraffin

∴ Fraction spent

Exercise 7.4
1. June buys 3 packets of milk @ K 103 each, 2 loaves of bread at K
131 each, 5 eggs at K 33 each and a packet of tea leaves at K 140.
How much change would she get if she had 1 000 kwacha note?
2. Find the total cost of the following:
3 trays of eggs at K 990 per tray, 2 kg of meat at K 608 per kilo, 4
litres of kerosene at K 120 per litre.
3. Nahimba bought 12 oranges at K 40 each, 6 bunches of bananas at K
120 per bunch, 4 pineapples at K 400 each.
(a) How much did she pay?
(b) What percentage of her total was spent on bananas?
4. Solomon deposited 37% of his savings in a cooperative society, 43%
in his business and the rest he deposited in a bank. How much did he
invest in each of the three ways if his total savings was K 240 00?
5. Nyondo’s one month’s salary was K 43 200. Of this, he spent 50%
on food, 8% on rent, 15% on his car repairs, 12% on fuel and the
remainder on miscellaneous items. How much money did he spend
on food, rent and car repairs?
6. Suzzy earns K 36 000. She receives a house allowance of K 12 000.
Her January expenses were as follows:
Rent K 10 000
Hair styling K 2 400
Fee for her brother K 15 000
Travel K 2 000
Clothes K 2 960
Food K 6 960
Repayment of loan K 4 000
Entertainment K 2 000

(a) If she saved the remainder, how much did she save?
(b) What percentage did she spend on her brother.
7. Msowoya’s monthly salary is K 43 200. The food bill was 55% of
his salary, 14% he spent on school fees, car consumed 9% of his
salary and car fuel cost 7%, while the rent took K 3 440. How much
did he spend on:
(a) food?
(b) fuel?
(c) school fees?
8. Lucy earns K 40 000 per month and saves 10% of this. How long
will it take her to save K 86 400?
9. Noel earns K 800 000 annually. He saved K 50 000 in a year. What
percentage does he need to save each month?
 10. Judy saves K 4 000 per month. 20% of her salary is deducted for tax.
Of the remainder, 10% is spent on rent and 80% on other expenses.
How much does she earn in a month?

Bills

Water bills
In most towns and centres, water is piped to people’s homes, industries,
institutions and commercial premises. Water collection and distribution is
managed by water boards. It is sold in cubic metres (m3 ) at different rates
depending on the user, such as residential, institutional, commercial and
industrial, and consumption.
Table 7.2(a) and (b) shows water tariffs for Lilongwe and Blantyre.

LILONGWE
Central Region Water Board (Effective January 1, 2011)
Category Tariff
Residential
First 4 cubic metres (minimum charge) US$ 2.37
5 to 30 cubic metres (per cubic metre) US$ 0.56
Thereafter (per cubic metre) US$ 0.61
Institutional
First 4 cubic metres (minimum charge) US$ 8.33
5 to 30 cubic metres (per cubic metre) US$ 0.98
Thereafter (per cubic metre) US$ 1.17
Commercial and Industrial
First 4 cubic metres (minimum charge) US$ 8.34
5 to 30 cubic metres (per cubic metre) US$ 0.98
Thereafter (per cubic metre) US$ 1.17

Table 7.2(a)

BLANTYRE
Blantyre Water Board
(Prices Effective From January 1, 2011)
Category Tariff
Residential
First 5 cubic metres or part thereof per month US$ 3.00
Exceeding 5 cubic metres upto 10 cubic metres, rate applicable from zero upto US$ 0.67
10 cubic meters
Exceeding 10 cubic metres upto 40 cubic metres US$ 0.80
Exceeding 40 cubic metres US$ 0.86
Institutional
First 10 cubic metres or part thereof per month US$ 9.00
Exceeding 10 cubic metres US$ 0.94
Commercial and Industrial
First 10 cubic metres or part thereof per month US$ 9.00

Exchange Rate: US$ 1.00 = K 152.00

Table 7.2(b)

Example 7.7
Useni’s family used 35 m3 of water in January 2011. How much were they
supposed to pay in Kwacha if they were living in Lilongwe?(Use table 7.2 )

Solution
First 4 m3 cost US$ 2.37

Next 26 m3 cost 26 × 0.56 US$ 14.56

Next 5 m3 × cost 5 × 0.61 US$ 3.05

Total US$ 19.98
Given that US$1.00 = K 152
Amount in Kwacha = US$ 19.98 × 152
= K 3 036.96
K 3 037

Electricity bills
Electricity distribution is managed by Electricity Supply Corporation of
Malawi (Escom). The company sells electricity in units called kilowatt-hour
(Kwh). Consumer usage differs depending on the appliances they use.
Table 7.3 shows charges applied to a domestic consumer.
The bills are calculated by charging a fixed charge plus the consumption
charge per Kwh.
Domestic Tariff Consumer (K)
Fixed charge per month 124.71
Charge for each unit consumed of the first 30 units per month 2.67
Charge for each unit consumed in excess of 30 units and less than 750 units per 3.91
month
Charge for each unit consumed in excess of 750 units per month 5.55
 Table 7.3

Example 7.8
A family consumed 55 Kwh of electricity in a month. How much were they
supposed to pay?

Solution
Fixed monthly charge = K 124.71
First 30 Kwh @ K 2.6708 = K 80.12
Remaining 25 Kwh @ K 3.9146 = K 97.87
= K 302.70
K 303

Exercise 7.5
1. James lives in a residential house in Lilongwe and consumes an
average of 30 m3 of water and 40 Kwh of electricity. How much
does he pay for each in Kwacha?
2. Susan works in an institution in Blantyre. Water consumption in the
institution in February 2011 was 105 m3 . How much did the
institution pay?
3. Dr Usi who lives in Blantyre consumed 38m3 of water in his
residence in March 2011. How much did he pay for it?
4. Sanudi has a commercial property in Lilongwe. In February 2011,
154m3 of water was used. How much was paid for it in Kwacha?
5. School L in Lilongwe consumed 25m3 of water while School B in
Blantyre consumed 30 m3 in the same period of time. Which of the
two schools paid more and by how much? (State your answer in
Kwacha)
6. Find the monthly electricity bills for each of the following families,
given that they used the units indicated.
(a) Sangala – 450 Kwh
(b) Mponda – 725 Kwh
(c) Chiukepo – 827 Kwh
(d) Ng’ambi – 992 Kwh
(e) Kondowe – 324 Kwh
 (f) Sani – 1 115 Kwh

Inflation
Suppose in 2008, the price of a bar of soap was K 156. In 2009, the price was
K 171 and in 2010 it was K 188.
We notice that the price of the soap increases over time. This can be
represented as a percentage by finding the percentage increase in each year
for the price of the bar soap.
Thus, in 2009 % increase

In 2010 % increase = = 9.9%

We can hence describe the price of the bar soap as increasing by 9.6% in
2009 and 9.9% in 2010.
The continued general increase in prices of goods and services over time is
referred to as inflation . It is measured as an annual percentage increase. If
the general increase of prices is high, then the rate of inflation will be high.
Computation of inflation at this stage is beyond our scope.

Devaluation
When importing or exporting commodities, transactions are made in US
dollars. This means that the Kwacha will be exchanged for the dollar.
Suppose that at a time when the US dollar exchanges at US$ = K 152, the
demand for the dollar goes up and there are not enough dollars in the country
to meet the demand. The Reserve Bank of Malawi may decide to devalue the
Kwacha by 10% relative to the US dollar. This means that more Kwacha will
be needed in exchange for US$1.
Hence, US$ = K 167.20
The situation whereby the government decides to decrease or reduce the
value when it is exchanged for the currency of another country is known as
devaluation . Devaluation is done by the government through the Reserve
Bank of Malawi.
When a country’s currency losses its value with respect to one or more
foreign currencies as a result of devaluation and/or market forces, we say that
it has depreciated . Thus, depreciation is the decrease in value of a
country’s currency.

Appreciation and depreciation

When the value of an asset increases with time, we say it appreciates in
value . Land is an example of an asset that appreciates in value. If an asset
decreases in value with time, we say that its value depreciates . A car is a
good example of an asset whose value depreciates with time.
Given the rate of appreciation or depreciation, the value of such assets may
be calculated.

Example 7.9
A car cost K 1 200 000 when new. If its value depreciated at the rate of 10%
p.a., calculate its value after 3 years.

Solution
When new, the value of the car was K 1 200 000. At the end of the first year,
the value of the car would be of K 1 200 000.

At the end of the 2nd year, the value of the car would be 90% of

∴ At the end of the 3rd year, the value of the car was
After 3 years the value of the car will be K 874 800

Example 7.10
A residential plot in town appreciates in value at the rate of 15% pa. Its
current value is K 3 500 000. Calculate its value after 2 years (answer to the
nearest K 1 000)

Solution
Current value = K 3 500 000
Value at end of first year

= K 3 500 000 + 525 000

= K 4 025 000
Value at end of 2nd year

= K 4 025 000 + 603 750

= K 4 628 750
K 4 629 000

Exercise 7.6
1. A painting increases in value by % each year. If its value now is
K 30 000, find its value after 2 years. (To nearest whole number).
2. The value of a car depreciates by 8% each year. A man pays K 900
000 for his second hand car. Find its value after 2 years.
3. A diamond ring is priced at K 4 000. It appreciates by 10% each
year. What will it be worth 3 years after purchase?
4. The initial cost of a sewing machine was K 90 000. Its value
depreciated by 8%. Find the value of the machine after the first year.
5. A town residential house was sold at K 5 000 000. Thereafter, its
value appreciated at the rate of 2% p.a. Find the value of the
property at the end of the year.
6. An amount K 1 500 000 is invested at 4% p.a. How much is it at the
end of the year?
7. The present population of a country is 24.65 million. If the
population increases at 3% p.a., what will be the population after 1
year?
8 GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS I

Definition of a geometric construction

A geometric construction is an accurate drawing of a plane figure.

For geometric constructions, the following will be needed: a pencil, a ruler, a

pair of compasses, a protractor and a set square.
Before making any construction, it is helpful to make a rough sketch of what
you are to draw. All the dimensions (measurements) should be shown on the
sketch.

Constructing angles

Construction of perpendicular lines

When two lines meet at right angles, they are said to be perpendicular to
each other. For example, the adjacent edges of a text book are perpendicular
to each other.

Constructing a perpendicular to a line from a given point on

the line

Activity 8.1
Construct a line through point O perpendicular to line AB (Fig.8.1 ).

Fig. 8.1

Procedure:
(a) Draw line AB and mark the point O, anywhere between A and B.
(b) With centre O and a convenient radius draw arcs to cut AB at P and
Q (Fig.8.2 ).
 Fig. 8.2

(c) With centre P and radius greater than PO draw an arc on one side of
AB. Using the same radius and centre Q draw an arc to cut the first
arc at point R. Join RO (Fig. 8.3 ). Check that ∠AOR and ∠BOR
are 90° each.

Fig. 8.3

Exercise 8.1
Use a ruler and a pair of compasses only in this exercise.
1. Given that AB = 8 cm, and that O is a point on AB such that AO = 3
cm, construct a line CO = 4 cm which is perpendicular to AB.
Measure AC and BC.
2. Draw line PQ = 8 cm. Draw PR = 5 cm such that PR is
perpendicular to PQ. Measure RQ.
3. Draw line PQ = 7 cm.
(a) Draw QR = 3 cm such that QR is perpendicular to PQ.
(b) Draw PS = 8 cm such that PS is perpendicular to PQ.
Join and measure RS. What is the name of figure PQRS?
4. Given AD = 6 cm, construct an equilateral triangle ABC of side 6
cm such that AD is perpendicular to AB. Measure CD.
5. Make an accurate drawing of the shape shown in Fig.8.4 and
measure ADE.
 Fig.8.4

6. Construct
(a) a square of side 4 cm
(b) a rectangle of sides 4 cm by 7 cm.

Constructing a perpendicular to a line from an external point

using ruler and a pair of compasses

Activity 8.2
Construct a perpendicular from point M to line PQ (Fig.8.5 ).

Fig. 8.5

Procedure:
(a) With centre M and a suitable radius on a pair of compasses, draw
arcs to cut line PQ at two points R and S (see Fig.8.6 ).
 Fig. 8.6

(b) With centre R and a convenient radius, draw an arc on the other side
of PQ away from M.
(c) With centre S and the same radius, draw an arc to cut the first arc at
N. Join MN (Fig.8.6 ). Check that ∠MOP and ∠MOQ are each
90°.

Do you think the construction would have been possible if the arcs were on
the same side of PQ as M (but not through M)?

Note that the length MO is called the perpendicular distance of point M

from the line PQ. It is also the shortest distance of point M from line
PQ.

Constructing a perpendicular to a line from an external point

using a ruler and a set square
In Fig. 8.6 , the perpendicular from point M to line PQ could have been
drawn using a ruler and a set square as follows.

Activity 8.3
(a) Place a ruler along the given line PQ (Fig.8.7 ).
 Fig.8.7

(b) Place a set square so that it rests against the ruler in any position S1
(Fig.8.8 ). Hold the ruler firmly and slide the set square along the
ruler until the edge reaches M (position S2 ).

Fig.8.8

(c) Hold the set square firmly in position S2 , remove the ruler and draw
a line through M to cut line PQ, at a point O.

This is the required perpendicular (Fig.8.9 ).

Fig. 8.9

Exercise 8.2
1. Draw any line AB. Mark a point P on one side of AB. Draw a
perpendicular from P to AB using ruler and compasses. Confirm
 your working using a ruler and a set square.

2. (a) On a clean page, mark three points A, B and C. Join A to B, B to

C and C to A using straight line segments.
Construct the perpendicular bisectors of the three lines using a pair
of compasses and a ruler only. What is to be notice about the
bisectors?
(b) Measure the distances from points A, B and C to the point where
the perpendicular bisectors meet. What do you notice?

Bisecting a given line segment

Bisect a line segment AB whose length is 5.3 cm.

Activity 8.4
Procedure:
(a) Draw a line and on it, mark points A and B, 5.3 cm apart
(Fig.8.10(a) ).

Fig. 8.10

(b) With centre A and a radius greater than half the length of AB, mark
arcs on either side of AB. With centre B, and the same radius,
mark arcs which cut the first arcs at points P and Q.
 (c) Join PQ (Fig. 8.10(b) .

Check that AO = OB and ∠POB = 90°.

Line PO (or PQ) is called the perpendicular bisector of AB or the mediator

of AB.
Any point on the mediator is equidistant (i.e. at equal distances) from points
A and B. Check this.
Exercise 8.3
1. Draw line AB = 7.5 cm. Find its mid-point by bisection.
2. Draw any circle centre O. Draw two chords PQ and RS which are
not diameters.
Construct perpendicular bisectors of the chords. Where do they
meet?
3. On a clean page mark points A, B and C such that they are not on a
straight line. Find a point O such that AO = BO = CO You should
have noticed that:

(i) the perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through the centre of

the circle.
(ii) the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of an equilateral triangle
are also the altitudes of the triangle.

Copying an angle using a ruler and compasses only

Activity 8.5
Construct ∠ABC on line BC equal to ∠XYZ, Fig. 8.11 .
 Fig. 8.11

Procedure
(a) With Y as centre and any radius, draw an arc to cut XY and YZ at
M and N respectively (Fig. 8.12 (a) ).
(b) With YN as radius and B as centre, draw an arc to cut BC at N′
(Fig.8.12 (b) ).
(c) With MN as radius and N′ as centre draw an arc to cut the first arc in
(b) above at M′ .
(d) Join B to M′ . The required angle is ABC (Fig 8.12 (b) ).

Fig. 8.12

Exercise 8.4
In this exercise, use a ruler and a pair of compasses only
1. Draw an angle ABC and a straight line DE. Construct a line DF such
that ∠EDF = ∠BAC.
 2. Draw an angle PQR. Draw an isosceles triangle KLM such that
∠KLM = ∠PQR.
3. Draw an angle PQR. Draw a right angled ΔABC such that ∠ABC =
∠PQR.
4. Draw a triangle ABC. Draw triangle ACD such that ∠DAC =
∠BCA and ∠ACD = ∠BAC. What type of shape is figure ABCD?
5. Draw a triangle PQR and take a point X inside the triangle.
Construct a point Y on QR such that ∠XYR = ∠PQR.

Bisecting an angle

Activity 8.6
Draw any angle ABC and bisect it using a ruler and pair of compasses only.
Procedure:
(a) With centre B and any radius, draw arcs to cut AB at P and BC and
Q.

Fig. 8.13

(b) With centre P and any suitable radius, draw an arc between the lines
AB and BC.
(c) With centre Q and same radius used in (b) above, draw an arc to cut
the first arc at R
(d) Join BR.
Measure ∠ABC and ∠RBC. You should find that ∠ABC = 2 ∠RBC.

BR is called the angle bisector of ∠ABC

Exercise 8.5
1. Draw an angle ABC and bisect it. Use a protractor to check your
 working.
2. Draw an obtuse angle. Divide it into four equal angles.
3. Draw a circle of any radius and mark three points P, Q, R on the
circumference.
(a) Construct the bisector of ∠PQR and the perpendicular
bisector of PR. Where do they meet?
(b) Construct the bisector of ∠PRQ and the perpendicular
bisector of PQ. Where do they meet?
You should have observed that:

Angle bisectors of a triangle meet at a common point.

Constructing an angle of 60 ° using a pair of compasses and

ruler only
Carry out Activity 8.7 to learn how to construct an angle of 60° using a pair
of compasses and a ruler only.

Activity 8.7
Construct an angle of 60°.
Procedure:
1. Draw a line segment AB.
2. With centre A and any radius, draw an arc to cut AB at a point X
(Figure 8.14 ).

Fig. 8.14

3. With centre X and the same radius, draw an arc to cut the first one
at a point Y.
 4. Join A to Y and measure ∠YAB to confirm that it is actually 60.

Constructing angles of 45 °, 30 °, 150 °, 120 °, 135 ° by

combining constructions
To construct an angle of 45°, start by constructing an angle 90° and then
bisecting it. Do this by going through Activity 8.8.

Activity 8.8
Construct a line through point O perpendicular to line segment AB (Fig 8.15
)

Fig. 8.15

Procedure

1. Draw line segment AB and mark the point O, anywhere between A and
B.
2. With centre O and a convenient radius, draw arcs to cut AB at point P
and Q.
3. With centre P and radius greater than PO, draw an arc on one side of
AB. Using the same radius, and centre Q, draw an arc to cut the first arc
at point R. Join RO. check that ∠ AOR is 90°

Fig. 8.16

Now, to construct angles of 45°, 30°, 150°, 120° and 135°, combine
constructions.

Activity 8.9
 1. To construct an angle of 30°, first construct an angle of 60° and then
bisect it.
2. To construct an angle of 45°, first construct an angle of 90° and then
bisect it.
3. To construct an angle of
(a) 120°, construct an angle of 90° and combine it with an angle of
30° (60° bisected) or construct an angle of 60° at the same
point twice.
(b) 150°, construct an angle of 120°and combine with an angle of
30° (60º bisected) or construct an angle of 90° and combine it
with an angle of 60°.
(c) 135°, construct an angle of 90° and combine it with an angle of
45° (90° bisected).

Exercise 8.6
1. Construct the following angles.
(a) 60°
(b) 30°
(c) 45°
(d) 75°
(e) 120°
(f) 135°
(g) 22½
(h) 15°
2. Construct a right angle and construct two lines dividing the right
angle into three equal angles.
3. Draw a line AC = 10 cm, ∠BAC = 30°, ∠ABC = 90°. Construct a
circle passing through the points A, B and C. What can you say
about AC?
4. Construct ∠ABC = 67.5°, BC = 8 cm, ∠BCA = 75°. Measure AC.
5. Draw lines AB = BC = 6.4 cm, ∠ABC = 105°. Measure AC.

Constructing parallel lines

(a) Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only

Activity 8.10
Given line AB, construct a line through P parallel to AB (Fig.8.17
).

Fig. 8.17

Method 1
(i) On line AB mark two points X and Y.
(ii) With centre P and radius XY, draw an arc roughly to the
left of P.
(iii) With centre X and radius PY, draw an arc to intersect the
first arc at Q (Fig. 8.18 ).
(iv) Join P to Q. PQ is the required line.

Fig. 8.18

Method 2
(i) Take any point X on AB. Join PX.
(ii) With centre X and any radius, draw an arc to cut AB at M
and PX at N.
(iii) With centre P and same radius as in (ii) draw an arc to
cut PX at K and another one roughly to the left of P.
(iv) With centre K and radius MN, draw an arc to cut the
other arc to the left of P at L.
 (v) Join P to L. This is the required line (Fig.8.19 ).

Fig. 8.19

(b) Using a ruler and a setsquare.

Activity 8.11
To draw a line parallel to line AB, passing through a given point P.
(i) Place a set square along AB.
(ii) Place a ruler against the set square as shown in Fig. 8.20

Fig. 8.20

(iii) Hold the ruler firmly, then slide the set square in the
direction shown by the arrow (Fig.8.20 ) until it reaches
the position shown in Fig. 8.21 .
(iv) Hold the set square in position and draw a line through P.
 Fig. 8.21

This will be the required line (Fig.8.22 ).

Fig. 8.22

Proportional division of a line segment

A line segment can be divided into a given number of equal parts as shown
below.
Line divided into equal parts

Activity 8.12
Divide line segment AB in Fig.8.23 (a) into 5 equal parts.
Procedure:
(a) Through A, draw any line AL.
(b) Using a suitable radius on a pair of compasses, starting at A, mark
off 5 equal lengths AA1 , A1 A2 , A2 A3 , A3 A4 , A4 A5 , along
AL.
(c) Join BA5 .
(d) Using a ruler and set square, draw lines A1 B1 , A2 B2 , A3 B3 , A4
B4 parallel to A5 B. (Fig.8.23 ).
 Fig. 8.23

B1 , B2 , B3 , B4 are the points that divide AB into the required 5 equal parts.
Exercise 8.7
1. Draw a straight line PQ. Mark a point X above the line. Construct a
line through X parallel to PQ using a ruler and a setsquare only.
2. Draw a line XY. On it, mark a point M. Through point M, construct
a perpendicular. On this perpendicular, mark off points A and B such
that MA = AB = 3 cm. Through points A and B, construct lines
parallel to the line XY. (Use a ruler and a pair of compasses only).
3. Draw a line PQ, 6 cm long. Construct ∠SPQ = 60˚ with PS = 4 cm.
Through points S and Q, construct lines parallel to PQ and PS
respectively, to meet at a point R. Measure SR and QR, and all the
remaining angles. Name the figure obtained.
4. Draw any ∠ABC. Construct D such that AD = BC and CD = BA.
What shape is the figure?

Construction of triangles
A triangle can be constructed given measurements of:
(i) all the three sides,
 (ii) two sides and one angle, or
(iii) one side and two angles.

Construction of a triangle, given three sides

Activity 8.13
Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only, construct triangle PQR such that
PQ = 2.5 cm, QR = 3.5 cm and PR = 5 cm.
Procedure:
(a) Draw a rough sketch of the triangle to be constructed and on it,
indicate all the given measurements (Fig.8.24 ).

Fig. 8.24

(b) Construct the triangle accurately using the following steps.

(i) Draw a line and mark a point P on it.
(ii) On the line, mark off a point Q, 2.5 cm from P, using a
pair of compasses.
(iii) With P as the centre and radius 5 cm, draw an arc.
(iv) With Q as the centre and radius 3.5 cm, draw another arc
to intersect the arc in (iii) at R.
(v) Join P to R, and Q to R. PQR is the required triangle. (Fig
8.25 )
 Fig. 8.25

Exercise 8.8
Use a ruler and a pair of compasses only in this exercise.
1. Construct the triangles whose sketches are given in Fig.8.26 .
Measure the marked angles.
 Fig. 8.26

2. Construct ABC such that

(a) AB = 40 mm, BC = 50 mm, AC = 60 mm
(b) AB = 50 mm, BC = 85 mm, AC = 75 mm
(c) AB = 65 mm, BC = 45 mm, AC = 60 mm
(d) AB = 8.3 cm, BC = 8.3 cm, AC = 5 cm
(e) AB = 7 cm, BC = 6 cm, AC = 4 cm
(f) AB = 5.6 cm, BC = 5 cm, AC = 7.5 cm
In each case measure ∠ABC.
3. Make accurate constructions of the diagrams in Fig.8.27 and
(i) measure ∠BCD in each case.
 (ii) name the plane figures in (a) and (b).

Fig. 8.27

4. Try to construct triangles using the following measurements.

(a) 3 cm, 4 cm, 8 cm
(b) 10 cm, 7 cm, 3 cm
(c) 5 cm, 5 cm, 12 cm
What do you notice in each case?

Note that in order to be able to construct a triangle, the sum of

the lengths of the two shorter sides must be greater than the
length of the third side.

5. Make an accurate construction of the diagram in Fig. 8.28 . Measure

∠BAC and ∠ACD. What can you say about lines AB and DC?

Fig. 8.28
Construction of a triangle, given two sides and an angle

Activity 8.14
Construct ABC such that ∠ABC = 50, AB = 4 cm, BC = 6 cm.
Procedure:
(a) First make a rough sketch (Fig. 8.29 ).

Fig. 8.29

(b) Construct ΔABC as follows.

(i) Draw a line and mark a point A on it.
(ii) On the line, mark off a point B, 4 cm from A, using a pair
of compasses.
(iii) At point B, use your protractor to measure an angle of
50° and draw the line BX.
(iv) Mark a point C on line BX such that BC = 6 cm.
(v) Join AC to complete ΔABC (Fig. 8.30 ).

Fig. 8.30
Exercise 8.9
1. Construct the triangles sketched in Fig. 8.31 and measure the sides
marked with letters.

Fig. 8.31

2. Construct the following triangles. Two sides and the angles between
them are given. Measure the third side.
(a) 7 cm, 48°, 9 cm
(b) 8.8 cm, 75°, 6.5 cm
(c) 5 cm, 110°, 6 cm
(d) 7.8 cm, 70°, 4.8 cm
(e) 9 cm, 40°, 6 cm
(f) 8.5 cm, 45°, 8.5 cm
3. Construct the given triangles.
(a) Δ ABC; AB = 7 cm, BC = 4.5 cm,

∠ B = 105°. Measure AC.

(b) Δ PQR; PQ = 5.5 cm, QR = 4 cm,

∠ R = 85°. Measure PR.

(c) Δ XYZ; XY = 5 cm, YZ = 6 cm,
 ∠ X = 70°. Measure XZ.
(d) Δ JKL; JK = 5.5 cm, KL = 3.5 cm,

∠ L = 130°. Measure JL.

(e) Δ STU; ST = 5 cm, TU = 6 cm,

∠ T = 65°. Measure SU.

(f) ΔXYZ; XY = 6.5 cm, ZY = 7.5 cm,

∠ X = 35°. Measure ∠ Y.
4. (a) Construct ΔABC such that AB = 4.5cm, BC = 3.5 cm and ∠ A =
40°. Measure ∠ C. Is there more than one possible triangle?
(b) Construct Δ ABC such that AB = 4.5 cm, ∠ A = 40° and
(i) BC = 4.8 cm
(ii) BC = 2.5 cm
Measure b. What do you notice?
5. Construct the diagrams in Fig. 8.32 and measure the sides marked
with letters.

Fig. 8.32

You should have noticed that:

 When two sides and the angle between them (i.e. two sides and the
included angle) are given, we are always able to construct a unique
triangle (as in Question 2). But if the angle is not the included angle, we
do not necessarily get a unique triangle (Question 4).

Construction of a triangle, given one side and two angles

Activity 8.15
Construct Δ PQR such that PQ = 5 cm, ∠ P = 35º, ∠ R = 65º.
Procedure:
(a) Make a rough sketch of the triangle (Fig.8.33 ). Note that ∠ Q = 80º
. Why?

Fig. 8.33

(b) Make an accurate construction as follows.

(i) Draw a line and mark a point P on it.
(ii) On the line, mark off a point Q, 5 cm from P, using a pair
of compasses.
(iii) At point P, draw a line at an angle of 35°.
(iv) At point Q, draw a line at an angle of 80°.

Where the two lines meet is the point R. Check that ∠ R = 65°.
PQR is the required triangle (Fig. 8.34 ).
 Fig. 8.34

Note that given two angles and a side, we need to find the third angle so
that the given side is between two angles. It is only then that we shall be
able to construct the triangle.

Exercise 8.10
1. Construct the triangles sketched in Fig.8.35 and measure the sides
marked with letters.

Fig. 8.35

2. Construct ΔABC such that

(a) ∠A = 30°, AB = 5.5 cm, ∠B = 70°. Measure AC.
(b) ∠A = 25°, ∠B = 65°, AC = 6.5 cm. Measure AB .
(c) ∠A = 45°, ∠C = 40°, AB = 7.8 cm. Measure AC.
(d) AC = 8 cm, ∠B = 55°, ∠C = 65°. Measure BC.
(e) BC = 6.8 cm, ∠B = 65°, ∠A = 45°. Measure AB.
 (f) BC = 6 cm, ∠A = 35°, ∠B = 115°. Measure AB.
3. Construct each of the shapes in Fig.8.36 and find the lengths marked
with letters.

Fig. 8.36

4. Construct the shapes in Fig.8.37 and measure the sides marked with
letters.
 Fig.8.37

5. On the same diagram, construct triangles PQS and PRS from the
given measurements.
(a) PQ = 5 cm, PR = 6 cm, ∠Q =40°, QS = 7 cm, RS = 3 cm,
Measure QR.
(b) PQ = 5 cm, QR = 9 cm, RS = 3 cm, SP = 3.8 cm, ∠QPS =
100°. Measure angle Q.
(c) PS = 5 cm, ∠RPS = 35°, ∠PSQ = 47°, ∠PRS = 65°,
∠PQS = 54°. Measure QR.
What is the name of the plane figure PQRS in (a), (b) and (c)?
 9 COORDINATES

Position of a point on a line

You are already familiar with the number line. The number line is a graph or
a picture of all the negative and positive numbers.
If we mark points on the number line, we can say exactly where they are on
the number line.

Fig.9.1

In Fig.9.1 , A is 4 units to the right of zero and B is 3 units to the left of zero.
This can be shortened to A (4) and B (– 3). Similarly, C is the point C(½) and
D is the point D (– 5).A (4) and B (– 3) give the positions of A and B on the
number line with reference to zero (0).
Note that brackets are here used in a different way from the way they are
used in algebra and arithmetic.

Position of a point on a plane surface

Fig.9.2 shows a plan of the desks in a classroom. Each rectangle represents a
desk. Describe the position of the shaded desk.
 Fig.9.2

You might describe the desk as being in the fourth column and fifth row. If
we agreed to write this as (4, 5), it would mean 4 columns across from the
left-hand side and then 5 rows up (i.e. from the front toward the back). Does
(5, 4) mean the same position?
It is clear that the order of the numbers inside brackets is important and
so we call pairs like these ordered pairs .
If all the desks in the classroom were removed and then you were asked to
put your desk back in the room, exactly where it was before, how would you
do it?
If you knew it was 5 metres from one wall and 6 metres from another, could
you do it then? How many places on your classroom floor are 5 m from one
wall and 6 m from another? We have to decide which walls we are going to
use.
Fig.9.3 shows one way in which you might fix the position of your desk.

Fig. 9.3
We could say that the desk has an ordered pair (5, 6), to mean five metres
from the left-hand wall and six metres from the front wall.
Exercise 9.1
1. In Fig.9.4 , A(2) gives the position of A and B(– 4) gives the position
of B. State the positions of C, D and E in the same way.

Fig. 9.4

2. Draw a number line from – 5 to 5. On it, mark the points A (3), B (–

l), C (– 4½) and D (3½).
3. On a graph paper, draw a number line from – 2 to 2. On it, mark the
points A (1.0), B (0.4), C (– 1.6), D (– 0.7) and E (1.3).
4. Fig. 9.5 shows points on a centimetre square grid. Starting from the
point marked O, and using ordered pairs, the position of R is (– 2, 3),
meaning that R is 2 cm to the left and 3 cm up . In a similar way,
describe the positions of points P, Q, S and T.

Fig.9.5

The Cartesian plane

The positions of points on a line are found by using a numberline, and are
written down using a single number e.g. P(– 7).
 The positions of points on a plane surface are found using two fixed
number lines (i.e. two directions), usually at right angles, and are written
down using two numbers called ordered pairs .

In Fig.9.6 , starting from the zero point, O,

A is in position 2 units to the right and 3 units up , written as A (2, 3);
B is in position 4 units to the right and 0 units up , written as B (4, 0);
C is in position 0 units to the right and 2 units down , written as C (0, – 2);
D is in position 2 units to the left and 2 units down , written as D (– 2, – 2).
In a similar way, find the positions of points E, F, G, H, I, and J.

Fig.9.6

Fig.9.6 is a graph , or picture of the points A–J. In a graph like this, the
number lines are called axes . They cross at the zero point of each axis. This
point is called the origin . The axis going across from left to right is called
the x-axis . It has a positive scale to the right of 0 and a negative scale to the
left of 0.
The axis going up the page is called the y-axis . It has a positive scale
upwards from 0 and a negative scale downwards from 0.
A plane surface with axes drawn on it, such as Fig.9.6 , is called a Cartesian
plane .

Point of interest
It is named after the great French philosopher and mathematician Rene’
Descartes (1596-1650) (whose Latin name was Cartesius). Descartes’ was
the first person ever to use coordinates, and he is therefore considered to
be the founder of coordinate geometry .

The ordered pairs that describe the positions of points on a Cartesian

plane are called Cartesian coordinates . The first number is called the x-
coordinate and it gives the distance of the point from the origin along the
x-axis. The second number is called the y-coordinate and gives the
distance of the point from the origin along the y-axis. For example, in
(5,7), 5 is the x-coordinate and 7 is the y-coordinate.

Exercise 9.2
1. Name the points in Fig.9.7 which have the following coordinates.
(a) (0, 1.5)
(b) (0, –0.5)
(c) (– 1, – 2)
(d) (– 2, 1)
(e) (0.5, 2.5)
(f) (1, – 2.2)
(g) (– 2, – 1)
(h) (– 2, 3)
(i) (2.5, 1)
(j) (4, – 1)
(k) (– 1.4, – 0.6)
(l) (0, 0)
(m) (1, 0)
(n) (2.5, – 1)
 (o) (– 3, 0)

Fig. 9.7

2. What are the coordinates of the points A–K in Fig.9.8 ?

Fig.9.8

3. Write down the coordinates of the vertices of

(a) triangle ABC
(b) parallelogram PQRS in Fig.9.9 .
 Fig. 9.9

4. Fig.9.10 shows part of a map drawn on a Cartesian plane.

Fig. 9.10

Find the coordinates of the point in

(a) the school
(b) the borehole
(c) the farm
(d) the hospital
(e) the top of the hill
(f) the intersection of the road and railway line.
(g) the point where the railway line crosses the river.
 (h) the point where the road crosses the river.
5. State the coordinates of the vertices of the ‘arrow’ in Fig.9.11 .

Fig.9.11

Plotting points and choice of scale

To plot a point means to mark its position on a Cartesian plane.
Procedure:
1. Start at the origin.
2. Move along the x-axis the number of steps, and in the direction
given by the x-coordinate of the point.
3. Move up or down parallel to the y-axis the number of steps, and in
the direction given by the y-coordinate of the point.
4. Mark the point with a dot (.) or a cross (×).

Example 9.1
Plot the points (2,– 3) and (– 2.4,1.8) on a Cartesian plane.

Solution
The dotted lines in Fig.9.12 show the method of plotting.
For (2, – 3):
x-coordinate is 2, i.e. 2 steps in the positive direction of x-axis. y-coordinate
is – 3, i.e. 3 steps in the negative direction of the y-axis.

Fig.9.12

For (– 2.4, 1.8):

Move 2.4 steps to the left along the x-axis.
Move 1.8 steps up parallel to the y-axis.
Note that the dotted arrows in Fig.9.12 are not normally put on the graph.
They are used here only to show the method of plotting the points.

To choose the scale of a graph, check what the highest and lowest values of x
and y are in the given points. Choose the scale such that the axes include all
the numbers. The scale should be as large as possible to make it easy to plot
and read coordinates accurately. We normally use 1 cm (square) to represent
1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, … units. Do not use scales in multiples of 3 or 4 or
such numbers as 7, 11, etc!

Example 9.2
The vertices of a quadrilateral are A(– 7.5, – 5), B(0,– 5), C(7.5, 7.5), D(0,
7.5).
(a) Using a suitable scale, plot the points A, B, C and D.
(b) Join the vertices of quadrilateral ABCD and state what kind of
quadrilateral it is.
 (c) Find the coordinates of the intersection of the diagonals of ABCD.

Solution
(a) The highest x-coordinate is 7.5 and the lowest is – 7.5. The x-axis
must include these numbers.
The highest y-coordinate is 7.5 and the lowest is – 5. With a scale
of ‘1 cm represents 1 unit’ on either axis, it should be possible to
include all the numbers but the figure would be unnecessarily
large. A scale of ‘2 cm represent 5 units’ should be appropriate so
that the figure is neither too large nor too small. The points are
plotted in Fig. 9.13 .

Fig. 9.13

(b) ABCD is a parallelogram.

(c) The point of intersection of the diagonals is (0, 1.25).

Exercise 9.3
1. On squared or graph paper, plot the following points, taking one
square to represent a unit on both axes.
A (– 1.5, – 0.5), B (0.5, – 2.5) and C (4, 1.5). Given that ABCD is a
 parallelogram find the possible coordinates of D.
2. Using a scale of ‘1 cm represents 2 units’ on both axes, plot the
following points.
A (8, 10), B (– 8, – 10), C (3, – 5),
D (– 6, 9), E (– 4, – 7), F (l, 8), G (2, 0),
H (0, – 6), I (– 2.4, 5.2), J (– 4, 3.8),
K (0, 6.6), L(0.8,– 7.8).
3. The vertices of a triangle are X(– 0.5, – 0.8), Y (– 0.5, – 2.4) and Z (2,
0.8). Find the area of the triangle.
4. Plot the following points, joining each point to the next in the order
they are given. A (1, 5), B (3, 5), C (5, 3), D (5, 1), E (3, l), F (l, 3),
G (3, 3)
Draw in BE, GC and GA. What is the name of the solid formed?
5. Look carefully at the following sets of coordinates. Decide, without
drawing, what shape they will make when they are joined together.
(a) (4, 2), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6)
(b) (2, 3), (4, 3), (5, 3), (7, 3)
(c) (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 3)
Now plot the given coordinates. Join each set of points. Were you
right?
 10 NUMBER PATTERNS I

Introduction
Number patterns have been used since ancient times. For example, the early
Arabs, Hindus, Greeks and Babylonians studied certain number patterns
which they believed had mystic powers.
In this unit, we shall look at some numbers which have some interesting
observations and usefulness in real life.

Number patterns
The number 6 can be represented using patterns of dots as shown in Fig. 10.1
.

Fig. 10.1

Fig. 10.1 (a) and (b) are said to be linear patterns . Fig. 10.1 (c) and (d) are
said to be rectangular patterns . Fig. 10.1 (e) is said to be a triangular
pattern .
Numbers which can be represented by a rectangular pattern of dots are called
rectangle numbers . Each rectangle number has two or more factors other
than itself.
Numbers which can be represented by a square pattern of dots are called
square numbers .
Fig 10.2 shows some square numbers and their patterns of dots.
 Fig 10.2

Since 1 = 12 , 4 = 22 , 9 = 32 , 16 = 42 and so on, we can write the square

numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, … as 12 , 22 , 32 , 42 , …
We can generate other number patterns from the number pattern in Fig. 10.2 .
Note that 4 = 22 is obtained by adding 3 to 12 , 9 = 32 is obtained by adding 5
to 22 , and so on.
So we have 22 = 12 + 3 or 22 – 12 = 3
32 = 22 + 5 or 32 – 22 = 5
42 = 32 + 7 or 42 – 32 = 7.
Now copy and fill in the gaps in the following:
52 = 42 + … or 52 – 42 = …
62 = 52 + … or 62 – 52 = …
72 = 62 + … or 72 – 62 = …

502 = 492 + … or 502 – 492 = …

992 = 982 + … or 992 – 982 = …

Thus, from this pattern, we see that
a 2 – b 2 = a + b , provided that a and b are consecutive positive integers
and a > b .
Using the pattern, evaluate
(a) 1112 – 1102
(b) 8882 – 8872
Copy and complete the following pattern
1 = 12
1+3 = 22
1+3+5 =
1+3+5+7 =
1+3+5+7+9 =
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 =
Numbers like 6 which form a triangular pattern [as in Fig. 10.1 (e)] are called
triangle numbers .
Copy and complete the following pattern
1 = 1
1+2 = 3
1+2+3 = 6
1+2+3+4 =
1+2+3+4+5 =
1+2+3+4+5+6 =
1+2+3+4+5+6+7 =
1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8 =
What type of numbers do you get?
Exercise 10.1
1. Examine the numbers 1 to 40. List down all
(a) rectangle numbers
(b) square numbers
(c) triangle numbers
2. Using your results for Question 1(c),
(a) list the differences, d , between pairs of consecutive triangle
numbers
(b) list the sums, s , of consecutive triangle numbers.
(c) what is the connection between s and d ?
3. From Question 1(c), how many prime numbers are also triangle
numbers?
4. Copy and complete the following number pattern.
32 – 12 = 8
42 – 22 = 12
52 – 32 = 16
62 – 42 = …
72 – 52 = …
82 – 62 = …

What relationship can you deduce from the set of numbers 3, 1, 8; 4,

2,12; 5, 3, 16; …
5. When 11 is squared, we get 121 which is said to be symmetrical.
Similarly, 113 = 1 331 is symmetrical
 (a) Which of the following is symmetrical 114 , 115 , 116 ?
(b) Which integer between 1 and 11 has a cube which is a
symmetrical number?

Sequences

General sequences
Examine the following lists of numbers
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …
(b) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, …
(c) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …
(d) 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, …
(e) 21, 19, 17, 15, 13, …
(f) 15, 14, 12, 9, 5, …
(g) 1, 3, 10, 4, 19, …
(h) 0, 5, 1, 10, – 47, …
Five numbers are given in each list. We refer to each number in a list as a
term . Thus, in (a), 1 is the first term , 2 is the second term , etc.
What could be the next three terms in each list?
How do you obtain them?
The terms could be obtained as shown below.
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8: (any term) + 1 = next term, or since 1st term = 1,
2nd term = 2, 3rd term = 3 and so on, then 6th term = 6, 7th term =
7, 8th term = 8.
(b) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16: (any term) × 2 = next term; or since 1st
term = 1 × 2, 2nd term = 2 × 2, 3rd term = 3 × 2 and so on, then 6th
term = 6 × 2, 7th term = 7 × 2, 8th term = 8 × 2.
(c) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15: (any term) + 2 = next term; or 1st term = 1 ×
2 – 1, 2nd term = 2 × 2 – 1, 3rd term = 3 × 2 – 1, so 6th term = 6 ×
2 – 1, 7th term = 7 × 2 – 1, 8th term = 8 × 2 –1.
(d) 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, 729, 2 187: (any term) × 3 = next term.
(e) 21, 19, 17, 15, 13, 11, 9, 7: (any term) – 2 = next term.
(f) 15, 14, 12, 9, 5, 0, – 6, – 13: 1st term – 1 = 2nd term, 2nd term – 2 =
3rd term, 3rd term – 3 = 4th term.
(g) and (h) have no pattern that would help us obtain the next term
 A list of numbers, arranged in order and having a rule which gives the
terms in the list [as in (a) – (f)] is called a sequence .

Thus, the lists of numbers in (a) – (f) are sequences while (g) and (h) are not
sequences .
Since the terms in the sequences 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are increasing in magnitude, the
sequence is an increasing sequence . It follows that the sequence 21, 19, 17,
13, … is a decreasing sequence .
Note that the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 has 6 terms only while the sequence 1,
3, 5, 7, 9, 11, … has many terms that cannot be exhausted. The first sequence
is called a finite sequence while the second one is an infinite sequence .
Examine the following sequences again.
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …
(b) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, …
(c) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …
(d) 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, …
How would you obtain the 10th, 20th, 100th and n th terms?
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …

We saw that 1st term = 1, 2nd term = 2, 3rd term = 3, 4th term =
4, etc. It follows that 10th term = 10, 20th term= 20, 100th
term = 100 and n th term = n.
(b) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, …

We saw that 1st term = 1 × 2, 2nd term = 2 × 2, 3rd term = 3 × 2,

4th term = 4 × 2, etc. Hence 10th term = 10 × 2, 20th term =
20 × 2, 100th term = 100 × 2 and nth term = n × 2 = 2n.
(c) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …

We saw that 1st term = 1 × 2 – 1, 2nd term = 2 × 2 – 1, 3rd term

= 3 × 2 – 1, 4th term = 4 × 2 – 1, etc.

10th term = 10 × 2 – 1,

20th term = 20 × 2 – 1,
 100th term = 100 × 2 – 1 and hence

n th term = n × 2 – 1 = 2n – 1.
(d) 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, …

1st term = 1, 2nd term = 3, 3rd term = 9 = 32 ,

4th term = 27 = 33 , 5th term = 81 = 34 , etc.

10th term = 39 , 20th term = 319 ,

100th term = 399 and n th term = 3n–1 .

We see that the n th term in (a) – (d) are n, 2n, 2n – 1 and 3 n — 1 respectively.
We say that these are the rules or laws which give the terms of the sequences
or the general terms of the sequences .
Exercise 10.2
1. For each of the following sequences, find the next three terms and
the rule which gives the terms.
(a) 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, …
(b) 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, …
(c) 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, …
(d) 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, …
(e) 88, 84, 80, 76, …
(f) 30, 20, 10, 0, – 10, …
2. For each of the following sequences, find the next three terms and
the rule which gives the terms
(a) 1, 4, 16, 64, 256, …
(b) 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, …
(c) 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, …
(d)
(e)
(f)
3. For each of the following sequences, find the indicated terms.
(a) 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, …; 8th and 12th terms
(b) 11, 9, 7, 5, 3, …; 9th and 13th terms
 (c) – 1, 3, – 5, 7, – 9, …; 10th and 12th terms
(d) 39, 33, 27, 21, 15, …; 8th and 10th terms
(e) – 2, – 5, – 8, – 11, …; 12th and 15th terms
(f) 2, – 6, – 14, – 22, – 30, …; 10th and 12th terms
4. For each of the following sequences, find the indicated terms and the
general term of the sequence.
(a) 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, …; 8th and 11th terms
(b) 2, – 6, 18, – 54, 162, …; 7th and 10th terms.
(c) 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, …; 7th and 11th terms.
(d) 4, 2, 1, 9th and 14th terms.
(e) 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, …; 10th and 15th terms.
(f) 8th and 11th terms.
5. For each of the following sequences, find the next three terms.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
6. Write down the first four terms of the sequence for which the
general term is
(a) 2n – 3
(b)
(c) 3 × 4 n
(d)
(e) (n – 1)2 n
(f) 2 × 3 n – 1
(g)
(h)
7. The sequence is called a Farey Sequence of order 4.
It consists of all fractions whose denominators are 4 or less, arranged
in order of size. Write down the Farey Sequence of order 8.
8. The sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, … is obtained by adding two preceding
terms to get the next term. Thus, to get the next term, add 3 and 5 to
get 8. Such a sequence is called the Sequence of Fibonacci numbers
or the Fibonacci sequence . Write the next 4 terms in the following
Fibonacci sequences
(a) 1, 3, …
(c) 2, 2, …
(d) 0, 3, …
 11 ALGEBRAIC PROCESSES I

Factors
If a number can be divided by a second number without leaving a remainder,
the second number is said to be a factor of the first. For example

6÷3=2

Thus, 3 is a factor of 6.
Similarly, 2 divides into 6 without leaving a remainder. So, 2 is also a factor
of 6.
All the factors of 6 are: 1, 2, 3 and 6.
In the same way, we can list the factors of algebraic terms such as 6x.
Factors of 6x are: 1, 2, 3, 6, x, 2x, 3x, and 6x since any of them can divide 6x
without leaving a remainder.

Example 11.1
List down all the factors of 16ab.

Solution
Factors of 16ab: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, a, 2a, 4a, 8a, 16a, b, 2b, 4b, 8b, 16b, ab,
2ab, 4ab, 8ab, and 16ab.

Exercise 11.1
List down all the factors of:
1. 24
2. 42
3. 210
4. 3 x
 5. 15 xy
6. 18 pq
7. 5 mn
8. 13 st
9. 21 pqr
10. 85 cde
11. 192 efj
12. 40 apq

Prime factors
The prime factors of a number are those factors which themselves have no
factors except 1 and themselves.
For example, 2 is a prime factor since it has only two factors 1 and 2.
Similarly a term can be written as a product of its prime factors. Thus, 4x = 2
×2×x

When finding the prime factors of a term, it is best to try the prime
numbers in turn, starting with the least, i.e. 2, and if possible, repeating
each until it is no longer a factor.

Example 11.2
Express 60xy as a product of prime factors, hence list down all its factors.

Solution
60xy = 2 × 30xy = 2 × 2 × 15xy
= 2 × 2 × 3 × 5xy = 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 × xy
=2×2×3×5×x×y
Prime factors of 60xy are 2, 3, 5, x, y

The working can be conveniently set out as a successive (or continued)

division as follows.

60xy = 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 × x × y
Prime factors of 60xy are 2, 3, 5, x and y

Alternatively, the working can be set out as a factor tree diagram as follows.

Thus, 60xy = 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 × x × y
Prime factors of 60xy are 2, 3, 5, x, y

Exercise 11.2
1. Express each of the following as a product of its prime factors.
(a) 72k
(b) 350zy
(c) 344hg
(d) 243p
(e) 180qr
 (f) 45rw
(g) 165mn
(h) 78xyz
2. List down all the prime factors of
(a) 42xyz
(b) 12pq2
(c) 2 520rs
(d) 6 006qt
(e) ab2 c
(f) j2 kl2

Highest common factor (HCF)

If two or more terms can be divided by a smaller factor without leaving a
remainder, the factor (i.e. the smaller number) is called a common factor or a
common divisor of the terms. For example, 3x is a common divisor of 12x,
15xy, 21x and 27xy.
A group of terms may have more than one common factor. For example, 2, 3
and x are factors of 18x and 24x. Also, since 2, 3 and x are common factor
and are prime factors, 6x must also be a common factor of 18 and 24.
The highest (or greatest) of the common factors of a group of terms is called
the highest common factor (HCF) or the greatest common divisor (GCD)
of the terms. Thus, 6x is the HCF of 18x and 24x.
The HCF of two or more terms can be found using any of the following
methods:

1. Listing all the factors of each term and identifying the highest
factor common to all.
2. Expressing each term as a product of its prime factors and
identifying all prime factors common to all.
3. Successive division by common factors.

The three methods are illustrated in Examples 11.3 and 11.4

Example 11.3
Find the HCF of 4p, 6pq and 14p.

Solution
Factors of 4p are 1, 2, 4, p, 2p , 4p.
Factors of 6pq are 1, 2, 3, 6, p, 2p , 3p, 6p, q, 2q, 3q, 6q, pq, 2pq, 3pq, 6pq.
Factors of 14p are 1, 2, 7, 14, p, 2p , 7p, 14p.
Common factors are 1, 2, p, 2p.
The HCF is 2p.
Example 11.4
Find the GCD of 432x, 288xy and 1 080x2 .

Solution
432x = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × x
288xy = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × x × y
1 080x2 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 5 × x × x
∴ HCF = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × x
= 72x
Using successive division:

HCF = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × x = 72x
This method is also known as the method of continuos division by common
prime factors.
HCF = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × x = 72x
This method is also known as the method of continuos division by common
prime factors.

Exercise 11.3
Find the HCF of each of the following.
1. xy, 4xy
2. 8p, 6pq
3. 2x, 4x, 6x
4. 9y, 18xyz
5. p, 15pq, 27pq2
6. 16k, 18kl, 12kn
7. 6nab, 4bm, 10cb, 20mb
8. 18xy, 24xz, 36xz
9. 40ef, 70e, 56ef
10. 14st, 21ps, 35stu

Least common multiple (LCM)

If a number is a factor of another, then the second number is said to be a
multiple of the first number.
For example, 5 is a factor of 15 and so 15 is a multiple of 5.
Similarly, x and y are factors of xy, so xy is a multiple of x and y.

Example 11.5
List the multiples of 6p, 8p and 12p and identify the common multiples.

Solution
6p: multiples are: 6p, 12p, 18p, 24p , 30p, 36p, 42p, 48p , …
8p: multiples are: 8p, 16p, 24p , 32p, 40p, 48p , …
12p: multiples are: 12p, 24p , 36p, 48p , 60p, …
Common multiples are: 24p, 48p, …

Unlike common factors, we cannot list all the common multiples of two or
more number, they are unlimited. The most useful of them is the smallest,
usually known as the least or lowest common multiple (LCM) .
In Example 11.5 , 24p is the LCM of 6p, 8p and 12p.

The LCM of two or more numbers can be found using any of the
following methods.
1. Listing multiples of each of the numbers and identifying the
smallest multiple that is common to all (Example 11.5 ).
2. Prime factorisation.
3. Successive division by prime factors.

Examples 11.6 and 11.7 illustrate the methods of two and three respectively.

Example 11.6
Find the LCM of 40n, 180nm and 210n2 m by expressing each term as a
product of its prime factors.

Solution
After expressing the terms as products of their prime factors, we pick the
highest number of each factor. (Note that all appearing factors must be
represented.)
40n = 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × n
180nm = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × n × m
210n2 m = 2 × 2 × 5 × 7 × n × n × m
LCM is 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 × n × n × m
= 2 520n2 m
Example 11.7
Find the L.C.M of 15pq and 27pqr by the method of succesive division.
Solution

LCM = 3 × 3 × 3 × 5 × p × q × r
= 135 pqr

Exercise 11.4
Find the LCM of the following.
1. 4a, 6a
2. 3a, 6b
3. 8p, 6pq
4. 6xy, 2y
5. 9m, 10mn
6. 36pq, 24qt
7. 27pq, 132q
8. 3x,5y, 9xy
9. 7ab, 8pq, 12rs
10. 3d, 4de, def
11. abc, abd, 3acd
12. 3mn, m2 n, mny
Use of brackets
The terms inside brackets are intended to be taken as one term, e.g. 9 + (7 +
3) means that 7 and 3 are to be added together, and their sum added to 9, so
that
9 + (7 + 3) = 9 + 10 = 19
Also, 9 + 7 + 3 = 19
Hence, the bracket may be removed without changing the result,
i.e. 9 + (7 + 3) = 9 + 7 + 3
In general,

x + (y + z ) = x + y + z

9 + (7 – 3) = 9 + 4 (First subtracting 3 from 7)

= 13
Also, 9 + 7 – 3 = 16 – 3 = 13
Hence, the bracket may again be removed without changing the result.

x + (y – z) = x + y – z

9 – (7 + 3) = 9 – 10 (First adding 3 to 7) = – 1
Also, 9 – 7 – 3 = 2 – 3 = – 1
Hence, in this case, when the bracket is removed, the sign of each term inside
the bracket is changed.
i.e. 9 – (7 + 3) = 9 – 7 – 3
In general,
 x – (y + z) = x – y – z

Caution
9–7+3=2+3=5
Note that this is not the same as 9 – (7 + 3).
This is a common mistake, which must be avoided. In general,

x – (y + z) ≠ x – y + z

9 – (7 – 3) = 9 – 4 (First subtracting 3 from 7)

=5
Also, 9 – 7 + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5.
Hence, again, when the bracket is removed, the sign of each term inside the
bracket is changed,
i.e. 9 – (7 – 3) = 9 – 7 + 3.

In general,

x – (y – z) = x – y + z

Caution
9 – (7 – 3) ≠ 9 – 7 – 3 !
∴ in general,
 x – (y – z) ≠ x – y – z

The rules, therefore, are:

1. If there is a + (plus) sign just before a bracket, the sign of each

term inside is unchanged when the bracket is removed (i.e. when
the expression is expanded).
2. If there is a – (minus) sign just before a bracket, the sign of each
term inside must be changed when the bracket is removed.
Removing the bracket is like multiplying each term by –1

Example 11.8
Remove brackets and simplify:
(a) 7g + (3g – 4h) – (2g – 9h)
(b) (6x – y + 3z) – (2x + 5y – 4z)

Solution
(a) 7g + (3g – 4h) – (2g – 9h)

= 7g + 3g – 4h – 2g + 9h

= 7g + 3g – 2g + 9h – 4h

= 8g + 5h
(b) (6x – y + 3z) – (2x + 5y – 4z)

= 6x – y + 3z – 2x – 5y + 4z

= 6x – 2x – y – 5y + 3z + 4z

= 4x – 6y + 7z
Note: In (b) there is no sign before the first bracket so a + sign is assumed.
In the expression 9 × (7 + 3), the bracket means that 7 and 3 are to be added
together, and the result multiplied by 9.
Thus, 9 × (7 + 3) = 9 × 10 = 90.
But 9 × 7 + 9 × 3 = 63 + 27 = 90.
∴ 9 × (7 + 3) = 9 × 7 + 9 × 3, which means that 7 and 3 may each be
multiplied by 9 and the products added together.
The multiplication sign is usually omitted, so that 9(7 + 3) means exactly the
same as 9 × (7 + 3), just as a × b = ab.
In general when expression in a bracket is multiplied by a number in order to
remove the brackets, every term inside the bracket must be multiplied by that
number.
Thus,

a(x + y) = a × x + a × y = ax + ay
and a(x – y) = a × x – a × y = ax – ay

Example 11.9
Remove brackets and simplify:
2(3x – y) + 4(x + 2y) – 3(2x – 3y)

Solution
2(3x – y) + 4(x + 2y) – 3(2x – 3y)
= 2 × 3x – 2 × y + 4 × x + 4 × 2y – 3 × 2x + 3 × 3y
= 6x – 2y + 4x + 8y – 6x + 9y
= 6x + 4x – 6x + 8y + 9y – 2y
= 4x + 15y
Notice how the signs obey the rules obtained earlier.

When simplifying expressions containing brackets enclosed in other brackets,

remove the innermost bracket first and collect like terms (if any) before
removing the next inner bracket.
Example 11.10
Simplify {3y – (x – 2y)} – {5x – (y + 3x)}

Solution
{3y –(x – 2y)} – {5x – (y + 3x)}
= {3y – x + 2y} – {5x – y – 3x}
= {5y – x} – {2x – y}
= 5y – x – 2x + y
= 6y – 3x

Note: Different shapes of brackets are usually used to make the meaning of the hyphen
expression more easily understood.

Exercise 11.5
1. Remove the brackets and simplify:
(a) 5(2x + 3)
(b) 4(3m – 2n)
(c) 7(2b – 3c + 1)
(d) 3w (4x – 1)
(e) 6(3x – 5y – 1)
(f) 2(4r – 3) + 3(s – 1)
(g) 3a (2b + c ) – 2a (2x + y )
(h) 5(c + 4) – 2(3c – 8)
(i) – (x + y ) + x
(j) (7a + 5b ) – (3a – 10b )
(k) (x – 3y )9y + 2(y 2 – 3xy )
(l) xy (x – xy ) – x (xy – x 2 )
2. Write algebraic expressions for the following. Do not remove
brackets.
(a) Add a to 2y and multiply the result by 4.
(b) Divide 12e + 30d – 18 by 6.
(c) The product of 3 consecutive even numbers, the largest of
which is p .
(d) The number by which a + b exceeds a – b .
 3. Copy and complete the following:
(a) m + n – l = m + (____)
(b) a – b – c = a – (_____)
(c) x – y + z = x – (_____)
(d) p – q – r + s = p – (____)
(e) u – v + w + x = u – (____)
(f) x – y + v – w = x – (____)
(g) a + 2b – 2c = a + 2(____)
(h) a – 3b – 6c = a – 3(___)
(i) 2a – 8c – 3x – 9z
= 2(____) – 3(____)
(j) k + 2kl – 3m 2 + 4mn
2

= k (____) – m (____)
4. Saliza is 10 years older than her brother, Pambuka. Find an
expression, in terms of Saliza’s age, for
(a) the sum of their ages.
(b) the sum of their ages in 5 years’ time.
(c) the product of their ages 3 years ago.
5. A tin, which weighs w kg when empty, holds 5 kg of jam when full.
What is the mass of 12 such full tins? The 12 full tins are packed in a
box weighing m kg. What is the total mass?
6. At a hotel, a man is charged K 7 500 a day for the first 4 days and K
5 000 a day afterwards. Find the total charge if he stays
(a) a week.
(b) n days, where n < 4.
(c) n days, where n > 4.

Factorisation of algebraic expressions

Consider the algebraic expression dx + dy.
The expression has two terms with d being a common factor.
We saw earlier that d(x + y) = dx + dy.
When dx + dy is written as d(x + y), then dx + dy is said to have been
factorised.
Note that the terms inside the brackets have no common factor.
Example 11.11
Factorise
(a) 3m + 3
(b) 3m + 6n
(c) a2 – ab
(d) 4xy – 6y2

Solution
(a) 3m + 3 = 3(m + 1) (common factor is 3)
(b) 3m + 6n = 3(m + 2n) (common factor is 3)
(c) a2 – ab = a(a – b) (common factor is a)
(d) 4xy – 6y2 = 2y(2x – 3y) (common factors are 2 and y)
Example 11.12
Factorise 2xy – 6y2 + 2y.

Solution
2xy – 6y2 + 2y = 2y(x – 3y +1) (common factors are 2 and y).

If the expression to be factorised has an even number of terms;

1. factor out any common factor(s).
2. group the terms in pairs such that there is a common factor in
each pair.
3. now factorise each of the pairs of terms.

Example 11.13
Factorise
(a) 3a + 6b + 2a + 4b
(b) ac + ad + bc + bd
(c) 2ab – xc + bc – 2ax
(d) 3ad + 12bd – 12bc – 3ac
Solution
(a) 3a + 6b + 2a + 4b = 3a + 6b + 2a + 4b
(Already paired)
= 3(a + 2b) + 2(a + 2b)
= (a + 2b)(3 + 2) [(a + 2b) is the common factor]
= (a + 2b)5 = 5(a + 2b)
(b) ac + ad + bc + bd = ac + ad + bc + bd
(Already paired)
= a(c + d) + b(c + d)
= (c + d)(a + b) [(c + d) is the common factor]
(c) 2ab – xc + bc – 2ax = 2ab + bc – xc – 2ax
(Pairing)
= b(2a + c) – x(c + 2a)
= b(2a + c) – x(2a + c)
= (2a + c)(b – x) [(2a + c) is the common factor]
(d) 3ad + 12bd – 12bc – 3ac
= 3(ad + 4bd – 4bc – ac )[(3 is the common factor]
= 3(ad + 4bd – 4bc – ac) (Already grouped)
= 3{d(a + 4b) – c(4b + a)}
= 3{(a + 4b)(d – c)}
= 3(a + 4b)(d – c)
Note that in each of the cases (a) to (d), it is possible to group the terms
differently. Try it out!

Exercise 11.6
Factorise the following.
1. 12p + 4
2. 2p + 6q
3. 4p + 12pq
4. 12p2 – 8pq
5. 6pq2 – 9p2 q
 6. 4p + 4r + 4q
7. 6p + 18q + 27r – 12s
8. 8x + 16y – 32n – 64m
9. a2 b2 + a3 b – ab3
10. 6k + 18k2 l – 27km + 12k3 n
11. 4abx – 2x2 c + 2bcx – 4ax2
12. 28m3 n + 70m2 n2 – 42mn3
13. 6a2 – 4ab + a
14. ab – 2a + 3cb – 6c
15. e2 + ef + 2e + 2f
16. 2n – 2w + mw – mn
17. 5ab – 5bc – 4c + 2a
18. x2 – xy + 6x – 6y
19. 7ab + abk – 7m – mk
20. nx – 6m – 2n + 3mx
21. ay + 3 + y + 3a
22. 3ab – 2c – 3bc + 2a
23. mw + 3n – mn – 3w
24. bx – by + 3bx – 5by
25. 6na – 3bm – 10an + 5mb

Word problems
There are many situations in everyday life which demand the use of algebra.
We will now examine such situations.

Example 11.14
The cost of a pen is K x and that of a pencil is K 4 less than that of a pen.
Find the combined cost of 4 pens and 5 pencils.

Solution
Each pen costs K x.
∴ the cost of 4 pens is K 4x.
Each pencil costs K (x – 4).
∴ the cost of 5 pencils is K 5(x – 4).
Hence, combined cost
= K 4x + K5(x – 4)
= K (4x + 5x – 20) = K (9x – 20).

Exercise 11.7
1. The sum of four numbers is h. If three of the numbers are x, y and z,
find the fourth number.
2. Find the sum of a whole number n and three times the next larger
whole number.
3. The smaller of two consecutive integers is p . Find the sum of 3
times the smaller integer and 5 times the greater.
4. A bookseller has x books worth K b each. If he sells y of them, find
the value of those remaining.
5. A man buys h ties, k of them at K 200 each and the remainder at K
230 each. Find the total cost of the ties.
6. A farmer has altogether m heads of cattle, of which n are bulls
valued at K 25 000 each and the rest are cows valued at K 33 000
each. Find the total value of the cattle.
7. A group of people go for an excursion in x cars. If y of the cars carry
4 people each and the rest 5 people each, how many people are there
in the group?

Linear equations
A mathematical sentence with the symbol = is called an equation. Such a
statement expresses the equality of things.
An equation may be conditional or an identity .
A conditional equation is one that is satisfied by at least one value of the
unknown. For example there is one value of the unknown x which satisfies
the equation x + 11 = 15.
An identity is an equation which is true regardless of what values are
substituted for the unknown. For Example;
(i) (x + 3)2 = x2 + 6x + 9 and x(x – 3) = 4x – 12 are identities. Whatever
value x takes, the statement is true.
(ii) (x + 7)2 = 2x2 + x + 1 is a conditional equation since it is true only
when x = 0 or x = 1.

A letter such as x used above is called an unknown .

An equation in which the unknown has power 1 (i.e. it is just x or y , etc.) is
known as a linear equation. For example:
x + 3 = 17, 2m – 5 = 25, 3 = 8, are linear equations.
x 2 + 4 = 8, 2y 3 – y = 7, are not linear equations.

Exercise 11.8
1. Which of the following are equations?
(a) 3 – 5 + 1
(b) 6 – 5 = 1
(c) 5 + 2 – 6
(d) 4 × 6
(e) 3 – 9
(f) 3 × 8 = 24
(g) 16 – 9 = 3 + 4
(h) 4 + 17 – 3
(i) 6 × 4 = 3 × 8
(j) 17 = 13 + 4
2. State whether the following are true or false.
(a) 3 + 6 = 7 + 2
(b) 7 – 3 = 6 – 2
(c) 6 + 2 = 6
(d) 5 + 6 + l = 11
 (e) l0 + 7 + 4 = 13 + 4
(f) 5 + 6 – 3 = 9
(g) 3 + 5 – 2 = 8
(h) 5 + 1 = 6
3. State whether the following are true, false or open.
(a) 2 – 5 = 3
(b) 8 + 13 = 23
(c) – 2 + 9 = 7
(d) 7 – x = 0
(e) 2 = 2x – 3
(f) 13 – 17 = + 7 + – 3
(g) (–24) ÷ (+3) = (– 8)
(h)

4. Copy and complete the following to make them true.

(a) 4 + 7 =
(b) 5 + 1 =
(c) 4 – 1=
(d) 6 – 6 =

Meaning of letters in Algebra

In algebra we use letters and symbols to represent unknown quantities. When
used, the letters may have different meanings depending on the type of
problem to be solved. Generally, the first letters of alphabet a, b, c…. are
used to represent constant values or numbers. The last letters of the alphabet
x, y, z are used to represent unknown values to be solved. As was pointed out
in chapter 4 , some letters and symbols stand for;
(i) Constants e.g. π as in Area of a circle = πr2 .
(ii) General numbers e.g a and b in a + b = b + a
(iii) Unknowns e.g x in 5x + 9 = 19. Here x is a quantity whose value to
be formed by solving an equation.
(iv) Variables e.g x and y in y = 4x – 7, when x varies (changes) y also
varies. Although x and y are unknown, they are also referred to as
variables because they can be assigned a set of values.
At this level, we shall use letters to represent unknowns but later on we shall
meet situations where different letters may have different meanings.

Solving equations
Consider the equation x + 13 = 19.
This equation may be true or false depending on the value of the unknown.
For example, it is true when x = 6, but false when x = 3.

The value of the unknown that makes an equation true is called the
solution or root of the equation.
To solve an equation means to find the value of the unknown which
makes the equation true.

Example 11.15
Solve the equations
(a) x + 6 = 10
(b) x – 4 = 14
(c) 2x =14
(d)

Solution
(a) We are required to find a number to which we add 6 to get 10.
The number is 4.
∴ The solution is x = 4.
(b) We are required to find a number from which we subtract 4 to get
14.
The number is 18.
∴ The solution is x = 18.
(c) We are required to find a number which when multiplied by 2 gives
14.
The number is 7.
 ∴ The solution is x = 7.
(d) We are required to find a number which when divided by 5 gives 6.
The number is 30.
∴ The solution is x = 30.

The method used in Example 11.15 is known as the cover-up technique.

Sometimes we use the cover-up technique more than once.

Example 11.16
Solve (a) 2x + 3 = 17 (b)

Solution
(a) 2x + 3 = 17
+ 3 = 17
14 + 3 = 17
so, 2x = 14
2 × = 14
2 × 7 = 14
x=7
Check: 2x + 3 = 2 × 7 + 3
= 14 + 3
= 17
∴ Thus, 7 is the solution
Exercise 11.9
1. Copy and complete the following to make them true.
(a) 18 ÷ 3 =
(b) 5 + =7
(c) 9 – =7
(d) 3 × =6
(e) 6 + =9
(f) 24 ÷ =6
(g) 4 × = – 12
(h) 7 + 4 + = 13
(i) 3 + 4 + = 10
(j) 8 + 2 + =6
(k) 4 + 5 – =2
(1) 4 + 6 – =2
(m) 6 + +4=3
(n) 3 + 7 + 1 = 9 –
(o) 8 + 3 + 2 = 10 +
(p) 6 + 5 = 11 –
(q) 6 + 6 – 3 = 12 –
(r) 3 + 12 – 8 = 15 +
2. State whether the following are true or false.
(a) = 5 when x = 24
(b) x – 2 = 9 when x = 7
(c) 20 + x = 28 when x = 8
(d) 4x = 20 when x = - 5
(e) 12 – 3x = 0 when x = 4
(f) 8 = 9 – x when x = l.
3. Solve the following equations.
(a) x + 6 = 20
(b) x + 9 = 23
(c) 16 + x = 25
(d) 17 + x = 25
(e) x – 3 = 12
(f) x – 5 = 1
(g) 12 – x = 10
(h) 14 – x = 8
(i) 4x = 28
(j) 7x = 42
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
(o) 3x + 4 = 12
(p) 5 + 5x = 5
(q) +2=4
(r)
(s) 2x – 8 = 15
(t) 18 – 3x = 15
(u)
(v)
(w)
 (x)

Solving equations by the balancing method

Since an equation states the equality of two things, it may be compared to a
pair of scales.
If the contents of the two scale-pans balance each other, they will still do so if

(i) equal amounts are added to both sides,

(ii) equal amounts are taken away from both sides,
(iii) the contents of both sides are doubled, or trebled, or halved, and
so on.

Thus, if the two sides balance, they will still do so if what is done on one
side is also done on the other.

Example 11.17
Solve the equation 8x – 6 = 5x + 9.

Solution
Imagine a pair of scales with 8x – 6 on one side balanced by 5x + 9 on the
other (Fig. 11.1 (a)). 8x – 6 = 5x + 9
Add 6 to both sides: 8x – 6 + 6 = 5x + 9 + 6
8x = 5x + 15
Subtract 5x from both sides:
8x – 5x = 5x + 15 – 5x
3x = 15
(see Fig. 11.1 (b) and (c))
Divide both sides by 3:
 i.e. x = 5 (Fig. 11.1 (d))

Fig 11.1

Check: If x = 5, 8x – 6 = 8 × 5 – 6
= 40 – 6
= 34
and 5x + 9 = 5 × 5 + 9 = 25 + 9
= 34

∴ 8x – 6 = 5x + 9 when x = 5

The reason for adding 6 to both sides and subtracting 5x from both sides is
to get rid of the – 6 on the left-hand side (LHS) and the 5x on the right-hand
side (RHS). A simpler equation is obtained, in which the LHS contains only a
term in x, while x does not appear on the RHS. The LHS of the equation 3x =
15 is divided by 3 to give x. The RHS also has to be divided by 3.
Example 11.18
Solve the equation
3x + 34 – 8x = 11 – 9x – 13
Solution 3x + 34 – 8x = 11 – 9x – 13
Simplifying both sides:
3x – 8x + 34 = 11 – 13 – 9x
i.e. – 5x + 34 = – 2 – 9x
Adding 9x to both sides:
– 5x + 34 + 9x = – 2 – 9x + 9x

4x + 34 = – 2
Subtracting 34 from both sides:
4x + 34 – 34 = – 2 – 34
4x = – 36
Dividing both sides by 4:

∴x=–9
Example 11.19
Solve

Solution

Multiplying both sides by 5:

x × 5 = 10 × 5
2x = 50
Dividing both sides by 2:

∴ x = 25
Exercise 11.10
Solve the following equations using the balance method and stating the steps
as in Examples 11.18 and 11.19 .
1. (a) x + 113 = 153
(b) 24 = x + 13
(c) x + 8 = – 12
(d) x + – 7 = – 19
2. (a) x – 17 = 37
(b) 11 = x –7
(c) x – 2 = – 4
(d) x – – 2 = – 7
3. (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
4. (a) 24x = 72
(b) +10 = –5x
(c) – 25x = 200
(d) – 7 = – 84x
5. (a) 6x – 5 = 25
(b) 9x + 8 = 35
(c) – 5x + 5 = – 15
(d) – 7x – 6 = – 20
6. (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Short cut to the balance method

Consider the equation 8p – 4 = 3p + 11.
Adding 4 to both sides, the equation becomes
8p – 4 + 4 = 3p + 11 + 4
i.e. 8p = 3p + 11 + 4……………… (1)
Subtracting 3p from both sides, the equation becomes;
8p – 3p = 3p + 11 + 4 – 3p
i.e. 8p – 3p = 11 + 4 ……………. (2)
Comparing (2) with the original equation, it looks as if.
(i) the – 4 has been transferred to the RHS and its sign changed to +,
while
(ii) the 3p has been transferred to the LHS and its sign changed to –.
In actual practice, this is usually what is done, i.e. a term may be moved from
one side of an equation to the other, but its sign must be changed.

Caution: The short cut method should only be used after mastering the
balance method.

Exercise 11.11
1. (a) 7y = 3y + 20
(b) 5q – 14 = 3
(c) 40 – 3e = 2e
(d) 1 + 2f = 22 – 5f
2. (a) 3 + 2t – 24 = 14 – 3t
(b) 2p + 19 – 5p = p – 5
(c) 12 – 3m – 3 = 9 – 5m
(d) 7 – 4n – 3 = 3n + 9 – 15

What is a formula?
You have already met relations such as A = lb , A = bh , A = πr 2 , P = 2(l +
b ), V = lbh and so on. Identify, what each of the letters in each case stands
for.
Suppose a rectangle is l cm long and b cm wide. We know that its area is l ×
b cm2 . If we call the area A cm2 , then A = l × b , i.e. A = lb .
This relation is called a formula. We use it whenever we wish to find the
area of a rectangle.
The formula is said to express A in terms of l and b .
Most formulae are given or stated in a standard form. However, we can write
our own formulae given specific situations and conditions.
When writing a formula which involves two or more different symbols, an
equation is obtained. For example, in the formula C = 2πr , C and r are
variables because they can be replaced by positive real numbers. π can only
be replaced by one specific value. Thus, C = 2πr , 2 and π are called constants
while C and r are called variables.

Example 11.20
If a motorist covers a distance, D km in T hours at an average speed of S
km/h, write down a relation between D, T and S.

Solution
We know that gives average speed in km/h.

∴S=

Example 11.21
At the end of the year, a businesslady observed that she had K s in her bank
account. For the next one year, she deposited K t every month and did not
withdraw. At the end of the year her account had K A. Write a formula
connecting s, t and A.

Solution
Initial amount was K s
In 12 months she deposits K 12t
∴ at the end of the year amount in the account is s + 12t
∴ A = s + 12t

Exercise 11.12
 1. The length and breadth of a rectangle is q cm and r cm respectively.
If its perimeter is P cm and its area A cm2 , find the formula
connecting:
(a) P, q and r
(b) A, q and r
2. A class has p boys and q girls. In a mathematics test, the average
mark for boys was m marks and n marks for girls. Find
(a) the total marks for the whole class
(b) the average for the whole class.

Subject of simple formula

When writing a formula, we have seen that a formula expresses one quantity
in terms of others i.e in V = lbh, V is expressed in terms of l,b and h. In this
case, V is called the subject of the formula. In order to solve a particular
problem, it may be necessary to express the given formula differently.
Suppose we are given the length, volume and height of a rectangular tank and
are required to find the breadth. We know that the formula connecting these
variables is V = lbh. To find the breadth b, we express b in terms of V, l and
h.

lbh = V

Dividing each side by lh:

b=

Example 11.22
Make x the subject of the formula a + mx = b.

Solution
a + mx = b
Substracting a to both sides, we get mx = b – a Dividing both sides by m, we
get
x=
Example 11.23
The formula of a circle is given by A = πr2 .
(a) Express π in terms of A and r.
(b) Express r in terms of A and π

Solution
(a) A = πr2
Dividing both sides by r2 , we get

(b) A = πr2
Dividing both sides by π, we get

Finding the square roots of both sides, we get

r=

Substitution in simple formula

As seen earlier in chapter 4 , substitution involves replacing variables with
known values in algebraic expressions. The expressions can then be
evaluated. The same method is employed when carrying out substitution in
simple formulae.

Example 11.24
The area of a triangle ABC is given by A = bh.
(a) Express b in terms of A and h.
(b) Find the value of b if h = 4 units and A = 6 units.

Solution
(a) A = bh.
 2A = bh (multiplying both sides by 2)
= b (dividing both sides by h)
∴b=
(b) h = 4, A = 6
by subtitution
b=
= 3 units

Exercise 11.13
1. Solve for x in
(a) x – p = q
(b) px + q = r
(c)
(d) a (x – b ) = cx
(e) = 1
(f) = t
2. If a rectangle is x cm long and y cm wide,
(a) find a formula for its perimeter p .
(b) Express y in terms of p and x.
3. A rectangular box has a square base of sides x cm and a height of y
cm. The sum of the length of its edges is s cm, and the sum of the
areas of its faces in A. Write a formula of
(a) s
(b) A
4. The surface area of a closed cylinder is given by the formula A = 2πr
2 + 2 πrh . Express h in terms of r and A.

5. Fig. 11.2 below represents the scale drawing of an athletics track.

The dimensions are given in metres, and the enclosed area is made
up of a rectangle and two semi-circles. The area is A m2 , and the
perimeter is p m. Find:
(a) a formula for p in terms of x and y .
 (b) a formula for A in terms of x and y.
(c) (i) y in terms of x and p.
(ii) x in terms of y and A.
(d) the value of (i) p and (ii) A given that x = 100 m and y = 63.6
m.

Fig. 11.2

6. Mrs. Umi has x dairy cows in her farm. Each cow produces p litres
of milk per day.
(a) How many litres of milk do the cows produce in seven
days?
(b) If in 23 days the cows produce 100 litres, express x in terms
of p .
7. Mponda planted m trees in his farm in the year 2009. In 2010 he
planted q trees.
(a) If 14 trees dried in 2011, how many trees did the farmer
remain with?
(b) If the total number of trees in Mponda’s farm in 2011 were
156, express m in terms of q.

Trees assist in water catchment. We should therefore protect our

environment by continuously planting trees.

Algebraic fractions
An algebraic fraction is one in which either the numerator or denominator (or
both) is an algebraic expression. For example,
are algebraic fractions.
Since the letters in these fractions stand for numbers, we deal with algebraic
fractions in the same way as with fractions in arithmetic. Thus:

1. Dividing or multiplying the numerator and denominator of an

algebraic fraction by the same number does not change the value
of the fraction.
2. When combining fractions, the fractions are first expressed over
a common denominator by finding the L.C.M. of the
denominators.

In each of the following cases, each fraction is reduced to a simpler form by

dividing the numerator and denominator by a common divisor.
(i) (dividing numerator and denominator by 4)
(ii) (dividing numerator and denominator by x)
(iii) (dividing numerator and denominator by 3x)
In the following cases, equivalent fractions are obtained by multiplying the
numerator and denominator by the same value.
(i) (multiplying numerator and denominator by 4)
(ii) (multiplying numerator and denominator by 3)
(iii) (multiplying numerator and denominator by 2b)
Fractions, in arithmetic, may be simplified using the cancellation process. For
example,
may be simplified as follows:

(9 and 21 are both divided by 3 while 16 and 20 are both

divided by 4)
We do likewise in algebra. For example,
 may be simplified as follows:

(The a’s in the numerator and denominator are both divided

by a, each giving 1; 6 and 9 are both divided by 3; the two m’s are both
divided by m).
Division of fractions in algebra follows the same process as in arithmetic. For
example,

Likewise,

Example 11.25
Simplify
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Solution
(a)
(b)

(d)
 (LCM of 2a, 5a and a is 10a)

(e)
(LCM of ab and bc is abc)

Exercise 11.14
1. Reduce the following fractions to their lowest terms.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)

2. Copy and fill in the blanks in the following

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
 (g)
(h)
(i)

3. Simplify
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
4. Simplify
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

5. Simplify
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
 7 – 11 REVISION EXERCISE 2

Revision Exercise 2.1

1. Construct ΔPQR such that:
(a) PQ = 5 cm, QR = 6 cm, PR = 7 cm
(b) PQ = 4.9, QR = 8.8 cm, PR = 8.2 cm
(c) PQ = 6.2 cm, QR = 5.8 cm ∠Q = 35º
In each case measure ∠P.
2. Given that:
(a) AB = 6 cm, BC = 6.5 cm, ∠B = 105º
(b) DE = 6.4 cm, DF = 4. 8 cm ∠E = 25º
(c) FG = 7.5 cm, GH = 7.2 cm, ∠H = 72º
Construct ΔABC, ΔDEF and ΔFGH and measure ∠A, ∠D and ∠F
respectively.
3. State whether the following statements on coordinates are true or
false.
(a) A number line is a graph or a picture of only positive
numbers.
(b) In a cartesian plane, number lines are called axes.
(c) The axis going up the page is called the x-axis.
(d) A plane surface with axes drawn on it is called a cartesian
plane.
4. Rectangle ABCD has the following vertices
A(– 5, 0), B(– 5, 3), C(2, 3), D(2, 0)
(a) Plot the coordinates on a cartesian plane and join them.
(b) Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the
diagonals of the rectangle ABCD.
5. Write down the next three terms in each of the following sequences;
 (a) 3, 7, 11, 15 …
(b) 42, 35, 28, 21 …
(c) 6, 12, 24, 48 …
6. Using numbers 2 to 30, list down all the triangle numbers.
7. Simplify the following expressions:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

8. One student got x marks in a test. Another student got 8 marks less.
If the first student got times of what the second one got, find how
many marks each got.
9. Remove brackets and simplify the following:
(a) 3m + 2(m + 2n)
(b) 7x – (5x + 2x)
(c) 5r – (r – 3r)
(d) 5t – 3(u + 2t)
(e) 2(x – 3y) + 3(x + y)
(f) (12p + 9q – 15r) – 3 (– p + q – r)
10. A saleslady insured goods worth K 140 000 against damage at K 8
000 for every K 35 000 worth of goods. Find the premium.
11. A small business buys a computer costing K 130 000. If the rate of
depreciation is 20% per annum, what is its value at the end of three
years?
12. A shop assistant is paid a basic salary of K 10 400 per month. In
addition, she is paid 3% commission on the goods which she sells.
During a certain month, she sold goods to the value of K 260 000.
What were her earnings during the month?
Revision Exercise 2.2
1. Using a ruler and compasses only, construct:
(a) A triangle ABC such that BC = 6 cm, AC = 4.5 cm, ∠ABC
= 30º. Through A, draw a line parallel to BC and on it
mark a point D such that AD = BC.
(b) Describe the resulting figure.
2. Construct ΔABC such that AB = 10 cm, AC = 9 cm, BC = 8 cm.
Locate a point X on AB such that AX = 2 cm. Through the point X
draw a line parallel to AC cutting the line BC at Y. Measure XY.
3. Plot the following points on a cartesian plane:
A (– 3, 0) B(– 3, 3) C(3, 3) D(3, 0)
4. Triangle PQR has vertices (P(– 4, 0), Q (– 2, 2) and R (0, 0). Find the
height of ΔPQR and hence calculate its area.
5. Find the nineth (9th) term in the following sequences:
(a) 1, 4, 7, 10 …
(b) 5, 0, –5, …
6. Establish the rule that can be used to give the next terms in the
sequence below:
0, 6, 12, 18, 24 …
7. Simplify the following:
(a) 8x – 7x + 5x
(b) 4d – 22d + 13d + 10d – 3d
(c) 9c + 10d – 5c – 4d
(d) 5x – 3y – 7x + 9y + 3x – 4y
(e) 33y ÷ 11
(f) 2x.4y
(g) – 3a × – 2b
(h) 8x × – 3y
8. Shabaan has m marbles. Abdi has 7 marbles more than Shabaan.
Find in terms of m :
(a) the number of marbles that Abdi has.
(b) the number of marbles that Kassim has if he has b marbles
 less than Abdi.
(c) the total number of marbles that the three boys have
between them.
9. (a) What is the smallest number that is divisible by 9, 16 and 114?
(b) Find the value of a given that b ÷ a = b
10. A salesman earned K 300 as a commission from a sales worth K 12
000. Calculate his commission on a sale worth K 17 000.
11. In a certain month, a salesperson sold a computer for K 73 900 a
printer at K 16 400 and a photocopier a K 94 500. He is paid a basic
salary of K 14 700 per month and a commission of 8% on every item
that he sells. How much was he paid at the end of the month?
12. Angela is a businesswoman with commercial premises in Lilongwe.
In March 2011, her electricity and water consumption was 83 Kwh
and 79 m3 respectively. How much would she pay in Kwacha? (Use
Table 7.2 and 7.3 on page 72 and 73)

Revision Exercise 2.3

1. Construct ΔABC such that:
(a) AB = 3.5 cm, BC = 6.5 cm and AC = 9 cm
(b) AB = 6 cm, BC = 7.5 cm and AC = 9 cm.
(c) AB = 5.7 cm, BC = 6.1 cm and AC = 7.4 cm
In each case measure the angles of the triangle.
2. Construct ΔPQR such that PQ = 4 cm, PR = 6.8 cm and ∠QPR =
65º. Measure QR and the area of the triangle.
3. Plot and label the points A(3, 5), B(4, 3) and C (6, 4). If A, B and C
are three vertices of a square, locate the fourth vertex D, and state its
coordinates. State the coordinates of the centre of this square.
4. Using a graph paper, draw a number line from – 4 to 4 and on it
mark the following points:
A (3.2)
B (– 2.6)
 C (– 3.8)
D (0.4)
5. In each of the following sequences, obtain the next two terms:
(a) 3, 4, 6, 9, 13 …
(b) 2, 2, 4, 6, 10 …
(c) 0, 3, 8, 15 …
6. How many odd numbers are also square numbers between 5 and 30?
7. Factorise each of the following expressions:
(a) a(c + d) + b(c + d)
(b) p(x – y) – q(x – y)
(c) ac + ad – bc – bd
(d) x2 – cx – dx + cd
(e) pr – qs + ps – qr
(f) a2 + 2b – 2a – ab
8. (a) Write down all the factors of 96
(b) List down all its prime factors.
9. (a) Calculate the difference between the GCF and LCM of 42, 45
and 51.
(b) Find the (i) smallest and (ii) largest possible number that
you obtain by changing the order of the digits in 374896.
10. Kumwenda bought shares worth K 1 000 000 in a certain company.
If the shares appreciated at 18% every year, how much were they
worth after 2 years?
11. A saleslady earned a commision of K 4 000 from the sale of goods
worth K 20 000. What was the commission rate?
12. A company employee has a monthly salary of K 26 000. If she is
deducted K 325 per month towards a pension fund and she pays a
monthly insurance premium of K 2 010, find her tax due at the end
of each month.
 12 LINEAR GRAPHS

In Chapter 9, we learnt how to choose appropriate scale and use it to plot

points whose coordinates are given. In this unit, we will expand our graphical
work restricting ourselves to linear graphs only.

Linear graphs
The ordered pair (x , y ) represents coordinates of any point (i.e. a general
point) on the Cartesian plane.
Consider the equation y = 3. For all values of x , y is always equal to 3. Thus
(x , y ) may lie anywhere on the line shown in Fig. 12.1 .

Fig. 12.1

y = 3 is called the equation of the line and Fig. 12.1 is the graph of the line y
= 3.
Fig. 12.2 shows lines which are parallel to the axes. The equation of each line
is written beside it.
Note that the equation of the x -axis is y = 0, i.e. the line on which all points
have the y -coordinate as 0.
Likewise X = 0 is the equation of the y -axis .
 Fig. 12.2

Consider the equation y = x + 2 (a linear equation in x and y ). For every

value of x , there is a corresponding value of y , x and y are called variables .
The equation gives the connection (or relation) between the variables.
For example, if x = 0, y = 2; if x = l, y = 3; if x = 3, y = 5, etc. These values
can be written as ordered pairs of corresponding x and y values as: (0, 2), (1,
3), (3, 5), etc.
If these pairs are plotted as points on the Cartesian plane, they give the graph
of the equation y = x + 2 , as shown in Fig.12.3 . Since the points lie on a
straight line, they are joined using a straight edge or ruler.
 Fig. 12.3

In Fig.12.3 take A as point (1, 3) and (3, 5) as B. Moving from A to B.

Vertical distance = 5 – 3 = 2
Horizontal distance = 3 – 1 = 2

This measures the steepness of the line. The steepness of a line is called the
gradient of the line. For any line passing through points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2
, y2 ) as shown in Fig. 12.4
 Fig. 12.4

Points to note
1. A line whose equation is of the form y = c where c is a constant,
implies that the line
(i) is parallel to the x -axis.
(ii) meets the y -axis at a point whose coordinates are (0, c)
2. A line whose equation is of the form x = k where k is a constant,
implies that the line
(i) is parallel to the y -axis.
(ii) meets the x -axis at a point whose co-ordinates are (k,
0).
3. A line whose equation is of the form y = mx, implies that
(i) the line passes through the origin, (0, 0)
(ii) the steepness of the line is determined by the value of
m.
4. A line whose equation is of the form y = mx + c , where m and c
are constants, implies that the line meets the y -axis at a point
whose coordinates are (0, c )

In note (1) and (4), points (0, c ) is called the y -intercept i.e. the point at
which a line meets the y -axis.
Similarly, in note (2), a point such as (k, 0) is called the x -intercept, a point
where a line meets the x -axis
 Activity 12.1
Using Fig. 12.2 identitfy the intercept(s) for each line. Hence copy and
complete the table below.

Table 12.1
Note: For straight-line graphs, it is sufficient to plot only two points to be
able to draw the line. In practice, however, it is necessary to plot three points.
If the three points lie on a straight line, the working is probably correct.

Example 12.1
On the same axis, draw the graphs of y = – 1.5, x = 2, y = 3x and 5x + 7y =
14, for values of x from – 4 to + 4.

Solution
Choose values of x, within the given range, that enable easy calculation of
the corresponding y values, and which result in points that are easy to plot.
It is convenient to show the working and corresponding values in tables, as
in Tables 12.2 to 12.5 .
 Table 12.2

Table 12.3

Table 12.4

To make it easier to find values of y,

5x + 7y = 14 may be arranged as:
7y = 14 – 5x (subtracting 5x from both sides)
y=2– (dividing both sides by 7)

Table 12.5

The graphs are as shown in Fig. 12.5

 Fig. 12.5

Note: x is called the independent variable , and y is called the dependent

variable (as it depends on the value chosen for x ). The values of x are
marked along the horizontal axis while those of y are marked along the
vertical axis.

Exercise 12.1
1. State the equations of the lines (a), (b), (c) and (d) shown in Fig.
12.6 .
 Fig. 12.6

2. State the equations of the x and y -axes.

3. On a Cartesian plane, draw and label the lines represented by the
following equations.
(a) x = 5
(b) y = – 2
(c) y = 3.2
(d) x = – 3
4. Copy and complete Table 12.6 (a) to (d) for each of the given linear
equations.
(a) y = x + 1

(b) y = 5 – 2x

(c)

(d) 2x – y + 3 = 0
 Table 12.6
Hence
State the coordinates of points where lines;
y = x + 1 and y = 5 – 2x
and 2x – y + 3 = 0 intersect
5. Table 12.7 gives corresponding values of x and y for the equation y
= x + 3.

Table 12.7
(a) Use a scale of 2 cm to 1 unit on both axes and draw the
graph of y = x + 3.
(b) Extend the line to find the coordinates of the point where it
cuts the x -axis.
6. Copy and complete Table 12.8 for the equation 3y + 2x = 21.

Table 12.8
(a) Using a scale of 2 cm to represent 1 unit on both axes, draw
the graph of 3y + 2x = 21.
(b) Use your graph to find the value of
(i) y when x = – 1.5.
(ii) x when y = 4
(c) Write down the coordinates of the points where the line cuts
the axes.
7. Using a scale of 1 cm to represent 1 unit on both axes, draw the
graphs of the following equations, for values of x from – 3 to 3.
(a) y = x + 2
(b) y = x
(c) y = 2x
 (d) y = 2 – 3x
8. Using a scale of 2 cm to represent 1 unit on both axes, draw on the
same axes the lines and for values of
x from – 6 to 6. What do you notice about the three lines ?
9. For values of x from – 2 to 2, draw the graph of

10. State whether the following points lie on the line y = 7x – 1 .

(a) (1 , 6)
(b) (3 , 2)
(c) (– 1 , 6)

Drawing and interpreting graphs

Graphs have a wide application in science and in many other fields. Graphs
should be easy to draw, read and interpret if the following points are adopted:
(i) Write a brief explanatory heading (title) above the graph.
(ii) The quantity whose values are selected (independent variable)
should be placed along the horizontal axis while the quantity whose
values are observed or calculated (dependent variable) should be
placed along the vertical axis.
(iii) Choose as large a scale as the paper allows. This will make plotting
and reading easy. Ensure that you accommodate all the data in the
table.
(iv) Graduate and clearly label the axes and write the units used.
(v) If two graphs are drawn on the same axes, label each clearly.

Example 12.2
Table 12.9 shows the volume of a gas at various temperatures when heated
from 0ºC

Table 12.9
 (a) Using a suitable scale draw a graph of volume against temperature.
(b) Use your graph to find
(i) the initial volume of the gas.
(ii) the volume of the gas when the temperature is 48ºC and
70ºC.
(iii) the temperature of the gas when the volume is 1.8 litres
and when it is 2.1 litres.
(c) From the equation of the graph;
(i) What does the gradient mean?
(ii) What does the y-intercept mean?

Solution
(a) Fig.12.7 shows the required graph. 1 cm represents 0.1 litre on the
vertical axis while 1 cm represents 20º on the horizontal axis. The
zero mark is not shown on the vertical axis. It is necessary to show
the zero mark on the horizontal axis because of question (b) (i).

Volume-temperature graph
 Fig. 12.7

(b) (i) Initial volume of gas is 1.7 litres .

(ii) At 48ºC volume is 2.0 litres and at 70ºC volume is 2.13
litres.
(iii) When volume is 1.8 litres, temperature is 16ºC and when
the volume is 2.1 litres, temperature is 64ºC
(c) y = 0.0043x + 1.7
(i) Gradient = rate at which volume changes as temperature
change/increase.
(ii) y-intercept = Initial volume of gas when temperature is
0ºC.

Exercise 12.2
1. Electricity cost consists of a standing charge and an additional
amount which depends on the number of watts used. Table 12.10
shows the amounts payable for various number of watts used.
Number of watts (W) Amount (K)
10 60
20 100
30 140
40 180
50 220
60 260

Table 12.10

(a) Choose a suitable scale and draw a graph of amount paid

against the number of watts (W) used.
(b) Use your graph to find
(i) the payment for consumptions of 47 watts, 25
watts and 43 watts.
(ii) the consumptions for payments of K 40, K 124
and K 248.
(iii) the standing charge.
2. Table 12.11 shows the extension on a spring for different masses.
 Table 12.11

(a) Choosing a suitable scale for each axis, draw a graph of

extension against mass.
(b) Using your graph, find the extensions for masses of 3 g, 5.2
g and 7.3 g.
(c) Using the graph, find the mass that would give an extension
of 4.0 mm, 9.2 mm and 16.2 mm.
3. Table 12.12 shows temperatures in degrees Celsius (ºC) and their
equivalents in degrees Fahrenheit (ºF).

Table 12.12

(a) Use a suitable scale to draw a graph of ºF (Fahrenheit)

against ºC (Celsius).
(b) Use your graph to convert the following temperatures in
degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius.
(i) 0 ºF
(ii) – 25 ºF
(iii) 90 ºF
(iv) 25 ºF
(c) Use your graph to convert the following temperatures in
degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit
(i) 20 ºC
(ii) – 10 ºC
(iii) 39 ºC
(iv) – 40 ºC.
4. The measured volumes of a gas at various temperatures are shown in
Table 12.13 .
 Table 12.13

(a) Using a suitable scale, draw the graph of volume against

temperature.
(b) Use your graph to find
(i) the initial volume of the gas (i.e. volume when
temperature is 0ºF).
(ii) the volume of the gas when the temperature is
60ºC and 83ºC
(iii) the temperature of the gas when the volume is 2
litres and when it is 2.3 litres.
5. In Table 12.14 , d is the number of days that food lasts a given
number of students (n ).

Table 12.14

Using a scale of 1 cm to 100 students on the vertical axis and 1 cm

to 0.0125 units on the horizontal axis, draw a graph of n against
and use it to find how long the food will last 100, 350 and 870
students.
 13 TRIANGLES

Types of triangles
A triangle is a closed plane figure with three straight sides. It has three
angles.
There are different kinds of triangles. A scalene triangle is one in which there
are no equal sides and no equal angles as shown in Fig.13.1

Fig. 13.1

An acute-triangle (or acute-angled triangle) is one whose interior angles

are all acute (Fig. 13.1 (a)).
An obtuse-triangle (or obtuse-angled triangle) is one that contains an
obtuse interior angle (Fig. 13.1 (b)).
An isosceles triangle is one with two equal sides (Fig. 13.2 (a)). The third
side is called the base and the angle opposite to it the vertex. The base angles
are equal.
An equilateral triangle is one with all the sides equal. (Fig. 13,2 (b)). All its
angles are also equal.
 Fig. 13.2
A right triangle or right-angled triangle is a triangle with one right angle
(Fig. 13.2 (c)). The side opposite the right angle is called the
hypotenuse.
A triangle which contains no right angles is called an oblique triangle. Thus,
scalene and acute triangles are both oblique.
A line from the vertex of a triangle perpendicular to the opposite side such as
QM in fig. 13.2 (d) is known as altitude of the triangle. An altitude may be
drawn from any vertex to the opposite side.
The symbol Δ (Greek letter ‘delta’) is used to denote a triangle, e.g ΔABC
means ‘triangle ABC’.

Angle property of triangles

Exercise 13.1
1. (a) Draw an acute-angled ΔABC Measure the angles in the triangle.
Find the sum of the angles.
(b) Draw an obtuse angled ΔPQR. Measure the angles in the
triangle. Find the sum of the angles.
(c) What do you notice about the results in (a) and (b)?
2. (a) Draw a triangle ABC (Fig. 13.3 ). Cut it out along its sides.
(b) Cut off the corners along the indicated lines (Fig. 13.3(a)).
Arrange them against a straight edge as shown in Fig.
13.3(b).
(c) What do you notice? What can you say about the sum of the
angles of the triangle?
 Fig. 13.3

3. (a) Draw any triangle PQR (Fig. 13.4 ). Cut it out along its sides.
(b) Fold the triangle through angle P such that Q lies on the side
QR. Mark the point where the fold meets QR as M.

Fig. 13.4

(c) Open up the triangle and measure ∠PMR.

(d) What type of triangle is ΔPMR?
4. Draw a triangle ABC. Produce AB to P, BC to Q and CA to R (Fig.
13.5 ).
 Fig. 13.5

What is ∠PBC + ∠QCA + ∠RAB

5. Copy triangle ABC (Fig. 13.6 ) on a sheet of paper. Carefully cut it
out. By folding the triangle so that A lies on C, obtain the line BM.
Similarly, by folding the triangle so that B lies C, obtain line AN.

Fig. 13.6

(a) Measure angles ∠AMB and ∠ ANC

(b) What is the size of ∠AOM
(c) Measure
(i) ∠BAN and ∠CAN
(ii) ∠ABM and ∠CBM
What do you notice?
From Exercise 13.1 you should have noticed the following.

1. The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180°.

2. If the three side of a triangle are produced in the same sense (i.e.
clockwise or anti-clockwise) as shown in Fig. 13.7 , the sum of
 the exterior angles so formed is 360°

Fig. 13.7

3. In an equilateral triangle,
(i) any two altitudes intersect at 60°
(ii) an altitude bisects the angle from which it is drawn.

Exercise 13.2
Calculate the angles marked with letters a to n in Fig. 13.8 .
 Fig. 13.8

Lines of symmetry in isosceles and equilateral triangles

An isosceles triangle

Activity 13.1
(a) Copy triangle ABC (Fig. 13.9 ) on a sheet of paper. Carefully cut it
out.

Fig. 13.9

(b) Fold the triangle such that B lies on C. What do you notice?
(c) Fold the triangle such that A lies on B. What do you notice?
(d) Fold the triangle such that A lies on C. What do you notice?
You should have noticed that only by folding the triangle such that B lies on
C, do we obtain two similar (equal) triangles. The fold line formed in this
case is known as the line of symmetry.

An equilateral triangle

Activity 13.2
(a) Copy triangle ABC (Fig. 13.10 ) on a sheet of paper. Carefully cut it
out.

Fig. 13.10

(b) Fold the triangle such that Q lies on R. What do you notice?
(c) Fold the triangle such that P lies on Q. What do you notice?
(d) Fold the triangle such that P lies on R. What do you notice?

You should have noticed that all the fold lines divide triangle PQR into two
similar triangles. From activities 13.1 and 13.2, we conclude that;

1. An isosceles triangle has only one line of symmetry

2. An equilateral triangle has three lines of symmetry.

Congruence
Fig. 13.11 shows three triangles: ΔABC, ΔPQR and ΔXYZ.

Fig. 13.11

How does ΔABC differ from ΔPQR? How does ΔPQR differ from ΔXYZ?
Does direction change? Does the length of a line segment change?
Does the angle between corresponding pairs of two lines change?
Do you agree that the size and shape do not change?
We say that when triangles (shapes) have equal corresponding lengths and
the corressponding angles are also equal, then they are congruent.
But there is still an important difference between congruent shapes. What is
it?
If we trace and slide ΔABC in Fig. 13.11 , onto which triangle will it fit
exactly?
If we turn over and slide the tracing of ΔABC, onto which triangle will it fit
exactly?

Two shapes are congruent if they have the same size and shape.
If two shapes are congruent and we can slide one so that it fits exactly on
the other, the congruence is direct .
If one shape can be fitted on to the other only after turning it over, the
congruence is opposite or indirect .

Congruent triangles: tests for congruence

Congruent triangles are named such that the letters are in the same
alphabetical order. This makes it easier to indicate the corresponding sides or
the corresponding angles.
Thus, if ΔABC is congruent to ΔPQR, then AB corresponds to PQ , BC
corresponds to QR and CA corresponds to RP , ∠ABC corresponds to ∠
PQR, and so on.

If two or more triangles satisfy any of the following conditions, then they
are congruent.
1. Each of the three sides of one triangle is equal to the
corresponding side of the other triangle – abbreviated as SSS
(Fig. 13.12 ).

Fig. 13.12

2. Two sides and the included angle of one triangle are equal to the
corresponding two sides and the included angle of the other
triangle abbreviated as SAS (Fig. 13.13 ).

Fig. 13.13

3. Two angles and a side of one triangle are equal to the

corresponding two angles and one side of the other triangle
abbreviated as AAS or ASA (Fig. 13.14 ).
 Fig. 13.14

4. A right angle, a hypotenuse and another side of one triangle are

equal to the corresponding right angle, hypotenuse and side of
the other triangle – abbreviated as RHS (Fig. 13.15 ).

Fig. 13.15

Note: If, in condition (2), the angle is not the included angle, it is not possible
to conclusively say if the triangles are congruent. In such a case, there are two
possible triangles PQR, one which is not congruent to ABC and one which is
congruent to ABC. Hence, this (ASS) is called the ambiguous case (Fig.
13.16 ).
 Fig. 13.16

Example 13.1
In ΔABC and ΔDEF, AB = EF, AC = DF and ∠A = ∠F. Are these triangles
congruent?

Solution
It is helpful to make a sketch, as in Fig.13.17 .

Fig. 13.17

Triangles ABC and DEF are congruent (oppositely congruent) as the

condition SAS is satisfied.

Exercise 13.3
1. Fig. 13.18 shows four congruent triangles.
 Fig. 13.18

(a) Which pairs of triangles are directly congruent?

(b) Which pairs are indirectly congruent?
(c) Write down pairs of triangles which could be object and
image under reflection. Trace the figure and construct the
mirror lines for these pairs.
2. In Fig. 13.19 , AB =AD, BC = CD. Show that Δs ABC and ACD are
congruent.

Fig. 13.19

3. In Fig. 13.20 , points P, Q and R are on the circumference of the

circle centre O. Show that Δs POQ and POR are congruent.

Fig. 13.20

4. The facts below refer to two triangles, ABC and DEF. Do the facts
 show that the triangles must be congruent?
(a) CA = FD, CB = FE, ∠B = ∠E
(b) AC = EF, ∠A = ∠E, ∠C = ∠F
(c) AC = DF, ∠B = ∠D, ∠C = ∠F
(d) BC = DF, ∠B = ∠F, ∠A = ∠E
(e) ∠A =ZD, ∠B = ∠E, ∠C = ∠F
(f) AB = AC, DE = DF, ∠A = ∠D
(g) BC = DF, AC = DE, AB = EF
(h) AB = AC, DE = DF, BC = EF
5. If ΔABC ≡ ΔYZX, which side is equal to XY and which angle is
equal to ∠ACB?
6. In Fig. 13.21 , the lines ANB and CND bisect each other. Prove that
AD = CB and AD||CB.

Fig. 13.21

7. O is the centre of each of the circles in Fig. 13.22 . AOB and POQ
are straight lines. Prove that AQ = PB.

Fig. 13.22

8. In ΔABC, AB =AC. P and Q are points on AB and AC respectively

such that PQ||BC. Show that Δs ABQ and ACP are congruent.
9. PQS is an isosceles triangle such that PQ = PS. R is a point on QS
such that PR QS. Show that Δs PQR and PSR are congruent.
10. Two chords PQ and PR of a circle are equal in length. The bisector
of ∠QPR meets arc QR at S. Use congruence to show that
(a) QS = RS, and
(b) PS is perpendicular to QR.
 14 REFLECTION AND
ROTATION

Symmetry
What do the pictures in Fig. 14.1 have in common?

Fig. 14.1

The left hand side of each picture is exactly the same shape and size as the
right hand side. This property is known as symmetry and the pictures are
said to be symmetrical .
Choose a picture from Fig. 14.1 and make a tracing of it. Draw a line which
will divide the picture into two identical parts. This line is called a line of
symmetry and the figure is said to have line symmetry .
Place the edge of a mirror along the line of symmetry. What do you notice?

A line which divides a shape into two equal parts i.e. one part is a mirror
image of the other, is called a line of symmetry . Each part is a
reflection of the other.
 A shape which has one or more lines of symmetry is said to be
symmetrical about the line(s).

Fig. 14.2 shows some symmetrical geometric shapes with the lines of
symmetry drawn as broken lines.

Fig. 14.2

How many lines of symmetry has

(a) an equilateral triangle,
(b) a square,
(c) a rhombus,
(d) a circle?
Paper folding and cutting to make symmetrical shapes

Activity 14.1
Fold a rectangular piece of paper once so that the corners coincide. Cut off a
corner as shown in Fig. 14.3 .
 Fig. 14.3

Unfold the corner which you have cut off.

What shape do you get?
What can you say about:
(i) the shape and angles of your figure,
(ii) the two parts of the shape on each side of the fold,
(iii) the distances of the corresponding points on opposite sides of the
fold line?
What line does the fold line represent?

Activity 14.2
Fold a rectangular sheet of paper as shown in Fig. 14.4 ensuring that the
corners coincide. Cut off the corner as shown.

Fig. 14.4

Unfold the corner which you have cut off.

What shape do you get?
What can you say about the sides and angles of your figure?
Place the edge of a mirror on the fold lines in turn. What do you notice?
How many lines of symmetry does your figure have?

Since one half of a symmetrical shape is a mirror image, i.e. a reflection of

the other, line symmetry is sometimes called mirror symmetry , reflection
symmetry or bilateral symmetry (bilateral means two-sided).

Properties of symmetrical shapes

From Activities 14.1 and 14.2, you should have discovered that a line of
symmetry divides a shape into two parts with the properties that:
 (i) The corresponding sides of the two parts are equal;
(ii) The corresponding angles of the two parts are equal; and
(iii) The corresponding points on the two parts are the same distance
away from the line of symmetry.

For example, in Fig. 14.5 , m is the line of symmetry of the given shape.
The left-hand side is the mirror image of the right-hand side. Hence,
∠a′ = ∠a (corresponding angles)
A′ B′ = AB (corresponding sides)
OB′ = OB (corresponding distances).

Fig. 14.5

Exercise 14.1
1. Fold a rectangular sheet of paper as shown in Fig. 14.6 and cut off
the corner as shown. (Note that the corners do not coincide).
Is the fold line a line of symmetry?

Fig. 14.6

2. Fold a rectangular piece of paper as shown in Fig. 14.7 . Cut off the
corner as shown and unfold it. (Note that on folding the second time,
 the corners do not coincide).

Fig. 14.7

(a) How many lines of symmetry does your figure have?

(b) Do all the folds represent lines of symmetry? If not, what
are they?
3. Fold a piece of paper as in Fig. 14.8 ensuring that the corners
coincide. Cut as shown and unfold the part indicated with an arrow.

Fig. 14.8

(a) What is the shape of the figure obtained?

(b) How many lines of symmetry does it have?
4. Fold a sheet of paper twice as in Fig. 14.4 and then fold again as in
Fig. 14.9 . Cut as indicated and unfold the corner that you have cut
off. (Note the equal angles).

Fig. 14.9
 (a) What shape do you obtain?
(b) Are the fold lines the only lines of symmetry of your figure?
If not, where are the others?
How many lines of symmetry does the figure have?
Draw a diagram to show how you would cut the corner to obtain a
regular octagon.
5. Which of the shapes in Fig. 14.10 have lines of symmetry and how
many lines of symmetry does each have?
Copy each shape and on the copy draw the lines of symmetry.
 Fig. 14.10

6. Draw a line segment PQ on a piece of paper. Does PQ have a line of

symmetry? Fold the paper so that the fold is a line of symmetry of
PQ . What is the size of the angles between the fold and PQ ? What
can you say about the distances of P and Q from any point on the
line of symmetry?

Symmetry in solids

Activity 14.3
Carefully cut an orange in half. Place the cut surface of one half against a
shiny plane surface (an ordinary mirror will do).
What do you see? The result is slightly false. Why?
Place the other half against the shiny surface. Do the two ‘whole’ oranges
that you see appear identical?

If you cut an orange in two so that the two parts are identical, the cut is called
a plane of symmetry .
Note: A rubber ball will give more accurate results if used in place of an
orange because it is a more perfect sphere.
How many planes of symmetry does a sphere have?

Exercise 14.2
1. Make a list of objects which have planes of symmetry in your
classroom.
2. What parts of your body are mirror images of each other?
3. How many planes of symmetry has
(a) a cube,
(b) a cuboid,
(c) a cylinder,
(d) a cone,
(e) a regular tetrahedron,
(f) a prism with an isosceles triangle cross-section,
 (g) a prism with an equilateral triangle cross-section,
(h) a prism with a scalene triangle cross-section?
4. If you place the following solids against a plane mirror, what new
solid do you see?
(a) A cube
(b) A rectangular block
(c) A cylinder (on one of its plane surfaces)
(d) A hemisphere (on its plane surface)
(e) A square-based pyramid (on its base)
5. How many planes of symmetry does each of solids in Fig. 14.11
have?

Fig. 14.11
Reflection
We have already seen that the two parts of a shape on opposite sides of a line
of symmetry, are mirror images of each other.
Now consider looking at yourself in a mirror. Do you see yourself as others
see you?
In what ways does your reflection differ from yourself?
Now answer the following questions.
1. If you raise your right arm, which arm is raised in your reflection?
2. Which is taller, you or your reflection?
3. Imagine a line joining the tip of your nose to its reflection in the
mirror. What angle does this line make with the mirror?
4. If you stand 3 m infront of the mirror, where does your reflection
appear to be?
5. If you walk towards the mirror, what happens to your reflection?
Now look at the pictures in Fig. 14.12 (a) and (b) each of which is a picture
of a car and its reflection.

Fig. 14.12

In Fig. 14.12 (a), it is not possible to tell which is the reflection of the other.
Why? However, we can easily see which the reflection is in Fig. 14.12 (b).
Why? Which letters in Fig. 14.12 (b) remain the same when reflected? What
can you say about their lines of symmetry?
Do your observations apply also to Fig 14.13 ?
The figure being reflected is called the object and its reflection the image .
 Fig. 14.13

The process or act of reflecting an object is a transformation .

In mathematics, a transformation is said to be a change in the position
or dimensions (or both) of a shape . The figure being transformed is
referred to as the object and the figure which results after transformation
as the image .

You are going to encounter other transformations later.

Under reflection, an object and its image have reflection symmetry and the
mirror acts as the line or plane of symmetry.
Note that if an object has a line of symmetry that is parallel to the mirror line,
as with the letters T, I and O in Fig 14.12 (b), it is unchanged when reflected.
Note that it is the same case with the letters A and I and in the skull bones in
Fig. 14.13 .
In mathematics, we usually study only the reflection of two-dimensional
(plane) figures. It is easier to see and study the mathematics involved. The
mirror line (m) is usually indicated by an arrow at each end.

Properties of reflection
From the foregoing discussion, you should have noticed that an object and its
image are on opposite sides of the mirror line, and that:

1. An object and its image have the same shape and size .
2. A point on the object and a corresponding point on the image are
equidistant from the mirror line.
3. The image is laterally inverted , i.e. what is the object’s left-
hand side becomes the image’s right-hand side and vice versa.
 4. The line joining a point and its image is perpendicular to the
mirror line.
5. A point on the mirror line is an image of itself. Such a point is
said to be invariant since its position has not changed.

Note: We think of a mirror as two-sided so that if B is on the same side as the

image A′ , then its image B′ is on the same side as the object A (Fig. 14.14 ).

Fig. 14.14

Example 14.1
Draw the image of triangle PQR (Fig. 14.5 ) under reflection in the mirror
line m.

Fig. 14.5

Solution
(i) To obtain the image of point P, draw a perpendicular from P to the
mirror line and produce it (Fig. 14.16 ).
(ii) Mark off P′, the image of P, equidistant from the mirror line as P.
 Fig. 14.16

(iii) Similarly, obtain Q′ and R′, the images of Q and R respectively.

(iv) Join P′ , Q′ and R′ to obtain the image of ΔPQR.

Exercise 14.3
1. Make a tracing of each of the drawings in Fig. 14.7 and construct
their images under reflection in the indicated mirror line m.

Fig. 14.17

2. Fig 14.18 shows objects and their images under reflection. Trace
each of the drawings and construct the mirror line in each case.
 Fig. 14.18

Reflection on the Cartesian plane

Reflection in the mirror lines x-axis (y = 0) and y-axis (x = 0)

Example 14.2
A(2 ,4), B(6 , 4) and C(7 , 2) are the vertices of a triangle. Find the image of
the triangle under reflection in the line (i) x-axis, (ii) y-axis, labelling them
respectively as A′B′C′ and A″B″C″.

Solution
Fig. 14.19 shows ΔABC and its images.
 Fig. 14.19

How are the x -coordinates of an object point and its image related?
How are the y -coordinates related?
You should notice that:

Reflection in the mirror line

1. x -axis (y = 0) maps a point P(a , b) onto P′(a, –b).
2. y -axis (x = 0) maps a point P(a , b) onto P′ (– a , b)

Reflection in the mirror lines x = k and y = k

Example 14.3
Find the images of ΔABC with vertices A(– 1 , – 2), B(1 , 5) and C(2 , 3)
under reflection in the mirror lines (i) x = – 1, and (ii) y = 1, labelling them
as ΔA′B′C′ and ΔA″B″C″ respectively.

Solution
ΔABC and its images are shown in Fig. 14.20 .
 Fig. 14.20

State the relationship between the x -coordinates of an object point and its
image. Do likewise for the y- coordinates.

You should notice that:

Reflection in the mirror line

1. x = k maps a point P(a , b) onto P′ (2k – a, b ).
2. y = k maps a point P(a , b) onto P′ (a , 2k – b).

Reflection in the mirror lines y = x and y = – x

Example 14.4
A( – 1,2), B(1,5) and C(3,4) are the vertices of a triangle. Find the images of
the triangle when it is reflected in the mirror lines (i) y = x, and (ii) y = – x,
labelling them as A′B′C′ and A″B″C″ respectively.
Solution
Fig. 14.21 shows ΔABC and its images.

Fig. 14.21

How are the x -coordinates of an object point and its image related? How
about the y -coordinates?

You should notice that:

Reflection in the mirror line

1. y = x maps a point P(a , b ) onto P′ (b , a ).
2. y = – x maps a point P(a , b) onto P′(– b,– a)

Example 14.5
The vertices of a quadrilateral are A(2 , 0.5), B(2 , 2), C(4 , 3.5) and D(3.5 ,
1). Find the image of the quadrilateral under reflection in line y = 0 followed
by reflection in line y = – x.

Solution
‘Reflection in line y = 0 followed by reflection in line y = – x’ means that we
first obtain the image under reflection in line y = 0 and then reflect this
image in line y = – x.
This is shown in Fig. 14.22 . In the figure, A′B′C′D′ is the reflection of ABCD
in line y = 0. A″B″C″D″ is the reflection of A′B′C′D′ in line y = – x.
Thus the required image vertices are:
A″(0.5 , – 2), B″(2 , – 2), C″(3.5 , – 4) and D″(1 , 3.5).

Fig. 14.22

Exercise 14.4
1. A quadrilateral has vertices P(4 , 2), Q(7 , 3), R(6 , 2) and S(4 , 0).
Draw, on the same axes, the quadrilateral and its images under
reflection in
(a) the x -axis,
(b) the line y = x ,
(c) the y -axis,
 (d) the line y = – x ,
labelling the images as P′ Q′ R′ S′ , P″ Q″ R″ S″ , P″′ Q″′ R″′ S″′ and
Piv Qiv Riv Siv respectively.
State the coordinates of each image point.
2. A(– 4, 1), B(– 2, – 1), C(1, 0) are the vertices of a triangle. Find the
image of the triangle when it is reflected in the mirror line
(a) y = 1
(b) y = – 2
(c) x = – 3
(d) x = 1.5
3. The vertices of a triangle are A(– 4 , 6), B(– 3 , 2) and C(– 7 , 1). Find
the final image of the triangle under
(a) reflection in line y = 0 followed by reflection in line y = x ,
(b) reflection in line y = – x followed by reflection in line x = 0,
(c) reflection in line y = x followed by reflection in line y = 1,
(d) reflection in line x = 1.5 followed by reflection in the same
line.
4. Under reflection, which properties of an object are invariant?

Geometric deductions using reflection

Angle bisector
Draw two intersecting lines on tracing paper. Thinking of the lines as
indefinitely long, fold to form lines of symmetry (mirror lines) for the pair of
lines. What do you notice about the angles?
Did you notice that the angles marked a in Fig. 14.23 are equal? What about
the angles marked b ?
 Fig. 14.23

a + a + b + b = 180° (angles on a straight line)

2a + 2b = 180°
2(a + b ) = 180°
a + b = 90°
Thus, the two angle bisectors are perpendicular .
If a figure has only two lines of symmetry, are they always at right angles to
each other?

Vertically opposite angles

Two lines intersect as shown in Fig. 14.24 . The broken line is a mirror line m
. What can you say about the angles marked c and d ?

Fig. 14.24
c+c+B= 180°
i.e. 2c + B = 180° (angles on a straight line)
Also, d + d + A = 180°
i.e. 2d + A = 180° (angles on a straight line)
But c = d
∴ 2c + B = 180°
and 2c + A = 180°
i.e. 2c + A = 2c + B
∴A= B
Also C = D since 2c = 2d or c = d

Thus, if two lines intersect, the vertically opposite angles formed are equal .

An isosceles triangle
Fig. 14.25 (a) shows an isosceles triangle ABC. Draw a similar figure on
tracing paper. Fold to form a line of symmetry for BC as in Fig. 14.25 (b).
What do you notice about angles B and C?
Label as D the point where the fold line cuts BC.

Fig. 14.25

What can you say about ∠ADC?

∠A is called the vertical angle of the isosceles triangle. Does your fold line
bisect this angle? You should notice that:

1. The base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal.

2. The perpendicular from the vertex of an isosceles triangle to the
base bisects the vertical angle. It also bisects the base.

Mediators of the sides of a triangle.

Draw a triangle ABC on tracing paper. Fold to form lines of symmetry for
each of AB , BC and CA in turn, (See Fig. 14.26 ). The lines of symmetry
divide the respective sides of the triangle equally. These lines are called
mediators . What do you notice about the fold lines?
 Fig. 14.26

You should notice that:

1. The three mediators of the sides of a triangle meet at a common

point. The common point is called the circumcentre of the
triangle .
2. If the triangle was equilateral, each mediator would pass through
the vertex of the triangle opposite the side it mediates.

Chord of a circle
Draw a circle centre O on tracing paper. Draw a chord AB on the circle (Fig.
14.27 ).

Fig. 14.27

Fold the circle so that A coincides with B. Does your fold line pass through
O? What angle does the fold line make with chord AB?
We see that:

1. The fold is a line of symmetry and meets AB at angle of 90º.

2. The fold passes through the centre of the circle.

Exercise 14.5
1. Draw a circle on tracing paper by drawing round a circular object.
 Find the centre by folding. Check with a pair of compasses.
2. Use reflection properties to find the angles marked by small letters in
each part of Fig. 14.28 .

Fig. 14.28

3. In Fig. 14.29 , PQRS is a circle, centre O. OP = 5 cm, TR = 4 cm,

and ST = 2 cm.
 Fig. 14.29

(a) State the size of ∠PTO.

(b) State the lengths of the following:
(i) OR
(ii) OS
(iii) OT
(iv) OQ
(v) QT
(c) What can you say about the products PT × TR and QT ×
TS?
4. Draw a triangle ABC. With BC as the mirror line, construct the
reflection image of ABC. What special figure is formed by the
object triangle ABC combined with its image? What is the sum of
the interior angles of this figure?
Use these facts to show that the angle sum of a triangle is 180°.
5. A line of an object is at 35° to the line of the mirror. What is the size
of the angle between the corresponding image line and the mirror?
6. An object line and its image make an angle of 90°. Describe the
position of the mirror line. Draw a diagram to illustrate this.
7. Draw the figure with vertices at (– 1, 1), (2, 3), (5, 1) and (2, – 1).
(a) What kind of figure is it?
(b) How many lines of symmetry does it have?
(c) What are the equations of the lines of symmetry?
8. Find the equation of the mediator of the line segment joining each of
the following pairs of points.
(a) A(– 2, 4), B(5, 4)
 (b) C(– 5, 3), D(– 1, 3)
(c) E(3, 8), F(3, 5)
(d) G(– 1, 1), H(– 1, – 5)
9. Points A (– 4, 2), B(– 3, – 3) and C (– 1, – 1) are the vertices of a
triangle. Plot and join them to form the triangle.
(a) What type of triangle is ABC?
(b) If points B and C are images of each other, write down the
equation of the mirror line.
10. P(– 1, 3), Q(– 3, – 1) and R(3, – 1) are the vertices of a triangle.
(a) Calculate the lengths PQ, QR and PR of the sides of the
triangle.
(b) What type of triangle is ΔPQR?
(c) Find the equations of the mediators of the sides.
(d) What are the coordinates of the point of intersection of the
mediators?

Rotation

Rotational symmetry of plane figures

We dealt with reflection symmetry. We will deal with another type of
symmetry.
Which of the shapes in Fig. 14.30 have reflection symmetry? How many
lines of symmetry are there in each?
 Fig. 14.30

Look at the drawings in Fig. 14.31 . They also have symmetry, though this is
not the symmetry of reflection. What is there about the drawings that makes
us say that they are symmetrical?

Fig. 14.31

Do you notice that in Fig.14.31 each of the drawings is made up of congruent

parts?
The drawings in Fig. 14.32 are also made up of congruent parts, but they are
not symmetrical. How are these drawings different from those in Fig. 14.32 ?

Fig 14.32

Activity 14.4
Copy Fig. 14.31 (a) and then make a tracing of your copy. Stick a pin
through their centres so that the tracing can rotate.
Now rotate the tracing until it fits exactly on top of the copy again. Through
what angle did you rotate the tracing? How many times does this angle
divide into 360°? How many times does the tracing fit on to the copy in one
revolution?

You should have observed that:

1. The angle of rotation is 90º.

2. 90º divides into 360º four times.
3. The tracing fits onto the copy four times
If a figure can fit onto itself when it is rotated, it is said to have
rotational symmetry .
The number of times a figure fits into itself in one complete turn is called
its order of rotational symmetry .
In plane figures, rotational symmetry is also called point symmetry .
Plane figures are considered to have point symmetry only in cases where
the order of rotational symmetry is 2 or more.

Fig. 14.31 (a) has rotational symmetry of order 4 because in one complete
revolution, the tracing fits four times. What is the order of rotational
symmetry of each of the shapes in Fig. 14.31 (b) and 14.31 (c)?
How many times do the shapes in Fig. 14.32 fit into themselves in one
revolution?
The shapes in Fig. 14.32 fit only once in one revolution. They are, therefore,
not counted as having rotational symmetry.
State the order of rotational symmetry of each of the drawings in Fig. 14.33 .
 Fig 14.33

Rotational symmetry of solids

Fig. 14.34 is a drawing of a square-based pyramid with a stiff wire AB fitted
vertically through the vertex V and the centre C of the base.
If the pyramid is rotated about the stiff wire, how many times will it fit on to
itself in one revolution?
The pyramid has rotational symmetry of order 4 about its axis VC.
 Fig. 14.34

An axis of symmetry of a solid is a line about which the solid has

rotational symmetry.

How many axes of symmetry does a cube have? What is the order of
rotational symmetry for each axis?
List some plant and animal forms which have rotational symmetry.
Exercise 14.6
1. State the order of point symmetry for each of the shapes in Fig.
14.35 .
 Fig. 14.35

2. Copy and complete Table 14.1

Shape Number of lines of Order of rotational
symmetry symmetry
Equilateral Δ
Scalene Δ 0 1
Square
Rectangle
Rhombus
Kite
Regular pentagon
Circle

Table 14.1

3. How many axes of symmetry does each of the following solids

have? Describe each axis by stating the points on the solid through
which it passes. What is the order of rotational symmetry about each
axis?
(a) A cuboid.
(b) A triangular prism whose cross-section is an equilateral
triangle.
 (c) A cone.
(d) A regular tetrahedron.
(e) A rectangular-based pyramid.
(f) A hexagonal unsharpened pencil.
4. Each of the shapes in Fig.14.36 is part of a point symmetrical figure.
Copy the shapes and complete the symmetry using the given orders
and points.

Fig. 14.36

5. The door handle shown in Fig. 14.37 is fitted on a square prism rod.
The square prism rod fits through a square hole in the lock. In how
many ways can the door handle be fitted in the lock?

Fig. 14.37

Rotation as a transformation
We have already seen the effects of reflection on geometrical figures. As we
have seen earlier, reflection is a geometrical transformation. Rotation is
another example of a transformation.
In a reflection, points (except those on the mirror line) change position and
the order (direction) of points around a figure is reversed. But lengths and
angles are unchanged .
Now discover the properties of rotation by carrying out the following
activities. (In these activities it is better to work in pairs).

Activity 14.5
Draw a triangle OAB, as shown in Fig. 14.38 . Trace the triangle using
tracing paper. Name the vertices of the tracing O′ , A′ and B′ to correspond
with O, A and B.

Fig. 14.38

Place the tracing exactly on top of the original figure. Put a pin through O
and O′ . Keeping the lower sheet still, rotate the tracing anticlockwise about
O through approximately 90°. Answer the following questions.
(a) Through what angle has each of lines OA and OB turned?
(b) Which is longer, or or are they the same length?
(c) Have any points remained in the same position? If so, which ones?
(d) Are the angles of the image triangle the same as the corresponding
angles of the object triangle?
Put the tracing back exactly on top of the original triangle. Rotate the tracing
clockwise about O through 90°. Answer the above questions now. Have you
got the same result as before?

The point about which a figure is rotated is called the centre of rotation and
the angle through which the figure is rotated is called the angle of rotation .

The direction of rotation is important! An anticlockwise turn is referred

to as positive while a clockwise turn is referred to as negative .
Therefore, an anticlockwise turn of 90° is called a rotation of + 90° while
a clockwise turn of 90° is called a rotation of – 90°.
Note: This convention is used throughout in mathematics, science and
engineering. It is only in the measurement of bearings that the positive
direction is clockwise.

Activity 14.6
Using the same figure and tracing as in Activity 14.5, arrange the tracing to
coincide with the original triangle again.
Rotate the tracing about O through 60°. How do you know when to stop
rotating the tracing?
You may do this by first marking the final position of OA on the lower sheet
before putting the tracing on top. Fig 14.39 shows the lower sheet with the
image position of OA drawn as broken line OA′ . OA′ is called a guide line .
Arrange the tracing to coincide with the original triangle. Rotate the tracing
about O until OA′ , on the tracing, comes on top of the guide line.

Fig. 14.39

Has OB turned the same angle as OA?

Measure to check your answer.
Has any point remained fixed in this rotation?
What is the angle between and ?
(Extend the line segments if necessary).

Activity 14.7
Draw another triangle as in Activity 14.5 and label its vertices A, B and C.
Mark on the lower sheet a point O, which is not on the triangle.
Rotate the tracing about O through an angle of – 90°. How do you do this?
You may do this by using guide lines.
In Fig. 14.40 , OD has been drawn. This will be rotated to the position OD′ .

Fig. 14.40

On your lower sheet, mark the guide lines OD and OD′ . Place the tracing
back on the figure and trace OD.
Now rotate the tracing through – 90° about O.
How do you know when to stop rotating the tracing?
What size is the angle between a line and its image in this rotation? (Extend
the line segments, if necessary, to answer this).
What conclusion can you draw?
Which is longer, or its image ? What about and , and ?

Instead of rotating through –90°, through what angle would you have to
rotate the tracing in a positive direction to get into the same position?
We say that a rotation of 270° has the same effect as one of – 90°.
What positive rotation has the same effect as one of – 150°?
What negative rotation is equivalent to a rotation of 320°?

Properties of rotation
From Activities 14.5 to 14.7, you should have noticed that under rotation:

1. All points on the object turn through the same angle in the same
direction.
2. The angle between a line and its image equals the angle of
rotation.
3. Each point and its image are the same distance from the centre of
 rotation.
4. The centre of rotation is invariant i.e. it does not change its
position.
Note:
(i) A rotation is fully defined when the centre and angle of rotation
are specified.
(ii) A positive rotation through an angle θ is the same as a negative
rotation through an angle of (360°–θ ) about the same centre.

Rotation and congruence

Look at your work of Activities 14.5 to 14.7 again. Looking at the object and
the image, what can you say about;
(a) the sizes of corresponding angles?
(b) the lengths of corresponding sides?
(c) the orientation (i.e. the direction in which they face)?
The answers to these questions should lead you to see that:

Under rotation, an object and its image are directly congruent .

Locating an image given the object, centre and angle of

rotation

Example 14.6
Fig. 14.41 shows a triangle PQR in which PQ = 3 cm, QR = 4 cm and PR =
5 cm.
Copy the figure and locate ΔP′Q′R′, the image of ΔPQR, under a rotation of
65° about point O.
 Fig. 14.41

Solution
To locate ΔP′Q′R′, proceed as follows:
(a) Join P to O. With OP as the initial line, measure an angle of 65°
anticlockwise at O and draw a construction line OA. (Fig. 14.42 ).
(b) To obtain P′ on OA, measure OP′ = OP. Mark the point P′.
(c) Repeat step (a) for Q and R to obtain construction lines OB and OC
respectively. Measure OQ′ = OQ and OR′ = OR on OB and OC to
obtain points Q′ and R′.
(d) Join P′, Q′, R′ to obtain ΔP′Q′R′.

Fig. 14.42

Finding the centre and angle of rotation

Under rotation, every point of an object moves along an arc of a circle whose
centre is the centre of rotation. Thus, if a point A is mapped onto a point A′
by a rotation about a point O, then AA′ is a chord of the circle centre O,
through A and A′ (Fig. 14.43 ).
 Fig. 14.43

The perpendicular bisector (mediator) of a chord of a circle passes through

the centre of the circle.
Thus, the mediator of AA′ passes through the centre of rotation O.
We use this fact in locating the centre of rotation.

Example 14.7
In Fig. 14.44 , ΔA′B′C′ is the image of ΔABC after a rotation. Copy the
figure and locate the centre of rotation. Determine the angle of rotation.

Fig. 14.44

Solution
To locate the centre of rotation, proceed as follows
(a) Join A to A′ and construct the mediator of (Fig 14.45 ).
(b) Join B to B′ and construct the mediator of .
(c) Produce the mediators in steps (a) and (b) so that they intersect at
point O.
(d) Construct the mediator of CC′. Does this mediator also pass through
O?
Using the method of Activities 14.5 to 14.7, check that O is actually the
centre of rotation.
 Fig. 14.45

To find the angle of rotation, join any one of the points A, B or C to the
centre of rotation O.
Also join the corresponding image point to O.
Measure the angle thus formed.
Did you find that the angle of rotation is – 120°?

To find the centre of rotation, we draw the mediators of the line

segments formed by joining object points to their corresponding image
points. As all the mediators pass through the centre of rotation, it is
sufficient to find the intersection of any two mediators .
To find the angle of rotation, we join a pair of corresponding points to the
centre of rotation, then measure the angle formed at the centre and
specify the direction of the rotation.

Exercise 14.7
1. The drawing in Fig. 14.46 has rotational symmetry of order 2.
(a) What point is the centre of rotational symmetry?
(b) Which lines are parallel?
(c) What is the image of point S?
(d) If the points P, Q, T, and S are joined, what kind of
 quadrilateral is formed?
(e) If PT = 9 cm, what is the length of RT?
(f) If ∠RST = 48°, what other angle is 48°?

Fig. 14.46

2. is a chord of a circle centre O (Fig. 14.47 ). The circle is rotated

about O so that P′ Q′ is the image of PQ.
(a) What can you say about the length of and ?
(b) What is the perpendicular distance of from O, given that
is a perpendicular distance x from O?

Fig. 14.47

(c) Copy and complete the following statement:

Equal chords of a circle are the same _______ from the

centre of the circle.
3. Each part of Fig. 14.48 shows an object and its image after rotation.
(a) Trace the diagrams and find the centres of rotation.
(b) Find the angle of rotation in each case giving your answer
both as a positive and a negative angle.
 Fig. 14.48

Rotation on the Cartesian plane

Fig. 14.49 shows a triangle ABC and its images after rotations with different
angles of rotation.
 Fig. 14.49

With ΔABC as the object and ΔA′ B′ C′ as the image:

(i) What is the centre of rotation?
(ii) What is the angle of rotation?
(iii) Copy and complete Table 14.2 .

Table 14.2

With ΔABC as the object and ΔA″ B″ C″ as the image:

(a) What is the centre of rotation?
(b) What is the angle of rotation?
(c) Copy and complete Table 14.3

Table 14.2

With ΔABC as the object and ΔA″′ B″′ C″′ as the image
(a) What is the centre of rotation?
(b) What is the angle of rotation?
 (c) Copy and complete Table 14.4 .

Table 14.4

You should have noticed that:

A rotation about the origin (0, 0)

1. through 90° maps a point (a, b) onto the point (– b , a )
2. through –90° maps a point (a, b) onto the point (b, – a )
3. through 180° maps a point (a, b) onto the point (– a , – b )

Where do rotations of 0° and 360° about the origin map point (a, b)?
A(2, 5), B(4, 5), C(6, 3) and D(3, 2) are the vertices of a quadrilateral. With
(1, 2) as the centre of rotation, rotate quadrilateral ABCD through 180°.
Complete Table 14.5 .

Table 14.5

You should notice that a rotation of 180° about a point (1, 2) maps a point (a,
b) onto the point (2 × 1 – a, 2 × 2 – b).

A rotation of 180° about (h , k) maps a point (a, b) onto the point (2h – a,
2k – b).

Exercise 14.8
1. L(4, 2), M(– 1, – 2) and N(3, 0) are the vertices of a triangle. Plot
these points on squared paper and with C(2, 1) as the centre, rotate
LMN through an angle of 90°.
(a) Write down the coordinates of L′ , M′ and N′ .
(b) If S is the point (2, – 1), what are the coordinates of S′ ?
(c) If T is the point (3, 4), what are the coordinates of T′ ?
(d) Without measuring, state the angle between LM and L′ M′ .
(e) What is the path traced out by L in moving to L′ ?
2. A(– 3, 1), B(1, 1), C(1, – 3), D(– 3, – 3) and P(– 1, 3), Q(3, 3), R(3, –
1), S(– 1, – 1) are the vertices of two squares ABCD and PQRS.
Describe fully the rotation that maps
(a) ABCD onto QRSP (this means that A is mapped onto Q, B
onto R, and so on).
(b) ABCD onto SPQR, and
(c) ABCD onto RSPQ
3. Write down the images of the following points under rotation
through the given angles and about the stated centres.
(a) Centre (0, 0), angle 90º
(i) (4, 4)
(ii) (3, – 4)
(iii) (4, – 7)
(iv) (– 6, – 8)
(b) Centre (0, 0) angle – 90º
(i) (7, 1)
(ii) (– 3, 6)
(iii) (4, – 7)
(iv) (– 2, – 3)
(c) Centre (0, 0), angle 180º
(i) (4, 4)
(ii) (– 3, 2)
(iii) (0, – 5)
(iv) (– 3, – 4)
(d) Centre (3, 2) angle 180º
 (i) (2, 3)
(ii) (– 5, 3)
(iii) (4, – 5)
(iv) (3, – 1)
(e) Centre (– 2, – 5) angle 180º
(i) (7, 1)
(ii) (– 3, 6)
(iii) (4, – 7)
(iv) (– 2, – 3)
4. A negative quarter turn about the point (0, – 1) maps ΔABC onto ΔA
′ B′ C′ with the vertices A′ (3, 1), B′ (0, 5), and C′ (0, 1). Find the
vertices of ΔABC.
5. A quadrilateral has vertices A(1, 3) B(2, 5) C(4, 4) and D (3, 3)
(a) Find the coordinates of the image quadrilateral A′ B′ C′ D′
under reflection in the line y = 2.
(b) A certain transformation maps points A′ , B′ , C′ and D′ onto
points A″ (– 5, – 3), B″ (– 7, – 3), C″ (– 8, – 2), and D″ (– 6,
– 1) respectively.

Describe this information fully.

 15 LINEAR EQUATIONS

In Chapter 11, we were introduced to linear equations. We also learnt how to

form and solve simple linear equations. In this chapter, we will review this as
we learn other techniques of solving linear equations.

Equations

Example 15.1
Solve

Solution

LCM of 5,4 and 2 = 20

Multiplying both sides by 20:

8y + 15 = 200 + 10y
Subtracting 10y from both sides:
8y + 15 – 10y = 200 + 10y – 10y
– 2y + 15 = 200

Subtracting 15 from both sides:

– 2y + 15 – 15 = 200 – 15
– 2y = 185

Dividing both sides by – 2

∴y=
Note : Should there be a term like in the equation, always write it in the
improper fraction form, as and then proceed as in Example 15.1 .

Exercise 15.1
Solve the following equations using the balance method and stating the steps
as in Example 15.1 .
1. (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

2. (a)
(b)
(c) 2p – 8 = p – 3
(d) t +7 = 17 – 4t
3. (a)
(b)
(c)

4. (a)
(b)
(c) 17d – 30 + 18d + 14 = 18d + 19 + 10d
(d) 41 + 52u – 3 – 13u = 41u + 51 – 12u – 7

Equations involving brackets

Recall that:
(i) a + (b + c) = a + b +c
(ii) a + (b – c) = a + b – c
(iii) a – (b + c) = a – b – c
 (iv) a – (b – c) = a – b + c
Use these rules to remove brackets before solving equations involving
brackets.
Remember that the dividing line, as in is both a division and a
bracket.

Example 15.2
Solve the equation:
9x – (4x – 3) = 11 + 2(2x – 1).

Solution
9x – (4x – 3) = 11 + 2(2x – 1)
Removing brackets:
9x – 4x + 3 = 11 + 4x – 2
Simplifying both sides:
5x + 3 = 4x + 9
Subtracting 4x and 3 from both sides:
5x – 4x = 9 – 3
i.e. x = 6

Example 15.3
Solve the equation

Solution

Multiply both sides by 12 (LCM of 4, 2 and 3)

i.e. 3(5x + 2) – 6 × 3 = 4(7x – 1)

Removing brackets:
15x + 6 – 18 = 28x – 4
Simplifying LHS:
15x – 12 = 28x – 4
Subtracting 28x from both sides and adding 12 to both sides:
15x – 28x = – 4 + 12
i.e. – 13x = 8
Dividing both sides by – 13:

Exercise 15.2
Solve the following equations.
1. 4d + (5 – d) = 17
2. 12m + (l – 7m) = 23
3. 23 = 7 – (3 – 4t)
4. (8w – 7) (5w + 13) = 0
5. 24 – (5 +3x) = 8x + (4 – 5x)
6. 3(5x – 1) = 4(3x + 2)
7. 5(3c + 4) – 3(4c + 7) = 0
8. 4(3k – l) = 11k – 3(k – 4)
9. 4(3x – 5) – 7(2x + 3) + 2(5x + 11) = 5
10. 7(5x – 3) 10 = 2(3x – 5) 3(5 – 7x)
11.

12.
 13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

Forming and solving linear equations

To solve a word problem in which a number is to be found:

(i) Introduce a letter to stand for the number to be found (the

unknown).
(ii) Form an equation involving this letter by expressing the given
information in symbols instead of words.
(iii) Solve the equation to get the required number.

Example 15.4
The sum of two numbers is 120 and their difference is 18. Find the two
numbers.

Solution
Let the smaller number be x.
Then, the larger number is x + 18.
Sum of the two numbers = x + (x + 18).
i.e. x + (x + 18) = 120
x + x + 18 = 120
2x + 18 = 120
2x = 102
∴ x = 51
Thus, the smaller number is 51 and the larger number is 51 + 18 = 69.
Example 15.5
Tom and Mary share K 450 so that Mary gets K 54 less than Tom. Find their
shares.

Solution
Let Tom’s share be K x.
Then, Mary’s share is K (x – 54).
Together, they have K 450.
∴ x + x – 54 = 450
2x = 450 + 54
2x = 504
∴ x = 252
Thus, Tom’s share is K 252 and Mary’s share is K 54 less i.e. K 198.
Example 15.6
Jack has K 116 and June has K 64. How many Kwacha must June give Jack
so that Jack shall have 4 times as much as June?
Solution
Suppose June gives Jack K x.
Then Jack has K (116 + x)and June has K (64 – x).
116 + x is 4 times as big as 64 – x,
i.e. 116 + x = 4(64 – x)
116 + x = 256 – 4x
x + 4x = 256 – 116
 5x = 140
x = 28
Thus, June must give Jack K 28.
Example 15.7
When 55 is added to a certain number and the sum is divided by 3, the result
is 4 times the original number. What is the original number?

Solution
Let the number be x.
Adding 55 and dividing the sum by 3 gives

∴ x + 55 = 12x
55 = 12x – x
x=5
Thus, the number is 5.

Exercise 15.3
Find an answer to each of the following problems by forming an equation and
solving it.
1. When I double a number and add 17, the result is 59. What is the
number?
2. When a number is added to 4 times of itself, the result is 30. Find the
number.
3. The difference of two numbers is 5 and their sum is 19. Find the two
numbers.
4. Ali has 7 marbles less than Mohammed and they have 29 between
them. How many does each boy have?
5. When a number is doubled and 4 added, the result is the same as
when it is trebled and 9 subtracted. Find the number.
6. A rectangle is 3 times as long as it is wide. The total length round its
boundary is 56 cm. Find its length and width.
 7. Ngunda is twice as old as Useni, Alile is 3 years younger than
Ngunda. The sum of their ages is 32. Find their individual ages.
8. Chiwa and Dziko share K 1 470 such that Dziko receives K 190 less
than Chiwa. Find their individual shares.
9. Find a number such that when it is divided by 3 and 2 added, the
result is 17.
10. A number is such that when 3 is subtracted from three-quarters of it,
the result is two thirds of the number. Find the number.
11. The result of adding one third of a number to itself is 28. What is the
number?
12. From a certain number, subtract 3, multiply the result by 5, and then
add 9. If the final result is 54, find the number.
13. Find two consecutive even numbers such that the sum of 3 times the
smaller and 5 times the larger is 106.
14. Two tanks have diesel. The first tank contains 5 times as much as the
second. When 20 litres of diesel are allowed to flow from the first
tank into the second, the first contains 3 times as much as the
second. What were the original contents of the tanks?
15. A man earns three times as much as his wife earns. After spending
three fifths of their combined income, the couple have K 20 000 left.
How much does the man earn?
16. A profit of K 232 000 is shared amongst three business partners
Ann, Betty and Charles. Charles got K 12 000 more than Betty while
Ann gets twice as much as Charles. Find how much each got.
17. A man is 30 years old while his daughter is 4. In how many years
time will the daughter be half the age of her father?
18. A member of a wildlife club is charged a third of the normal fee for
entry into a game park. What is the normal entry fee if such a
member pays K 144 less than normal?
19. Kassim has a money box containing 100 mixed K 5 and K 10 coins
with a total value of K 600. How many of each type of coin does the
box contain?
 20. The fraction is obtained after the same number is added to the
numerator and denominator of the fraction . What number is
added?

Equation of a straight line

In chapter 12, we learnt how to draw graphs of linear equations which we
called straight-line graphs. We also learnt that for a line whose equation is of
the form y = mx + c, where m and c are constants.

(a) The steepness of the line is determined by the value m.

The steepness of a line is known as gradient . The steeper the
line, the higher the gradient.
(b) The line meets the y-axis at a point whose coordinates are (0, c)
which is known as the y-intercept .

Given a linear equation such as x + 7y = 14, we can determine the gradient

and the y-intercept by making y the subject of the formula so as to have the
equation in the form y = mx + c. Do you remember how to do it?
Now consider the following example.

Example 15.8
Find the gradient and y-intercept of the line
3x – y = 2

Solution
To find the gradient and y-intercept of the line, we need to express the
equation in the form
y = mx + c.
3x – y = 2
Making y the subject of the formula, we get
y = 3x – 2
Comparing y = 3x – 2 with y = mx + c, we get
gradient, m = 3
 y-intercept, c = – 2

Activity 15.1
Rewrite each of the equations x – 2y = – 6, 2x + 3y = 6 and 4x + 2y = 5 in
the form y = mx + c (as we did in Example 15.8 ).
Copy and complete Table 15.1 .

Table 15.1

In general,

y = mx + c is known as the gradient-intercept form of the equation of a

straight line. m represents the gradient and c is the y- intercept of the line.

In practice, gradient represents the steepness of a slope of straight line of y =

mx + c.
On a graph of y = mx + c, it is the coeffecient of x.
Y-intercept is the point where the straight line crosses the y-axis
When we write the equation of a line in the gradient-intercept form, we can
easily tell the gradient and y -intercept of the line.

Example 15.9
Find the gradient and y-intercept of the line whose equation is 4x – 3y – 9 =
0.

Solution
4x – 3y – 9 = 0 is equivalent to y = x – 3.
Comparing with y = mx + c gives
gradient, m = 3 =
y-intercept, c = – 3.
Example 15.10
In figure 15.1 , find the equation of the line in the form
(a) y = mx + c
(b) ax + by = c. where a, b, c are integers.

Fig. 15.1

Solution
(a) when x = 0, y = 3

substituting in y = mx + c

3=m×0+c

∴c=3

when y = 0, x = 15

substituting in y = mx + c

0 = m × 15 + 3
 15m = – 3

m=

∴the required equation is;

(b) Taking the equation

y= +3
It can be written as 5y = – x + 15

i.e x + 5y = 15

Exercise 15.4
1. In each of the following cases, determine the gradient and y -
intercept by writing the equation in the form y = mx + c .
(a) 5x = 2y
(b) y – 3x – 1 = 0
(c) 2x + y = 3
(d) 4x – 2y + 3 = 0
(e) 2x + 3y = 3
(f) 5 = 5x – 2y
(g) 2x + 3y = 6
(h) 8 – 7x – 4y = 0
2. Find the gradient and y-intercept of the following
(a) y = 3x + 7
(b) 7 – 2x = 4y
(c) 4y + x – 8 = 0
(d)
(e)
(f) – 10(x + 3) = 0.5y
 (g) y = 5x – 4
(h) 2y + x = 7
(i) 5x + 6y – 4 = 0
(j) 2y – 8 = 7x
3. In Fig. 15.2 write equations of;
(a) Lines (i) (a), (ii) (b) and (iii) (c) in the form y = mx + c
(b) Lines (i) (d), (ii) (e) in the form ax + by = c.

Fig. 15.2
 16 STATISTICS I

What is statistics?
For a group of people, e.g. students in a class, a lot of information can be
collected about each one of them. Such information that could be collected
about the group may be their names, where they live, what food they like
most, etc. They could also state their ages, heights, masses etc. Note that,
some information use numbers.

Information in which numbers are used is called statistics . Each such

number is called a statistic (plural statistics). Any other number that may
be derived from some computation using the original numbers is also a
statistic.
Thus, statistics is the study of information represented in numerical form.

For example, Table 16.1 shows marks scored by 40 students in a Biology

test.

Table 16.1

(a) What is the highest score?

(b) What is the lowest score?
(c) What is the difference between the highest and the lowest scores?
(d) What mark was scored by most students?
(e) How many students scored above 70?
(f) If the pass mark was 45, how many students failed the test?
 (g) How many students scored
(i) 30 to 39,
(ii) 40 to 49,
(iii) 50 to 59,
(iv) 60 to 69,
(v) 70 to 79 marks?
(h) How did the students perform in that test in general?
To answer questions (d) – (g), we have to count correctly, while question (h)
requires some general conclusions.

Note

1. Information such as in Table 16.1 is called raw data or simply data

.
2. Statistics, in general, is concerned with collecting data, organising it,
answering questions about the data and making sensible conclusions
and decisions based on the analysis of the data.

Collecting and organising data

In statistics, data must be collected and recorded accurately. The data in
Table 16.1 could have been recorded first in a class list showing marks
scored by each student e.g.
Hanka 78
Dziko 46
Fatsani 55
The list could then have been used to make Table 16.1 .

Information could also be collected as shown in Table 16.2 . The table shows
types of vehicles which passed at a given point over a given time interval.
Vehicle Tally marks Totals (Frequency)
Bicycle // 2
Motor bike /// 3
Car // 12
Minibus 5
Lorry // 2
Bus // 7

Table 16.2

When a vehicle passes, a stroke (/) is put in the ‘Tally’ column in the row
corresponding to that type of vehicle. Every fifth stroke against a given type
of vehicle is made to cross the other four, so that instead of having five
strokes as ///// we have . The next stroke will be next to the group of five
strokes, i.e. /, etc. These strokes are recorded in the ‘Tally’ column until
the time for collecting the information is over. The total number of strokes
against each type of vehicle is then recorded in the ‘Totals’ column.
Other methods of collecting data include interviews, prepared questionnaires
and so on. The information is then tabulated and organised for the intended
purpose.

Note

1. The tally method of recording makes counting easier and more

accurate especially when big numbers are involved.
2. Bundling strokes into fives ( ) makes it easier to count them.

Frequency distribution table

A table such as Table 16.2 is called a frequency distribution table or

simply a frequency table . Frequency means the number of times an
item or value occurs.

In Table 16.2 , the last column shows the total number of each type of
vehicle. This number is the frequency for each type of vehicle. Thus we
usually write ‘Frequency’ in that column instead of ‘Totals’.
160

Example 16.1
Table 16.3 shows the grades scored by a class of 30 students in a
Mathematics examination.

Table 16.3

Make a frequency table for the information in this table.

Solution
Table 16.4 is the required frequency table.
Grade Tally Frequency
A / 6
B / 11
C 10
D /// 3
30

Table 16.4

Table 16.4 is made by putting a stroke (/) in the ‘Tally’ column against the
grade, for each grade in Table 16.3 . This is systematically done so that in
Table 16.4 , there is a stroke for each grade. All the strokes against each
grade are counted and the counts written in the Frequency column.

Exercise 16.1
1. Work in groups of 5 or 6. Collect the following data from each
member of your group: height, mass, size of shoes worn, favourite
subject, favourite sport. Each group leader should record information
about his/her group as shown in Table 16.5 . Each leader should then
collect the data from other groups so that each group has data for the
whole class.
 Table 16.5

Make a frequency table for each statistic except the name.

2. Record the temperature outside the classroom, at the following
times: 7.30 a.m, 10.30 a.m, 1.30 p.m and 4.30 p.m. This should be
done everyday for a whole week (Different groups could be assigned
different days).
3. Choose a place near your school where traffic passes. Count how
many different types of vehicles pass there in the morning (7 – 8
a.m), at lunch time (1 – 2 p.m), and in the evening (4 – 5 p.m). Keep
different records for different directions. Different groups should be
assigned different days of the week so that the data is recorded for a
whole week. Each group should fill their data in a table such as
Table 16.6(a) . Table 16.6(b) could be used to compile information
from all groups.
Group no. ………
Date/Day ……………… Time ………
Direction of traffic ………………………
Vehicle Tally Frequency
Bicycle
Car
Motor cycle
Mini bus
Lorry
Bus
Others

Table 16.6(a)
 Table 16.6(b)

4. Find out from the school library how many books there are in each
of the following subject categories.
(a) English
(b) Other languages (French, German, etc.)
(c) Mathematics
(d) Science
(e) Religion
(f) Others
5. On this page that you are reading, count all the words having one
letter, two letters, three letters, four letters, and five letters. Make a
frequency table for this data.
6. Table 16.7 shows the amount of milk in litres produced by 36 cows
in Kaphiri’s farm in one day.

Table 16.7

Make a frequency distribution table for this data.

 7. Table 16.8 shows the sizes of shoes worn by 40 students in a Form 2
class in St. Paul’s High school.
(a) Make a frequency table for the data.

Table 16.8

(b) Whom do you think would be interested in this information?

8. Table 16.9 shows the grades scored by 40 pupils in a mathematics
examination. Make a frequency table for the data.

Table 16.9

Presentation of data
Once data have been collected, they may be presented or displayed in various
ways. Such displays make it easier to interpret and compare the data. The
following are some of the ways.

Rank order list

A rank order list is a list showing items that have been arranged in order
from the highest to the lowest or from the lowest to the highest.
For example, five pupils had the following scores in a Mathematics test: 15,
12, 21, 13, 18. The rank order is 21, 18, 15, 13, 12 or 12, 13, 15,18, 21.
The rank order list helps us to find the:
(a) highest value.
 (b) lowest value.
(c) most common value.
(d) value which is in the middle.
(e) number of those above or below a given value, etc.

Frequency distribution table

As we saw earlier, a frequency distribution table is a table which shows data
items and the number of times (frequency) they occur. Such a table helps us
to see the:
(a) highest value
(b) lowest value
(c) most common value, etc.

Pictogram (or pictograph)

A pictogram (pictograph) is a diagram that represents statistical data in a

pictorial form. Each picture or drawing represents a certain number or
value from the data.

The picture to be used is chosen to represent the data subject as closely as

possible, e.g. a shoe to represent the number of pairs of shoes, a car to
represent the number of cars etc.

Example 16.2
Represent the data in Table 16.10 in a pictogram.

Table 16.10

Solution
Let represent 2 pairs of shoes. Since 4 pupils wore shoes of size 6, then 4
will be represented by , etc. So the data in Table 16.10 would be
represented as in Fig. 16.1 .
 Fig. 16.1

Note that a fraction of 2 is represented by a fraction of the drawing.

Although the pictogram is used to display information, it is not an accurate
way of representing data. For instance, suppose each picture represented 10
pairs, how would you represent 2, 3, 7 or 8 pairs?

Pie-chart
A pie-chart is a graph or diagram in which different proportions of a given
data distribution are represented by sectors of a circle.
Since the diagram is a circle, it is looked at as a circular ‘pie’, hence the name
pie chart.

Example 16.3
Table 16.11 shows grades scored by 15 candidates who sat for a certain test.

Table 16.11

Draw a pie chart for this data.

Solution
Work out the fractions of numbers of candidates who scored each grade. For
example, for grade A we have .
Since the angle at the centre of a circle is 360°, we calculate the angle to
represent grade A as
of 360°
i.e. × 360° = 48°.
A is represented by an angle of 48°.
Table 16.12 shows all the angles.

Table 16.12

Fig. 16.2 shows the required pie chart.

Fig. 16.2

Note

1. Usually there are no numbers on a pie chart.

2. The sizes of the sectors give a comparison between the quantities
represented.
 3. The order in which the sectors are presented does not matter.
4. Sectors may be shaded with different patterns (or colours) to give a
better visual impression.

Bar chart

A bar chart (or bar graph) is a graph consisting of rectangular bars

whose lengths are proportional to frequencies in a data distribution.

Example 16.4
Table 16.13 shows the sizes of sweaters worn by 30 Form 2 students in a
certain school.
Represent the data on
(a) a horizontal bar chart
(b) a vertical bar chart.

Table 16.13

Solution
(a) Horizontal bar chart Fig. 16.3 (a). In a horizontal bar chart,
frequency is represented on the horizontal axis. Bars are drawn
with spaces between them (as in Fig, 16.3(a)) and they may be
shaded or not.
(b) Vertical bar chart Fig. 16.3 (b). In a vertical bar graph, frequency is
represented on the vertical axis.
 Fig. 16.3

Note: In a bar chart:

1. The widths of the bars are the same.
2. The height of a bar is proportional to the corresponding frequency.

Example 16.5
Fig. 16.4 shows marks scored in a test by a Physics class.
(a) How many students took the test?
(b) How many students scored less than 20 marks?
(c) How many students scored more than 29 but less than 50 marks?

Solution
 (a) To get number of students who took the test, add all the frequencies
i.e.
9 + 18 + 12 + 10 + 8 + 3 = 60
(b) No. of students who scored less than 20 marks
= those who scored 0 – 9 and 10 – 19
= 9 + 18 = 27
(c) No. of students who scored more than 29 but less than 50 marks =
10 + 8 + 3 = 21

Fig. 16.4

Exercise 16.2
1. In a survey on soft-drinks, 180 people were asked to state the brand
they preferred. 35 chose brand A, 30 chose brand B, 100 chose brand
C and 15 chose brand D. Draw a pie-chart to display this
information.
2. At the semi-final stage of a football competition, 72 neutral
observers were asked to predict which team they thought would win.
Table 16.14 shows their predictions.
Team No. of predictions
Team A 9
Team B 40
Team C 22
Team D 1

Table 16.14
 Draw a pie-chart to display the predictions.
3. Mr. Onani has a monthly income of K 12 000. The pie-chart in Fig.
16.5 shows how he spends the money. How much does he spend on
(a) Food
(b) Rent
(c) Savings
(d) Entertainment
(e) Travel?

Fig. 16.5

4. Of the animals on Sigele’s farm, 35% are cows, 20% are goats, 15%
are sheep, 2% are donkeys and 28% are pigs. A pie chart is to be
drawn to illustrate this information. Find the angle of the sector
representing each type of animal.
5. In Exercise 16.1 Question 1, you collected information about your
class, i.e.
(i) size of shoes worn
(ii) favourite subject
(iii) favourite sport of each pupil.
Display this information in a pie-chart.
6. Display the information you collected in Exercise 16.1 Question 4,
in a pie chart.
7. Represent the information in Exercise 16.1 Question 5 on
(a) a pie-chart,
(b) a bar chart.
 8. Display the information in Table 16.9 of Question 8 (Exercise 16.1)
on a bar chart.
9. Fig 16.6 shows the heights of pupils in a certain class.
(a) How many pupils are over 150 cm tall?
(b) How many pupils have a height between 125 cm and 145
cm?
(c) How many pupils are in the class?

Fig. 16.6

10. Some children were picked at random and their handspans measured
in centimetres. This data was recorded as in Table 16.13

Table 16.15

(a) Draw a bar-chart for this data using class intervals 14.0–
15.9, 16.0–17.9, …
(b) How many children had a handspan greater than or equal to
 18 cm?

Line graphs
Table 16.16 shows the temperatures, in degrees Celsius, observed at 2-hourly
intervals, of a patient who was admitted at a hospital.

Table 16.16

When a graph of time against temperature is plotted using the data in Table
16.16 and the points joined by dotted line segments, Fig. 16.7 is obtained.

Fig. 16.17

A graph, such as Fig. 16.7 , which is formed by broken line segments

joining the points representing given data is known as a line graph .

(a) Why are points joined by dotted lines? When could such points be
joined by continuous line segments?
(b) Estimate the patient’s temperature at
 (i) 9. a.m
(ii) 3 p.m
(iii) 11 p.m.
(iv) 3 a.m
(c) What can you say about the patient’s temperature
(i) during the day?
(ii) during the night?

Note

A line graph helps us appreciate the pattern or trend of a given variable i.e.
how the variable changes with time.

Exercise 16.3
1. The average masses of pupils of different ages in a certain school
were obtained and recorded as in Table 16.17 .

Table 16.17

(a) Represent this data on a line graph.

(b) What is the estimate for the average mass of pupils who are
(i) years,
(ii) years,
(iii) years old?
2. Table 16.18 shows the population of a certain country, in thousands,
in the given years.

Table 16.18

(a) Draw a line graph for the data.

 (b) Estimate the population in
(i) 1926
(ii) 1971.
3. Table 16.19 shows, the maximum and minimum temperatures in
degrees, recorded for the first 12 days of September in a certain
town.

Table 16.19

(a) Using the same axes, draw line graphs to represent these
temperatures.
(b) Which of the two sets of temperatures shows the greater
variation?
(c) If the temperatures for 5th and 11th September had been
omitted, could you have estimated them?
(d) Using the trends shown by the graph, make a forecast for
13th September.
4. Table 16.20 shows deaths, in thousands, from two diseases during a
period of 10 years.

Table 16.20

(a) On the same axes, draw line graphs to represent this data.
(b) What can you say about deaths from each disease?
5. Table 16.21 shows the time taken by a certain car test to accelerate
from 0 to the given speeds.
Acceleration Time taken (s)
 0 to 50 km/h 4.8
0 to 65 km/h 6.4
0 to 80 km/h 9.0
0 to 95 km/h 12.3
0 to 110 km/h 16.1
0 to 125 km/h 21.4

Table 16.21

(a) Represent the data on a line graph with speed on the

horizontal axis.
(b) How long would the car take to accelerate from
(i) 0 to 70 km/h,
(ii) 0 to 120 km/h?
(c) What speed would the car gain from rest in (i) 8 s, (ii) 14 s?

Averages
The average of a group of numbers is a single number which can be used to
represent the entire group. For example:
1. 1. If the average age of pupils in a class is 6 years, it means that
most pupils in that class would have their ages close to that value.
A child of age 11 or 3 years would ordinarily not be expected to be
in that class.
2. 2. If the average life span of a certain type of light bulb is 600
hours, it is expected that a light bulb of that make should last that
long when used, maybe a little more or a little less.
The most common types of averages are the mean, the mode and the median.
Averages are also called measures of central tendency because they show
how the values in a data distribution tend to cluster around a central value.

Mean
The arithmetic mean (or simply the mean ) of a group of values is the most
common average, and it is given by:
 Arithmetic mean

In other words, if the group has n values x 1 , x2 , x 3 , …, xn , then the mean of

those values is given by

Mean =

Example 16.5
Calculate the mean of K 2 500, K 4 000, K 5 500, K 7 500 and K 3 000, the
pocket money of some 5 students.

Solution
Mean =

Example 16.6
Table 16.22 shows the masses, in grams, of some 40 mangoes sold in a shop.
Calculate the mean mass of the mangoes.

Table 16.22

Solution
Method 1
Mean mass =
Add all the values in Table 16.22 . The total mass is 3 850 g.
Method 2
Make a frequency table as shown in Table 16.23 .

Table 16.23

The column ‘fx’ represents the total mass of mangoes. For example, if there
are 2 mangoes each of mass 70 g, their total mass is (70 × 2) g = 140 g.
Similarly, there are 7 mangoes, each of mass 80 g, having a total mass of (80
× 7) g = 560 g, etc.
The symbol ∑ (Greek letter ‘sigma’), stands for ‘sum of’.
Thus, ∑f means ‘sum of frequencies’ and ∑fx means ‘sum of products of f
and x’.
The mean, denoted by , is given by mean,
In the example,
∴

Exercise 16.4
1. Calculate the mean of the following.
(a) 1, 3, 5, 7
(b) 2, 4, 6, 8
(c) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
(d) 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
(e) 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5
(f) 3, 4, 4, 7, 8, 9
 (g) 3, 9, 4, 7, 2, 8, 7, 9
(h) 10, 4, 11, 13, 15, 19, 21, 5
(i) 8, 0, 3, 3, 1, 7, 4, 1, 4
2. Calculate the mean of the following.
(a) 2.1, 1.4, 3.5, 2.7
(b) 4.8, 4.5, 3.2, 1.8, 2.2
(c) 0.7, 0.9, 0.3, 0.8, 0.7, 0.9, 0.8, 0.6, 0.5, 0.2
(d)
3. Eight ladies had masses of 51 kg, 44 kg, 57 kg, 63 kg, 48 kg, 49 kg,
45 kg, 53 kg. Find the mean of their masses.
4. The mean mark scored by 5 students in a mathematics test was 19.
Four students had the following scores 15, 18, 17, and 16. What
score did the 5th student have?
5. Table 16.24 shows the lengths, in centimetres, of a sample of 50
seedlings found in a certain seedbed.

Table 16.24

Construct a frequency table and use it to calculate the mean length of

the seedlings.

Trees are very important in our environment. Let us join hands to

plant as many trees as possible.

6. Table 16.25 shows the number of goals scored in a series of football

matches.
 Table 16.25

If the mean number of goals is 2, what is x?

7. In this question, letter grades are assigned the values shown in Table
16.26 .

Table 16.26

Use the values in Table 16.26 to determine the mean grade for each
subject as obtained in an examination by students in St Peter’s High
School.

Table 16.27

Mode

In a given data distribution, the value or item that has the highest
frequency is called the mode (from the French ‘a la mode’ meaning
‘fashionable’)

Example 16.7
What is the mode of 71, 71, 72, 75, 73, 75, 76, 76, 75, 72, 78, 79, 75, 78, 79,
75, 71, 73, 75, 76?

Solution
Table 16.28 is the frequency table for the data.

Table 16.28

Table 16.28 shows that 75 is the value with the highest frequency (i.e. 6).
Thus, 75 is the mode and 6 is the modal frequency .

Median

When data is arranged in order from the smallest to the largest or the
largest to the smallest, the middle value is called the median

Example 16.8
Find the median of the following numbers
(a) 15, 12, 13, 13, 9, 10, 8, 11, 10, 8, 7, 9, 10, 10, 11
(b) 12, 8, 21, 11, 4, 12, 13, 18, 20, 19, 21, 11

Solution
Arrange the values in order from the smallest to the largest.
This is the middle value
i.e. median = 10
(b) 4, 8, 11, 11, 12, 12, 13, 18, 19, 20, 21, 21
In this case, there is no one value that is in the middle. In such a case the
median is the mean of the two middle values.
Thus, median
Note: When the number of values is odd , the median is the middle value
but when the number of values is even , the median is the mean of the two
middle values.

Example 16.9
Table 16.29 shows the masses of some tomatoes bought from a farmer.

Table 16.29

Find (a) the mean, (b) the median, (c) the mode of the masses of the
tomatoes.

Solution
(a) Mean mass =

(b) Since there are 40 tomatoes, the median mass is the mass between
those of the 20th and 21st tomatoes.
From Table 16.30 , we see that there are 20 tomatoes with mass 60
g and less. The 21st tomato must, therefore, have a mass of 61 g.
 Table 16.30

Cumulative frequency is a running total of frequencies showing

what the total frequency is at the end of each class.
Mass of the 20th tomato = 60g, and mass of the 21st tomato =
61 g.
∴ median
(c) The mode is 60 g.

Exercise 16.5
1. Find the mean, median and mode of each of the following groups of
numbers:
(a) 4, 5, 8, 6, 4, 12, 3
(b) 9, 9, 7, 7, 4, 13, 3, 17, 2, 21, 7
(c) 7, 9, 4, 9, 3, 9, 10, 1, 1, 12
(d) 5, 4, 5, 5, 4, 2, 3, 2, 1, 3, 1, 4, 0, 2, 2, 0, 1
2. Write down 5 numbers such that the mean is 6, the median is 5 and
the mode is 4.
3. Seven pieces of luggage have masses of 48 kg, 45 kg, 49 kg, 63 kg,
57 kg, 44 kg and 51 kg.
(a) Find the mean mass of the seven pieces.
(b) If the lightest and the heaviest piece are taken away, what is
the mean mass of the remaining ones?
(c) What is the median mass if the lightest piece is removed?
4. Table 16.31 shows lengths of some nails picked at random.

Table 16.31
 Find (a) the mean,
(b) the mode and
(c) the median length of the nails.
5. A student carried out a survey on the number of people in cars
passing at a certain point. Table 16.32 shows the data he collected.

Table 16.32

(a) Find x if the mean number of occupants is .

(b) What is the largest possible value of x if the mode is 2?
(c) What is the largest possible value of x if the median is 2?
 17 CONVEX POLYGONS

Polygons
A polygon is a geometric figure that has straight sides. The number of sides
determines the name of the polygon (Fig. 17.1 (a) to (f) ).

Fig. 17.1

Note that the number of vertices and the number of sides are equal in each
case. Note also that a polygon must be closed and all the sides must be
straight line segments.
A region is the space enclosed within the sides of a polygon. However, a
region may also be described as the space between two or more intersecting
lines, or simply the space on one side of a line or curve. If a region is defined
by the polygon enclosing it, then it is said to be a bounded region.
A region may be fully bounded (as in case of polygons) or partially bounded
(as in Fig 17.2 ).

Fig. 17.2

Note that a polygon and a fully bounded region are often loosely referred to
using the same name. For example, use ‘triangle ABC’ or ‘triangular region
ABC’ when describing the shape in Fig. 17.3 .

Fig. 17.3

In most cases, there is no ambiguity as to what is to be referred.

Types of polygons
There are two types of polygons; convex and re-entrant polygons.
A convex polygon has no interior angle greater than 180º (Fig. 17.4 ).
 Fig. 17.4

A regular polygon has all its sides and angles equal. (Fig. 17.4 ).
A re-entrant polygon has at least one interior angle greater than 180º (Fig.
17.5 ).

Fig. 17.5

Note that the shapes shown in Fig. 17.6 are not polygons.

Fig. 17.6

Names of polygons
Polygons are named according to the number of sides they have (Table 17.1
).
Number of sides Name of polygon
3 Triangle
4 Quadrilateral
5 Pentagon
6 Hexagon
7 Heptagon
8 Octagon
9 Nonagon
10 Decagon

Table 17.1
Angle properties of triangles
A triangle is a closed plane figure with three straight sides. It has three
angles.
Do you remember the different kinds of triangle we learnt in Chapter 13?
Name them.
Recall that:
1. 1. The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180º.
2. If the three sides of a triangle are produced, the sum of the exterior
angles formed is 360º.
We will now look at another angle property of triangles.

Activity 17.1
Draw a triangle PQR. Produce PQ to X, QR to Y and RP to Z (Fig. 17.7 ).

Fig. 17.7

Measure ∠XQR, ∠QRP and ∠QPR. Find ∠QRP + ∠QPR. What is to be

noticed?
Measure ∠ZPQ, ∠PQR and ∠PRQ. Find ∠PQR + ∠PRQ. What is to be
noticed?
Measure ∠YRP, ∠RPQ and ∠RQP Find ∠RPQ + ∠RQP What is to be
noticed?
What is ∠XQR + ∠YRP + ∠ZPQ?

From Activity 17.1 we note the following:

If a side of a triangle is produced, the exterior angle so formed is equal to

the sum of the two interior opposite angles.
General formula for sum of interior angles of a polygon
Example 17.1 illustrates two ways of calculating the sum of interior angles of
a polygon.

Example 17.1
Calculate the sum of the interior angles of a hexagon.

Solution
A hexagon can be divided into triangles as shown in Fig. 17.8 .

Fig. 17.8

Sum of angles in a triangle = 180º

∴ Sum of angles in 4 triangles = 4 × 180 °
= 720 °
= 8 × 90 °
∴ Sum of interior angles of a hexagon is 8 right angles.
Alternative method
A hexagon can also be divided into 6 triangles as shown in Fig. 17.9 . O is a
point anywhere inside the hexagon.
 Fig. 17.9

Sum of angles in a triangle = 180º

∴ Sum of angles in 6 triangles = 6 × 180º
= 1 080º
Sum of angles at O = 360º
∴ Sum of interior angles of the hexagon
= 1 080º – 360º
= 720º = 8 right angles

Activity 17.2
Using the first method of Example 17.1 , determine the sum of the interior
angles of a
(i) quadrilateral
(ii) pentagon
(iii) heptagon
(iv) octagon
(v) nonagon
Using the results above, complete Table 17.2 .

Table. 17.2
 Summary on sum of angles of polygons:
For a polygon with n sides, the sum of interior angles is (2n – 4) right
angles .

Exercise 17.1
1. Copy and complete Table 17.3 . The second column refers to the
triangles formed when all the diagonals are drawn from one vertex.

Table 17.3

2. Two exterior angles of a triangle are 110º and 140º. Calculate the
size of the third one.
3. (a) Draw figures as shown in Figure 17.10 . Carefully measure the
indicated angles. What is the sum of the angles in each case?
 Fig. 17.10

(b) Write down an expression for the size of an exterior angle

of an n-sided regular polygon.
4. Which regular polygons have the following exterior angles?
(a) 120°
(b) 72°
(c) 45°
(d) 36°
(e) 24°
5. Which regular polygons have the following interior angles?
(a) 135°
(b) 156°
(c) 160°
(d) 165°
6. The angles of a pentagon are x, 3x, 3x, 4x and 4x in that order. Find
the angles in degrees.
7. The interior angle of a regular polygon is 6 times the exterior angle.
How many sides has the polygon?
8. A regular polygon with 3x sides has interior angle 40° greater than
that of one with x sides. What is x?
9. The dial of a weighing machine is marked in kilograms from 0 to
180. In turning from the 0 mark to the 180 kg mark, the pointer turns
 through an angle of 270°. Through what angle does the pointer turn
in weighing a person whose mass is:
(a) 95 kg
(b) 40 kg
(c) 56 kg
(d) 130 kg.
10. Using the information in Question 9, find the mass of a person if the
pointer turns through an angle of:
(a) 90°
(b) 57°
(c) 120°
(d) 210°
11. The speedometer needle of a car turns clockwise through 180° when
the speed of the car increases from 0 to 90 km/h. Through which
angle and in which direction will the needle turn when the car
changes speed from;
(a) 0 to 15 km/h
(b) 15 to 40 km/h
(c) 60 to 30 km/h
(d) 40 to 30 km/h
(e) 25 to 30 km/h
(f) 48 to 46 km/h
 12 – 17 REVISION EXERCISES 3

Revision excercise 3.1

1. Copy and complete Table R 3.1 for y = 2x – 1.

Table R 3.1

(a) Using an appropriate scale, draw the graph of y = 2x – 1.

(b) Find the value of y when x = 3.
(c) Find the value of x when y = – 2.
(d) Write down the coordinates of the points where the line cuts
the axes.
2. The Table R 3.2 below shows the distance covered and the
corresponding time taken for a cyclist moving downhill.

Table R 3.2

Draw a distance time graph and use it to find

(a) the distance travelled in the first 3.8 seconds.
(b) the total distance travelled in the four seconds.
(c) the time when the cyclist was 68 m from the starting point.
3. In Figure R 3.1, find the value of
(a) x, y, and z
(b) x + y + z
 Fg R 3.1

4. Using a ruler and a pair of compasses only, construct triangle ABC

such that
AB = 5 cm, ΔABC=30° and ΔBAC = 45°. Measure the lengths of
AC and BC, and ∠ACB. What name do you give to triangles such
as this one?
5. Under a certain rotation, ΔPQR whose verticles are P(3,4), Q(7,4)
and R (7,6) maps onto ΔP´ Q´ R´ Whose verticles are P´( 4, – 7).
Find, by construction, the centre and angle of rotation.
6. Triangle PQR has verticles at P(3,1), Q(7,4) and R(4,3). Show the
image of ΔPQR after a rotation of 180° about (3,1).
7. Solve the following equations.
(a) (i) x + 4 = 9
(ii) x – 8 = 1
(iii) 5x + 4 = 19
(iv) 2x – 6 = 12
(b) (i) 7n = 8 + 3n
(ii) – 7x + 8 = 4 – 3x
(iii) 6x + 7 – 5x = – 3 – 2x +19
(iv) 7 + y – 13 = 3y + 21 – 5y
(c) (i) 2(a + 1) = 8
(ii) 5(x – 4) = 12
(iii) 3(x – 1) + 4(2x + 5) = 0
(iv) 3(2 – 3x) = 2(2x – 1)
8. The straight line meets the y -axis at A and the x - axis
at B.
 State the coordinates of A and B.

9. (a) Calculate the arithmetic mean of

(i) 1, 4, 4, 2, 5, 2, 7, 7, 7, 6
(ii) 91, 94, 94, 92, 95, 92, 97, 97, 97, 96
Hence write down the arithmetic mean of 551, 554, 554,
552, 555, 552, 557, 557, 557, 556
(b) In a certain class, 2 children had 6 sisters each, 3 had 5,
4 had 4, 7 had 3, 10 had 2, 6 had 1, while 8 had no
sisters at all. What is the mean number of sisters per
child?
10. Table R 3.3 shows the amount of pocket money a student had left at
the end of each week in a particular term.

Table R 3.3

Draw a line graph to represent the information.

11. The interior angle of a regular polygon is 120°. Find the number of
sides of the polygon and give it’s name.
12. Find the sum of the interior angles of a polygon having 19 sides.

Revision excercise 3.2

1. Using the same scale on both axes, draw the lines
(a)
(i) y = x
(ii) y = x + 1
(iii) y = x + 2
(b) What can you say about these lines?
 (c) State the coordinates of the point where each line meets
axes.
(d) Measure the acute angle that each line makes with the x-
axis.
(e) On the same diagram, draw the line x + y = 3. What can you
say about this line in relation to the first three lines?
(f) State the x - and y - coordinates of the points where this line
meets each of the previous lines.
2. Copy and complete Table R 3.4 of values of x and y.
(a) 2y = x
(b) y = x – 2

Table 3.4

Using the same scale on both axes,

(i) Plot the points in (a) and draw the corresponding line.
(ii) Plot the points in (b) and draw the corresponding line.
(iii) State the coordinates of the point where the two lines
intersect.
(iv) Use your graphs to state four more points that lie on each
line.
3. Find the angles marked with letters in Fig. R 3.2 .

Fig. R 3.2
4. Using a ruler and compasses only, construct an equilateral triangle of
side 7 cm. Draw one of it’s altitudes and measure it.
5. Which of the shapes in Fig. R 3.3 have lines of symmetry.
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)
 (f)

(g)

(h)

Fig. R. 3.3
6. ABCD is a rectangle whose verticles are A(1,1), B(4,1), C(4,3) and
D(1,3).
(a) Find the coordinates of it’s image after a – 90° rotation
about the orgin.
(b) The object and image are said to be congruent. Describe the
term congruency.

7. (a) Solve the following equations:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(b) (i)
(ii)
(iii)

8. (a) Express y in terms of x .

 (i) 3x + 2y = 6
(ii) 4y – 4x = 7
(b) Without drawing the graphs state
(i) the gradients,
(ii) the y-intercepts of the lines of the functions in (a) above.

9. (a) Table R. 3.5 shows the results of a voting exercise by a class of

200 students to select their leader.
Make a pie chart to display these results.

Candidate No. of votes

Nkata 65
Kalimugogo 52
Nkhoma 24
Mbiya 42
Spoilt votes 10
Abstained 7
200

Table R 3.5

10. (a) Table R 3.6 shows speeds of vehicles measured to the nearest 10
kph as they passed a certain point.

Table R 3.6

(i) What is the mean speed of the vehicles?

(ii) State the modal speed.
(b) In a mixed class of 45 students, the mean score in a mathematics test
was 45 for the 24 boys and 58.8 for the girls.
(i) What was the mean score for the whole class?
(ii) If the pupil with the highest mark of 87 was found to have
cheated, what was the mean score for the rest of the
class?
11. The interior angle of a regular polygon is 108°.
 (i) Find the number of sides of the polygon.
(ii) What is the name of the polygon?
(iii) Find the sum of the interior angles of this polygon.
12. Find the size of the smallest angle given that the angles of a triangle
are 2x, (x + 10) and (8x – 50)

Revision Exercise 3.3

1. In a science experiment, a coil spring is fixed at one end, and
different weights are hung from the other end. The length of the
spring is measured each time a new weight is hung on it. The
measurements are shown in Table R 3.7 .

Table 3.7

(a) Round off the lengths of the spring to the nearest whole
number.
(b) Using a suitable scale, plot these results on a graph.
(c) Find the length of the spring if the weight was
(i) 8 g
(ii) 11 g
(iii) 26 g
(iv) 32 g
(d) What weight corresponds to
(i) 10 cm
(ii) 38 cm
(iii) 53 cm
(iv) 85 cm?
2. Given that (– 2, – 1), (1, 1), (m , 3) are on the same line, find the
value of m .
3. In Fig. R 3.4 there are six congruent triangles.
 Fig. R 3.4

(a) Which triangles have direct congruence?

(b) Which triangles have opposite congruence?
4. Given triangle ABC as in Figure R 3.5, prove that the sum of the
angles A, B and C is 180°. (Hint: Draw a line through A that is
parallel to BC and use properties of angles on parallel lines).

Fig. R 3.5

5. Use Fig. R 3.6 to answer the following. (The figure is symmetrical

about m).
(a) What is the image of point C in m ?
(b) What is the image of point A in m ?
(c) What is the image of GF in m ?
(d) Name two points which are equidistant from m .
(e) What is the image of ∠EGF in m ?
(f) What is the image of ΔCDE in m ?

Fig. R 3.6
 6. Triangle ABC has vertices at A (8, 6), B(4, 10) and C(2, 6). After a
negative quarter turn about (2, 1), ΔABC maps onto ΔA′ B′ C′ . Find
the coordinates of A′ , B′ and C′ .
7. Find the value of
(a) 8c – 3 – 5c given that c = 4,
(b) 4mn – 3n given that m = 5 and n = 2,
(c) 2p2 + 3p – 22 given that p = – 3,
(d) tun – v, given that t = 2, n = 4, u = 1 and v = 3.
8. Solve the equation 3(2x + 1) – 5(x – 2) = 2(3 – 2x)

9. (a) The mean mass of 5 boys is 54.4 kg. Three boys of masses 52 kg,
55.1 kg and 57.5 kg join the five. What is the mean mass of all
the eight boys?
(b) Table R 3.8 shows the distribution of ages of workers in a certain
organisation.
Age (years) Number of workers
20 – 24 5
25 – 29 10
30 – 34 18
35 – 39 15
40 – 69 12

Table R 3.8
Calculate
(i) the mean age,
(ii) the median age of the workers.

10. (a) The times in seconds, to the nearest 0.1 seconds, taken by 45
pupils in running 100 m were recorded as in Table R.3.9 below.
 Table R 3.9

Make a frequency table with the times grouped as 11.5–11.9, 12.0–

12.4, 12.5–12.9, …
(b) Using the frequency table you made in part (a), make a
bar chart and state the modal class.
11. Find the value of x in each quadrilateral in Fig. R3.7.
(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. R 3.7
12. A regular polygon has an exterior angle of 36°. Find
(a) the size of the interior angle,
(b) the number of sides of the polygon.
EVALUATION EXERCISE

1. Convert 40.3eight to:

(a) base 5
(b) base 3
2. Work out the following in base 4
(a) 3 201 + 2 323
(b) 333 + 222
(c) 2 330 – 2 222
(d) 3 001 – 2 331
3. Simplify:
(a) 5x + 2x + 7
(b) 3m – 2n + 5m
(c) 10a + 5a + 18
(d) 8g – 7g + 4
(e) 4s – 8s + 3g + 7s
(f) 15r –16c – 21r – 14c
(g)
(h)
(i)
4. If Wadabwa gives Mauro $5, Mauro will have three times as much
as Wadabwa. If Mauro gives Wadabwa $7, Wadabwa will have
three times much as Mauro. How much does each person have?
5. A bird is flying at a height of 50 m above the ground. A boy shot the
bird and it fell into a borehole 30m deep. What distance did the bird
fall?
6. A rectangular piece of land measures 75 m by 52 m. What is the
length of the diagonal of the land?
7. Calculate the term indicated and the sum of the sequence up to that
 term
(a) 4, 9, 14 … a6 …
(b) 6, 2, – 2 … a5 …
8. An agent sold tickets for a football match and was paid 8%
commission of the sales. How much was he paid for selling tickets
worth K 2 million?
9. Solve the simultaneous equations:
3x + 5y = 21
2x + 6y = 3
10. Find the surface area of a solid cylinder of diameter 15 cm and width
15 cm
11. (a) Find the HCF of
(i) 430, 285, 1 070
(ii) 720, 444, 630
(b) Find the LCM of
(i) 10, 18, 27
(ii) 112, 64, 96
12. Evaluate correct to 2 sig. figures
(a) 27.84 + 13.23
(b) 1.695 × 0.3485
13. Find square root, correct to 3 s.f.
(a) 0.00909
(b) 0.001656
(c) 0.00036
14. Find the length of a square field given the area as 8 000 m
15. Solve these equations
(a)
(b)

16. Describe in words each of the following sets:

(a) {France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Germany, United Kingdom}
(b) {Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia}
 (c) Mercury, Mars, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus
17. A business person had borrowed K 160 000. After a while he had
made profits and paid his debt and remained with K 320 000. How
much had he earned in total?
18. Simplify each of the following:
(a)
(b)
(c)

19. (a) State the compliments of

(i) 52º
(ii) 23º
(iii) 83º
(b) State the supplement of
(i) 21º
(ii) 69
(iii) 170º
20. Factorise:
(a) bx – 2by – tk + 2ty
(b) x2 – 5x + 6
21. Round off the answer to 2 decimal places:
(a)
(b)
(c)

22. Estimate the following to 3 decimal places:

(a) 2 410 × 0.000 018 32
(b) 188.5 × 0.036 8
(c) 4.13 ÷ 7.04
(d) 0.091 ÷ 0.729
23. Work out the following (in base 10)
(a) 62 + 642
 (b) 543 – 847
(c) – 432 + – 740
(d) – 31 + 59 – – 89
24. Find height of a cylinder of radius 5 cm, total surface area 660 cm2 .
25. Find the volume of a cylindrical tank 8 m diameter if water is 3 m
deep.