High-pass and low-pass filters

Application
Application is found in car radio, which employs both a low-pass and a high-pass filter. The low-
pass filter directs low-frequency sounds to the subwoofer, while the high-pass filter channels high-
frequency sounds (like vocals or instruments) to the speakers engineered for higher tones.
Consequently, all aspects of the music can be heard clearly and distinctly.

Principle
A high-pass filter allows high frequencies signal to pass through and blocks low frequency signal, while
a low-pass filter allows low frequencies signal to pass through and blocks high frequency signal.

Objective

After successful completion of this experiment students will be able to theoretically describe the
function of high- and low pass filters.

Tasks that expected from the student

1. Measurements low-pass filter and observe the phase response.
2. Investigate the amplitude response of a low-pass filter.
3. Measurements on a high pass filter and observe the phase response.
4. Investigate the amplitude response of a high-pass filter.
5. Observe the phase shift of the high pass.
6. Investigate the effects of a square wave voltage on the high and low pass.

Theory
Passive RC-circuit

The frequency response of signals can be altered using RC circuits. This can be observed
in the context of two passive RC elements, a low-pass and a high-pass filter. Being labeled
as 'passive’ signifies the absence of any amplifying element within the circuit. 'Low-pass'
and 'high-pass ‘designations indicate that the low frequencies are permitted in the low-pass
filter and the high frequencies in the high-pass filter, whereas the respective other
frequencies are blocked. To comprehend this behavior, one examines the resistances
present in the circuit. Apart from the ohmic resistance R, there is also a capacitive
resistance XC.
Fig. 1a: Low pass

Fig. 1b: High pass

In an alternating current circuit, a capacitor behaves akin to a resistor (reactance). The

magnitude of this depends on the frequency f and the capacitance C. The relationship is
expressed as follows in formulaic terms:

That means:

 As the applied frequency increases, the capacitive reactance decreases.

 The larger the capacitor's capacitance, the smaller the capacitive reactance.
 The larger the applied frequency and capacitor’s capacitance, the smaller the
capacitor's reactance.

An additional attribute of a capacitor is that its current is ahead of its voltage. This can be
easily understood when starting with a completely discharged capacitor. When it's
connected to a power source, a high charge current is initially present, which diminishes
over time. As more charges are gathered on the capacitor plates, the movement of the
charge decreases. As the charge flow occurs, a voltage develops across the plates. In the
ideal capacitor the phase shift is between current and voltage.

In general, the following applies to a capacitor with capacitance C:

If a sinusoidal alternating voltage

 Is applied to the capacitor, the current is calculated:

For the impedance Z of resistors R and Xc connected in series in an AC circuit, the

following applies:

Amplitude, phase response and cut off frequency for a low pass

The following applies to the dependence of input and output voltage on frequency
(amplitude response) for a low-pass filter:

If the voltage drop at R and Xc is equal, then the following applies to the amplitude
response at this point

The phase response is determined by

Amplitude, phase response and cut-off frequency for a high pass

The following applies to the dependence of input and output voltage on frequency (amplitude response)
for a high-pass filter:

The phase response is determined by

Apparatus
Plug in board, for 4mm plug
Resister 100 ohm, 1W, G1
Resistor 1kohm, 1W, G1
Capacitor4, 7 micro/100V, G2
Digital storage oscilloscope with USB, 100 MHz / 2CH, 1GS/s
 Connecting cord, 32 a, 750 mm, blue
Connecting cord, 32 a, 750 mm, red
Measuring cable BNC to 4 mm banana plug, length 1 m
Bridge plug
PHYWE Digital Function Generator, USB

Setup 1
 Set up the experiment of a low-pass filter according to the circuit diagram the shown
picture.
 The voltage curve of the input signal Ue is measured with CH1 and the voltage curve of the
output signal Ua with CH2 of the oscilloscope.

Experimental setup low pass

Circuit diagram

Procedure for low pass filter

Measurements on a low-pass filter

Observe the output voltage for different resistors and capacitors at a fixed input voltage of
about 8V and for different frequencies; Measure Ue and Ua for different values of frequencies
and enter the measured values there.

Use the resistance R = 100Ω

Ue= 8v
Table 1
f (Hz) Ua(v) ω =2πf 20log (Ua/ Ue)
1
10
50
100
250
500
660
750
1000
1500
2000
Setup 2
 Set up the experiment of a high-pass filter according to the circuit diagram the shown
picture.
 The voltage curve of the input signal Ue is measured with CH1and the voltage curve
of the output signal Ua with CH2 of the oscilloscope.

Experimental setup high pass

Circuit diagram

Procedure for high pass filter

Measurements on a high-pass filter

Observe the output voltage for different resistors and capacitors at a fixed input voltage of about
8V and different frequencies; Measure and for the frequencies and enter the measured values there.
Use the resistance R = 1000Ω,Ue= 8v
Table 2
f (Hz) Ua(v) ω =2πf 20log (Ua/ Ue)
10
200
400
450
600
750
850
1000
1200
1500
2000
Procedure
Square wave voltage as input signal at, high and low pass filter
Finally, select a square wave voltage signal as the input signal and Set the parameters:
Amplitude = 8V and
Signal: square wave
Low pass: frequency = 400Hz
High pass: frequency = 20Hz
Observe the output signal

Results and evaluation

Low pass filter and high pass filter

1) What behavior was observed at the low pass and high pass the phase shift and amplitude
for different values of frequency with their respective values of Ue and Ua?
2) Draw the amplitude response (pass band curve) (Ua/ Ue) Vs f (Hz) graphically? And calculate the
cut off frequency for both low pass and high pass?
3) Write what you observe from the oscilloscope about the voltage characteristics with in applied square
wave voltage at the low and high pass?
Verifying Ohm’s law and measuring specific
resistances
Objectives of the experiment
 Measuring the voltage and the current on four constantan wires with different cross-
sectional areas.
 Measuring the voltage and the current on two constantan wires with different lengths.
 Measuring the voltage and the current on a constantan wire and on a brass wire.
 Verifying Ohm’s law and determining the resistances.

Principles
In circuits made up of metallic conductors, the voltage U at a conductor is, to a good
approximation, proportional to the current I flowing through the conductor, i.e. Ohm’s law

holds. The proportionality constant R is called the resistance of the conductor. The
resistance R and the cross sectional area A is given by

ρ iS specific resistance of the wire material. In the experiment, the proportionality

between the current and the voltage is confirmed for metal wires with various
thicknesses and lengths and for wires made of different materials. In each case, the
resistance is determined as the proportionality constant. The dependence of the
proportionality constant on the length and on the cross-sectional area is examined
and the specific resistance of the material used is determined according to Equation
(II)
Experimental setup for verifying Ohm’s law
Apparatus
1 Apparatus for resistance measurement
1 AC/DC Power supply 0 - 12 V
1 Pair cables 100 cm, red/blue
3 Connecting lead 100 cm black
1 Connecting lead 25 cm black
1 Ammeter, DC, I ≤ 3 A
1 Voltmeter, DC, U ≤ 15

Procedure
The experimental setup measuring with the ammeter and Voltmeter:

 Connect the voltmeter to the constantan wire 1 mm dia. and connect the voltage source
and the ammeter in series to this arrangement (ranges 3 V DC and 3 A DC).
 Adjust voltage drops U between 0 V and 1.2 V in steps of 0.1 V, each time reading the
current I and taking U and I down.
 Connect the constantan wire 0.7 mm dia. and record the series of measurements in steps
of 0.2 V (ranges 3 V DC and 3 A DC).
 Record further series of measurements on the constantan wire 0.5 mm dia. in steps of 0.4
V up to 3.6 V and on the constantan wire 0.35 mm dia. in steps of 0.8 V up to 4 V (ranges
10 V DC and 3 A DC).
 = 2 m),
connect the two sockets on one side via a short cable.
 Connect the voltmeter, the ammeter and the voltage source to the sockets on the opposite
side.
 Record another series of measurements in steps of 0.4 V (ranges 3 V DC and 3 A DC).
 Record a series of measurements on brass 0.5 mm dia. in steps of 0.1 V (ranges 1 V DC
and 3 A DC), and compare it with the series of measurements on constantan 0.5 mm
diameter.
Table1: Constantan wires with equal length ( l = 1 m) and different thickness
d = 1.0 mm d = 0.7 mm d = 0.5 mm d = 0.35 mm
A = 0.8 mm2 A = 0.4 mm2 A = 0.2 mm2 A = 0.1 mm2
U(V) I(A) U(V) I(A) U(V) I(A) U(V) I(A)
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8
0.2 0.4 0.8 1.6
0.3 0.6 1.2 2.4
0.4 0.8 1.6 3.2
0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0
0.6 1.2 2.4
0.7 1.4 2.8
0.8 1.6 3.2
0.9 1.8 3.6
1.0 2.0
Table2: Constantan wires with equal thickness (d = 0.7 mm) and different length

l=1m l= 2 m

U(V) I(A) U(V) I(A)

0.2 0.4
0.4 0.8
0.6 1.2
0.8 1.6
1.0 2.0
1.2 2.4
1.4 2.8
1.6 3.2
1.8 3.6
2.0 4.0
2.2 4.4

Table3: Brass wire and constantan wire with equal thickness (d = 0.5 mm) and equal length
(l= 1 m)

Brass Constantan

U(V) I(A) U(V) I(A)

0.1 0.4
0.2 0.8
0.3 1.2
0.4 1.6
0.5 2.0
0.6 2.4
0.7 2.8
3.2
3.6
Results and evaluation
1) Describe qualitative comparisons of voltage and current for both table1 and table2?
2) Draw the measured values of table1, table2 and table3? And confirm proportionality of
current and voltage?
3) Determine the slope of the graph and resistance of the wire from the graph?
4) Describe dependence of resistance on the cross sectional area?
5) Describe dependence of resistance on the cross sectional length?
6) Describe dependence of resistance on the cross sectional material?
7) Finally, describe your measured values to theoretical ohm’s law?
Charging and discharging a capacitor when
switching DC on and off
Objectives of the experiments
 Investigating the behavior of the voltage at a capacitor when a DC voltage is switched on
and off.
 Determining the half-time T1/2 =R.C.ln2

Principles
In a DC circuit, a capacitor represents an infinite resistance. Only during circuit closing and
opening does a current flow. When the circuit is closed, this current causes the capacitor to be
charged until the applied voltage is reached correspondingly the capacitor is discharged via a
resistor when the circuit is opened. The behavior of the voltage at the capacitor can be described
by means of an exponential function. The voltage during circuit opening is given by:

With τ: time constant the time constant or decay time τ is the time after which the voltage has

dropped to the value in the half-time T1/2 the voltage drops to half the value of U0. From
Eq. (I) it follows that:

From this T1/2 = τ.ln2

These the half time is T1/2 =R.C.ln2 (II)

Similarly the behavior of the voltage during circuit closing can be considered:
In this experiment, the square-wave voltage U(t) and the voltage UC at the capacitor C are
displayed on the oscilloscope.
The half-time T1/2 is determined from the time base sweep. In order to confirm Eq. (II), first the
dependence of the half time T1/2 on the capacitance, T1/2∝ C and then on the resistance, T1/2∝ R
are investigated.

Apparatus
1 plug-in board A4
1 resistor 470 Ω, 2 W, STE 2/19
1 resistor 1 kΩ, 2 W, STE 2/19
1 resistor 2.2 kΩ, 2 W, STE 2/19
3 capacitors 1 µF, 100 V, STE 2/19
1 function generator S 12
1 two-channel oscilloscope
2 screened cables BNC/4 mm
1 pair of cables, 100 cm, blue and red

EXPERIMENT SETUP
  Set up the circuit as shown in the picture.
 Measure the square-wave voltage of the function generator with channel I and the voltage
drop at the capacitor with channel II.
 Display both curves simultaneously (DUAL). Set the coupling and the trigger to DC. To
ensure correct reading of the times t, use the calibrated time base sweep (CAL.)

Procedure
a) Investigating the discharging and charging processes of a capacitor
 First use the resistor with R = 1 kΩ and capacitor with C = 1 µF in the setup.
 Select a square-wave voltage with a frequency f =100 Hz at the function generator and
adjust the voltage US =6 V with the aid of the oscilloscope so that an even number of fields
is used on the screen.
 Measure the times t the voltage takes to drop from U = 6 V to U = 3 V and from U = 3 V
to U = 1.5 V during discharging and record your data as shown below.

C = 1 µF, R = 1 kΩ (f = 100 Hz)

Voltage change 6v-3v 3v-1.5v

t(ms)

 Similarly measure the times t the voltage takes to rise from 0 V to 3 V and from 3 V to 4.5
V during charging and record your data as shown below.
C = 1 µF, R = 1 kΩ (f = 100 Hz)

Voltage change 0v-3v 3v-4.5v

t(ms)

b) Dependence of the half-time on the resistance

 Use a capacitance C = 0.5 µF by means of a series connection of two capacitors (1 µF each)

and use various resistors one after another.
 For each resistance determine the time t=T1/2 in which the voltage UC at the capacitor has
dropped to half the maximum value. If necessary, increase the time base sweep at the
oscilloscope for more accurate reading and record your data as shown below.

R(kΩ) o.47 1 1.47 2.2 2.67

T1/2(ms)

c) Dependence of the half-time on the capacitance

 Use the resistor R = 470 Ω and make various capacitances C in parallel and series
connections of the capacitors.
  For each capacitance determine the time in which the voltage UC at the capacitor has
dropped to half the maximum value. If necessary, increase the time base sweep at the
oscilloscope for more accurate reading and record your data as shown below.

R = 0.47 kΩ (f = 100 Hz)

C(µF) 0.33 0.5 0.67 1 2

T1/2(ms)

Evaluation and results

a) Investigating the discharging and charging processes of a capacitor

i. What is the half time for discharging a capacitor via a resistor if the voltage is just halved?
ii. What is the half time for charging a capacitor via a resistor if the voltage is just doubled?

b) Dependence of the half-time on the resistance (C = 1 µ F)

i. Draw a graph that shows T1/2 Vs R and confirm the proportionality of T1/2∝R?

c) Dependence of the half-time on the capacitance (R = 0.47 kΩ)

i. Draw a graph that shows T1/2 Vs C and confirm the proportionality of T1/2∝C?

Finally, determine the constant of proportionality

i. Draw a graph that shows T1/2 Vs RC and find the proportionality constant by
calculating RC from b) and c) fill your measurement as shown below?

R.C(kΩ.µF) T1/2(ms)

ii. Apart from the tolerances of the resistors and capacitors what is the main reasons
for deviation of your measurement from the standard values?
iii. Show the dimensional confirmations of R.C and T1/2?
 Recording the current-voltage
characteristics of diodes
Objects of the experiment
 Studying the current I as a function of the voltage U for different types of diodes.

Principles
Virtually all aspects of electronic circuit technology rely on semiconductor components. The
semiconductor diodes are among the simplest of these. They consist of a semiconductor crystal in
which an n-conducting zone is adjacent to a p conducting zone. Capture of the charge carriers, i.e.
the electrons in the n-conducting and the “holes” in the p-conducting zones, forms a zone of low-
conductivity at the junction called the depletion layer. The size of this zone is increased when
electrons or holes are pulled out of the depletion layer by an external electric field with a certain
orientation. The direction of this electric field is called the “reverse direction”. Reversing the
electric field into what is called “forward direction” drives the respective charge carriers into the
depletion layer, allowing current to flow through the diode. In the experiment, the current-voltage
characteristics of a Si diode (silicon diode) and a Ge-diode (germanium diode) are measured and
graphed manually point by point. The aim is to compare the current in the reverse direction and
the threshold voltage as the most important specifications of the two diodes.

Apparatus
1 Rastered socket panel DIN A 4
1 STE Resistor 100 Ω, 2 W
1 STE Ge-Diode AA 118
1 STE Si-Diode 1 N 4007
1 AC/DC Power supply 0...12 V / 3 A
2 Multimeters LDanalog 20
1 Connecting Lead 100 cm Red
2 Pair cables 50 cm, red/blue

Setup
Procedure
To set up the experiment as shown in the figure.
 Plug in the Si-Diode 1N4007, so that the tip of the triangle points from plus to
minus (in the direction of the current, “forward direction”). Pay attention to the
measuring range and polarity of the multimeters.
 Record the characteristic: Carefully increase voltage U – starting with 0 V –
and observe current I. The current I should not exceed 30 mA.
 For different pairs of voltage U and current I record your data as shown below
in forward direction.

Si-Diode 1 N 4007 Ge-Diode AA 118

U(V) I(mA) U(V) I(mA)
0 0
0.2 0.2
0.4 0.3
0.5 0.4
0.62 0.5
0.67 0.6
0.69 0.75
0.71 1.05
0.72 1.30
0.73 1.55
1.75
1.95
  Reverse the diode, i.e. plugged in reverse direction. Carefully increase voltage
U – starting with 0 V – up to 5 V and observe current I.
 For different pairs of voltage U and current I and record your data as shown
below in reverse direction.

Si-Diode 1 N 4007 Ge-Diode AA 118

U(V) I(mA) I(mA)
0
1
2
3
4
5

Evaluation and results

1) Draw I(mA) Vs U(V) in forward and reverse direction for Si and Ge diode?
2) What is threshold voltage and write threshold voltage for Si and Ge diode?
3) Explain in which conducting states diodes are acting like a valve?
 Recording the current-voltage
characteristics of zener-diodes

Objects of the experiment

 Studying the current I as a function of the voltage U of different Z-diodes.
Principles
Virtually all aspects of electronic circuit technology rely on semiconductor components. The
semiconductor diodes are among the simplest of these. They consist of a semiconductor crystal in
which an n-conducting zone is adjacent to a p conducting zone. Capture of the charge carriers, i.e.
the electrons in the n-conducting and the “holes” in the p-conducting zones, forms a zone of low-
conductivity at the junction called the depletion layer. The size of this zone is increased when
electrons or holes are pulled out of the depletion layer by an external electric field with a certain
orientation. The direction of this electric field is called the “reverse direction”. At a certain voltage,
this field gets to big and a breakdown occurs. The Zener-effect (Zener-diodes) acts for breakdown-
voltages smaller than 5 V, the avalanche-effect acts for bigger voltages (Z-diodes). Reversing the
electric field into what is called forward direction drives the respective charge carriers into the
depletion layer, allowing current to flow through the diode. The objective of the experiment is to
measure the current voltage characteristic of a Z-diode. Here, special attention is paid to the
breakdown voltage in the reverse direction, when this voltage level is reached the current rises
abruptly. The current is due to charge carriers in the depletion layer, which, when accelerated by
the applied voltage, ionize additional atoms of the semiconductor through collision.

Apparatus
1 Rastered socket panel DIN A 4
1 STE Resistor 100 Ω, 2 W
1 STE Diode ZPD 6,2
1 STE Diode ZPD 9,1
1 AC/DC Power supply 0...12 V / 3 A
2 Multi meters LD analog 20
1 Connecting Lead 100 cm Red
2 Pair cables 50 cm, red/blue

Setup
Procedure
 Set up the experiment as shown in the figure above. Plug in the Z-diode ZPD 6,2, the tip
of the triangle pointing from plus to minus (in current direction). Pay attention of the
measuring range and polarity of the multi meters.
 Record the characteristic: Carefully increase voltage U – starting with 0 V – and observe
current I. The current I should not exceed 30 mA.
 For different pairs of voltage U and current I record your data as shown below in forward
direction.

Z-Diode ZPD 6,2 Z-Diode ZPD 9,1

U(V) I(mA) U(V) I(mA)
0 0
0.2 0.2
0.4 0.4
0.6 0.6
0.7 0.7
0.78 0.76
0.82 0.78
0.84 0.80
0.86 0.81
0.88 0.82
0.90 0.83
 Plug in the Z-diode in reverse direction. Carefully increase voltage U – starting with 0 V –
and observe current I. The current I should not exceed 30 mA.
 For different pairs of voltage U and current I record your data as shown below.

Z-Diode ZPD 6,2 Z-Diode ZPD 9,1

U(V) I(mA) U(V) I(mA)
0 0
1 1
2 3
3 5
4 7
5.8 9
6.1 9.4
6.2 9.6
6.2 9.7
6.3 9.8
6.3 9.9
6.3 10

Evaluation and results

1) Draw I(mA) Vs U(V) in forward and reverse direction for Z-Diode ZPD 6,2 and Z-
Diode ZPD 9,1?
2) What is threshold voltage and write threshold voltage for Z-Diode ZPD 6,2 and Z-
Diode ZPD 9,1?
3) Explain in which conducting states direction z-diodes are acting like a normal diode
and determine the threshold voltage?
4) Explain characteristics of current in reverse direction below breakdown voltage, at
breakdown voltage and above breakdown voltage in relation to resistance and
conductivities of z-diode?
5) Explain what happened the voltage drop at the z-diode after exceeding breakdown
voltage for increasing current?
Recording the current-voltage characteristics
of a solar battery as a function of the
irradiance

Objectives of the experiment

 Recording the current-voltage characteristic point by point and measuring the open-circuit
voltage U0 and the short-circuit current IS for various values of the irradiance.
 Determining the power P supplied as a function of the load resistance R for various values
of the irradiance.
 Determining the maximum power Pmax, the associated load resistance Rmax and the fill
factor and percentage fill factor.

Principles
A solar cell is a semiconductor component at whose p/n transition the radiation energy of incoming
sun light is directly converted into electrical energy. The semiconductor component is a
photodiode with a large surface area constructed so that the light can penetrate the p/n transition
through a thin n or p conducting layer and then creates electron hole pairs. These are separated by
the intrinsic electric field in the barrier layer and can migrate in the reverse direction. Electrons
migrate into the n-doped region, and the holes migrate into the p-doped region. If the external
metal contacts are shorted, a short-circuit current IS flows in the reverse direction of the
photodiode. This current is substantially proportional to the number of electron hole pairs created
per unit time, i.e. it is proportional to the irradiance of the incoming light and the surface area of
the solar cell. If the metal contacts are open, this reverse current leads to a open-circuit voltage U0,
which in turn leads to an equal diffusion current ID in the forward direction of the diode so that no
current flows at all. If a load with an arbitrary resistance R is connected, the current I flowing
through the load depends on the resultant voltage U between the metal contacts. In a simplified
manner, in can be considered to be the difference between the current IS in the reverse direction,
which depends on the irradiance, and the current ID of the non-irradiated semiconductor diode in
forward direction, which depend on the terminal voltage U:

In this way, the current-voltage characteristics typical of a solar cell are obtained. In the case of
small load resistances, the solar cell behaves like a constant-current source as the forward current
ID can be neglected. In the case of greater load resistances, the behavior corresponds
approximately to that of a constant-voltage source because then the current ID(U) increases quickly
if the voltage changes slightly. Often several solar cells are combined to form a solar battery. Series
connection leads to a greater open-circuit voltage U0, whereas parallel connection leads to a
greater short-circuit current IS. In the experiment, a series connection of four solar cells is set up,
and the current-voltage characteristics are recorded for four different values of the irradiance. The
irradiance is varied by changing the distance of the light source. In addition, the power

supplied by the solar cell is displayed as a function of the load resistance

At a fixed irradiance, the power supplied by the solar cell depends on the load resistance R. The
solar cell reaches its maximum power Pmax at a load resistance Rmax which, to a good
approximation, is equal to the so-called internal resistance.

This maximum power is smaller than the product of the open circuit voltage and the short-circuit
current. The ratio

Principle of operation of a solar cell

Setup
The experimental setup
 Plug the STE solar cell into the plug-in board, and connect the upper negative pole to the
lower positive pole using two bridging plugs (series connection of four solar cells).
 Plug in the STE potentiometer as a variable resistor, and connect it to the solar battery
using bridging plugs.
 Connect the ammeter in series with the solar battery and the variable resistor. Select the
measuring range 100 mA DC.
 Connect the voltmeter in parallel to the solar battery, and select the measuring range 3 V
DC.
 Connect the halogen lamp to the transformer, and align it so that the solar battery is
uniformly irradiated.

Procedure
 Close the circuit, first shorting the variable resistor with an additional bridging plug
between the points a and b, and choose the distance of the halogen lamp so that the short
circuit current is approximately 100 mA.
 Remove the shorting bridging plug, and increase the terminal voltage or decrease the
current, respectively, step by step by changing the load resistance. For each step read the
current and the voltage, and take them down.
 Then interrupt the circuit, and measure the open-circuit voltage.
 Adjust a short-circuit current of approximately 75 mA – and after that 50 mA and 25 mA
by increasing the distance of the halogen lamp, and repeat the series of measurements.
 Measure values of the terminal voltage U of the solar battery and the current I flowing
through the load resistor.
 Short-circuit current IS =…………,
Open-circuit voltage U0 ………….

TRIAL 1 TRIAL2
U(V) I( mA) U(V) I( mA)

Apparatus
1 solar cell, 2 V / 0.3 A, STE 4/100
1 plug-in board A4
1 pair of board holders
1 potentiometer 220 , 3 W, STE 2/19
1 set of ten bridging plugs
1 voltmeter, DC, U  10 V
1 ammeter, DC, I  3 A
1 halogen lamp housing,12 V, 50/100 W
1 incandescent lamp 12 V, 100 W
1 transformer 2 to 12 V
1 saddle base and connecting leads

Evaluation and results

1) Draw I VS U that shows IS , U0 and Imax and Umax on the same graph?
2) For each trials find the corresponding power and resistance?
3) What is short circuit current and open circuit voltage state briefly?
4) How to determine the maximum resistance?
5) Draw and interpret current-voltage characteristics of the solar batteries measured for each
trials corresponding to different values of the irradiance?
6) Draw and interpret power load resistance characteristics of the solar battery for different
values of the irradiance?
Recording the Characteristics of a Geiger-
Müller (end-window) Counter Tube

Objectives of the experiment

 Recording the frequency of discharge pulses of a Geiger-Müller counter tube as a
function of the counter tube potential for a constant radiation source.
 Determination of the Geiger threshold and the operating range.

Principles
Until today the Geiger-Müller counter tube, developed in 1928 by H. W. Geiger and his partner
W. Müller is an indispensable means for detecting radioactivity. It even registers radiation with
minute ionizing power. It consists of a tube with a thin wire isolated and suspended in its axis and
filled with inert gas at a pressure of about 100 mbar. The radiation enters from the front side via a
thin mica layer. Between the wall as cathode and the wire as anode a potential of several hundred
volts works via a high-ohmic resistor. The voltage is selected to avoid self-discharge.

Incident radioactivity ionizes gas atoms in the counter tube. The liberated electrons move at high
velocity towards the wire, the positive ions drift at relatively low velocity towards the wall. In the
vicinity of the wire the electrons are strongly accelerated and through collisions produce new
charge carriers or excite gas atoms to emit photons, which in turn can form additional charge
carriers through photo-ionization. The charge carriers produce a current impulse, which ends when
all ions have reached the cathode. At the outer resistor a short voltage drop occurs, which is applied
to a counter via a coupling condenser.

If the counter tube potential is low, the charge avalanches are limited locally. As the counter tube
potential rises they start to spread until they finally are distributed over the entire counter tube. All
ionized particles, no matter what kind and of what energy, cause an identical voltage impulse. The
counting rate for a constant radioactive source becomes independent of the counter tube potential.
A counter tube working in this range is called the Geiger-Muller counter tube. If the counter tube
voltage is raised, a self-actuated gas discharge occurs, which easily can destroy the entire counter
tube.
A quenching process must prevent secondary electrons from being dissolved from the surface of
the cathode, which could restart the discharging process. In self-quenching counter tubes a
quenching gas (e.g. halogen) is mixed with the inert gas. It largely absorbs photons on their way
to the cathode and thus prevents electrons from being triggered photonically. Furthermore the inert
gas ions transmit their charge through collisions to molecules of the extinguishing gas ions. Thus
only ions of the extinguishing gas reach the cathode. Due to their low ionizing power these are not
able to activate secondary electrons there. The discharge process is extinguished.

Diagram for Geiger-Müller counter tube

Apparatus
1 End-window counter for a-, b-, g- and X-rays
1 Ra−226 preparation
1 Digital counter
1 Insulated stand rod, 25 cm
1 Large clip plug
1 Connection rod
2 Saddle bases

Setup
Note:
The window of the end-window counter (12-15 µm mica) easily can be damaged mechanically. If
the window is damaged the end-window counter tube is rendered unusable: Do not touch the mica
window; store end-window counter only with protective cover in place. Remove protective cover
for making measurements only. Carefully remove and replace protective cover without twisting
and without covering the air hole. If the operating voltage is too high, the end-window counter will
be damaged by self-activated gas discharge: Do not permanently exceed the maximum operating
voltage of 600 V.
 Mount large clip plug on connection rod.
 Fasten the end-window counter with the brackets, connect to inlet A of the digital counter
and carefully remove protective cover.
 Fasten Ra226 preparation with 4-mm plug at suitable height on the insulated stand rod.
Carefully guide preparation to a distance of about 1 mm from the end-window counter.

Safety notes
When radioactive preparations are handled, country specific regulations must be observed, in
Germany e.g. the Radiation Protection Regulation (StrlSchV). The radioactive substances used in
the experiment are permitted according to “StrlSchV” for school instruction. The following safety
regulations must be observed however, since ionizing radiation is produced:
 Protect preparation from unauthorized use.
 Check preparation for damage prior to use.
 Store preparation in safety container for shielding.
 To guarantee minimum time of exposure and minimum activity remove preparation from
the safety container for performing the experiment only.
 To ensure maximum distance, hold preparation at the upper lip of the metal container only

Procedure
 Switch on the digital counter or, if available, push button A.
 Switch on loudspeaker, once press button Rate (gate time:1 sec) and press button Start
Stop.
 To reduce the potential of the counter tube, turn the potentiometer A to the left until the
acoustic signal disappears and the display shows zero; read the voltage of the counter tube
in the measuring display and record as Geiger threshold U0.
 Reduce the counter tube voltage by another about 100 V and again press the button Rate
in order to raise the gate time to 10 sec.
 Start the counting rate measurement with button Start Stop; after the gate time has passed,
read the counting rate R, and record together with the counter tube voltage U.
 Push button Start Stop to stop counting rate measurement, raise counter tube voltage by 40
V and restart counting rate measurement.
 To record additional measurements raise counter tube voltage to a total of 640 V (choose
small increments in the range of the Geiger threshold U0).
 Widen distances between preparations and counter tube to 10 mm or 20 mm and record
additional series of measurements and record Counting rate R as a function of the counter
tube voltage U at three different distances d between preparation and counter tube your
data as shown below.
Working voltage: U0 = 356 V
 d = 1 mm d = 10 mm d = 20 mm
U(V) R /S − 1 R /S − 1 R /S − 1
240
280
320
352
356
360
364
368
372
380
400
440
600
640

Evaluation and results

1) Draw counting rate R as a function of the counter tube voltage U at three different
distances d between preparation and counter tube?
2) What is the Geiger threshold and describe it? And when the counter tube works as a Geiger-
Müller counter tube?