COMPARING LEADERSHIP STYLES OF PRINCIPALS WITH

HIGH LEVELS OF LEARNERS’ ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

WITH THOSE WITH LOW LEVELS: A CASE STUDY OF
RURAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN ONE EDUCATION
DISTRICT OF SOUTH AFRICA

by

MABANDLA NONYASHE

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (DEd)

at

WALTER SISULU UNIVERSITY

SUPERVISOR: Dr C.D Mantlana

MARCH 2023

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2.2. LEADERSHIP AND SCHOOL LEADERSHIP CONCEPTUALISATION

2.2.1. Leadership conceptualisation

The concept of leadership and the significance of the term has been
challenged by many scholars for many years. In literature, according to
Poloncic (2016), there are many definitions of leadership. Different
scholars define leadership differently. Despite a number of attempts to
define leadership over many decades with countless definitions that have
been offered in literature, scholars remain divided because a single and
universal definition of leadership remains undetermined. Burns (1978)
found that leadership, as a concept, has dissolved into small and diverse
meanings, whose inspiring study identified up to 130 definitions.

The researcher is of the view that leadership can have different meanings
for different purposes and from different scholars. Hence Bass and Bass
(2008) noted that the definition of leadership used in a particular study of
leadership depends on the purpose of the study. Stogdill (1974) argued
that there were as many definitions of leadership as there were people
who have attempted to define it, with words such as democracy, love and
peace. Burns (1978) concluded by indicating that leadership is one of the
most observed and least understood phenomena on earth and that the
concept of leadership has exercised the imagination for the past 2000
years.

There seems to be consistency in literature about the conceptualization of

leadership. It is largely viewed by many scholars, as discussed above, that
there is no commonly established and approved definition of leadership.
However, from the multitude of attempts of conceptualising leadership
one may deduce certain elements that are common and consistent in
many definitions of leadership concept, which include ‘process’,
‘influence’ and ‘goal achievement’. This had been witnessed by Mantlana
(2006) and Yukl (2012) that among the many definitions of leadership, the

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notion of leadership, as a process of social influence towards goal
attainment, is present in nearly every scholarly definition.

Further explanations of what leadership is all about are given in the

paragraphs below as a means of trying to provide a theoretical base. One
of the early attempts to define leadership as ‘influence’ was Tead
(1935) who defined it as the activity of influencing people to cooperate
toward some goals, which they come to find desirable. Leadership in itself
has an element of power to influence. Bhatti, Maitlo, Shaik, Hashmi, Shaik,
(2012) also defined leadership as a process of social influence in which a
leader seeks voluntary participation of subordinates in an effort to reach
organizational goals. Northouse (2012) held that without influence,
leadership does not exist. Similarly, Goode (2017) defined leadership as a
process of social influence through which an individual enlists and
mobilizes the aid of others in the attainment of a collective goal.

The concepts, process, influence’ and ‘goal achievement’ seem to be

linking a number of definitions of leadership in literature. Leadership as
a process should continuously influence, motivate and inspire followers
to respond positively to the leader’s call. Viewing leadership as a process
according to Mantlana (2006) means learning together and constructing
meaning and knowledge collectively and collaboratively. Leadership as an
influence carried out by leaders should be able to motivate, inspire and
encourage their subordinates to easily work without being stressed or
feeling pressured by the leaders.

Leadership exists where there is a relational presence involving two or

more parties, the one who has power to influence and the others being
influenced. Leaders exercise their power to influence their followers in
given situations in order to get the organisational business done.
Northohouse (2012) emphasised that without influence, leadership does
not exist. Leaders should have a potential to attract followership,
persuade them to be committed to their task and inspire them to work
towards achieving organisational goals. Leaders should use their power to

3
influence by creating organisations that work because good leaders are as
good as their organisations.

Looking at leadership as a way of achieving goals, Batti et al. (2012)

refers to leadership as an action that seeks to achieve the vision of the
organization. The organizational vision should be clearly articulated by the
leader. The vision of the organization should be a product of shared
processes to stimulate in the followers, eagerness and commitment to
achieve it. Everyone in the organization can own shared vision because
they all participated when it was developed. Clear and shared vision of
the organization can be associated with employees’ job satisfaction, work
commitment and improved performance and production. There should be
a clear plan of implementation, which should also be a product of
consultations in order for employees to stay focused and committed to
working towards achieving the vision. The implementation plan has to be
monitored and evaluated timeously in order to identify its strengths and
areas for improvement.

Lunenburg (2012) added that what gives a person or a group to influence

over others is power. Power can be perceived as the ability to influence
others. It can be an extremely important tool in the success or failure of
an organization. The term power often evokes mixed reactions with many
viewing power as a threatening force.

Lord Acton in New York Times (1976) asserts that power corrupts and
absolute power corrupts absolutely, and this can be observed in today’s
society. The manner in which leaders exercise their power may determine
the type of leaders they are. The researcher believes that leadership is
about getting people on board in order to work without being threatened.
Leaders should use their power to create a situation where followers work
with zeal, determination and energy as if to say they decided to carry out
the task themselves, hence Mantlana (2006) observes that leaders need
followers and followers need leaders, but leaders often initiate the
relationship and carry the burden of maintaining the relationship

4
Managers use diverse leadership power foundations in work settings
(Erkultu and Chafra, 2006). Around five decades ago, French and Raven
(1959) mentioned that power is the result of five distinct foundations,
which can be grouped into two sources. French and Raven identified and
distinguished between five foundations of power that can be grouped into
two sources as organizational power (including legitimate, reward and
coercive) and personal power (including expert and referent). Legitimate
power is also known as position power, and it is the delegated authority
given to a position (McShane and Glinow, 2005). It relates to the position a
person has in an organisational structure and the kind of job a person
performs (Burns, 1979). It is a power granted to a person because of his
position.

Reward power, according to Krausz (1986), has to do with the capacity to

assign direct or indirect, material or psychological compensation (money,
position, recognition, appreciation, etc). Leaders have power either to give
such compensation or withhold them. Motivation through offering reward
is common and when a person has the ability to offer such rewards, he
has a power to reward. Coercive power is based on fear of punitive acts
against the recipient of the coercive acts of influence (Krausz, 1986). If an
employee conducts himself in an improper manner within an organisation,
the leader can threaten disciplinary action if an employee refuses to
correct his conduct, hence, the ability to apply punishment either
physically or psychologically is known as coercive power. Referent power
is when leaders have employees identifying with them, are similar to
them, or respect them (Krausz, 1986). When you admire someone, or
when you feel that you relate to him, and this leads to a desire to earn his
approval, it can be said that he has a referent source of power.

Being knowledgeable and experienced in your position provides you with

a source of power known as expert power. Expert power is thus based on
knowledge and expertise. The ability of a leader to influence others by
possessing knowledge or skills that they value refers to expert power.
Subordinates will listen to you and follow your guidance because of your

5
high level of knowledge and expertise. In education, expert power plays
an important role. That is why for instance, students are dependent on the
superior knowledge and experience of their education leaders, for
example, the teachers (Sobekwa, 2017).

Great leaders have the following in common: they have a vision to

achieve large scale ideas that they dream of accomplishing, and they
have the personal power to enact it (Gibson, Ivancevich, Donnelly and
Konopaske, 2012). For example, great leaders always have strong visions
of the future and they are able to transform their visions into reality by
using the necessary power. One source of power can be negatively
related to work outcomes (Lunenburg, 2012). Power can be used in many
ways in an organization, but because of its potential for misuse, it is
important that leaders must fully understand the dynamics of using
power.

2.2.2 School Leadership

Over the past decades, a serious commitment has been focussed to the
meaning and significance of leadership. Research around the world is also
contributing to an increasingly rich understanding of how educational
institutions are led and managed. In addition, more governments are
realizing that their main assets are their people and that becoming
competitive depends increasingly on the development of a highly skilled
workforce, which requires trained and committed teachers, as well as the
leadership of highly effective principals (Shonubi 2012).

According to Mutholi (2017), school leadership is the process of enlisting,

influencing and guiding talents of teachers, learners and parents in order
to achieve common educational aim. Smith and Riley (2012) suggest that
successful school leaders are motivated and motivating visionaries, skilled
communicators who listen, reflect, learn and empower their staff. The
concept of school leadership, in other words, implies influence,
enthusiasm, empowerment, dynamism and pro-activeness for school
reform and improved performance, particularly in terms of better learning
outcomes.

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School leadership can also be viewed as a planned process that involves
the development of a vision and communication of such vision to all
stakeholders, and along with a relevant plan for implementation,
monitoring and review. School leadership entails convincing others of
their value to the school and influencing the way they think, feel and
behave in order to realize their potential. It can be assumed that scholars
in many parts of the world are in agreement that successful leaders are
required in order to provide quality education for learners.

The concept ‘school leadership’ encompasses the roles of the principal

and the school management team and other staff members. This suggests
that the leadership in schools can be distributed within the school and
shared among staff members. According to Sullivan and Associates
(2013), leadership may be distributed across principals, deputies and
heads of department, who have formal authority, as well as those teams
(district, governing bodies, teachers, parents) which support the learning
process. School leadership should not lie on principals alone. It should be
a matter that is spread at all levels in the school with principals at the
center stage of the school and not at the top. Sullivan and Associates
(2013) further state that school leadership practices involve: building
vision and setting directions; understanding, working with and developing
people; designing, managing and building the organization and ensuring
that teaching and learning take place.

Anderson et al. (2007) observed that while principals are vested with
overall operational authority, school leadership is increasingly shared
or distributed, with a growing expectation that principals will facilitate
and work effectively with other staff in leadership roles. School leaders,
therefore, include those staff who, from their formal positions of authority
in school, work with others to provide direction and exert influence
in order to achieve organizational goals, with particular focus on
improving quality teaching and learning outcomes (OECD, 2009).

Based on the definitions of school leadership, it can be deduced that

school leadership pertains to activities carried out by people holding

7
different positions of authority in the school. They can include principals,
deputy principals, Heads of Departments, teachers and even students
(Bush, 2007). School leadership is concerned about the achievement of
school vision and managing initiated change. The vision should be a
product of stakeholder engagement. Principals should energize their staff
by means of communication and influence to execute their tasks
successfully.

It is of paramount importance for principals to create a school

environment where human relations are promoted, staff morale is
stimulated and teachers are enjoying the quality of their working life.
Shonubi (2012) asserts that education leaders’ decisions make the
difference. The two concepts, responsibility and accountability, are thus
discussed in the paragraphs below.

School leadership practices are closely linked to the concept of

responsibility and accountability. Ziduli (2016) maintains that leaders
are accountable for whatever is taking place in the school. Responsibility,
according to McGrath and Whitty (2018), refers to an obligation to
satisfactorily perform a task. Responsibility could thus be viewed as a
bundle of obligations associated with a job or function. Responsibility also
refers to the duties of a person in terms of his/her post and the work
allocated to him/her. The work need not necessarily be done by the
person (principal) himself or herself (Sobekwa, 2017). He or she may
delegate tasks to other educational leaders and hold them responsible for
the execution of the delegated work.

The researcher also believes that as accounting officers, school leaders

are also responsible for success and failure of the school. The school
principals have to lead their schools in a manner which promotes in their
followers, enthusiasm and reducing fear to take risk. School principals
have to support teachers in order for them to perform their tasks and
monitor their work to ensure that tasks are done in an acceptable manner.

8
Accountability refers to a liability for ensuring that a task is satisfactorily
done (McGrath and Whitty, 2018). It is an essential element and
professional obligation of a school leader therefore, accountability refers
to a person’s duty to give an account of having executed his or her work
in terms of set criteria and pre-determined standards (Perry and
McWilliam, 2007). Accountability places a duty or responsibility on a
person to act in accordance with a standard or expectation set for his/her
performance or behaviour. In other words, every person must be able to
account for their actions in relation to the standard or expectation set for
those actions in specific situation (Nieuwenhuis, 2007).

2.3 LEADERSHIP THEORIES

In influencing people in the organization towards the goal achievement,
there have been various models adopted by different leaders, as one
model may not be suitable for different organizations with different set of
objectives. Moreover, such models or theories of leadership also depend
on the qualities that a leader displays in managing their teams. Poloncic
(2016) posits that there are as many different views on models of
leadership. Looking at the focus of the study, the researcher decided to
look at some leadership theories in order to get an understanding
between variables that distinguish successful leaders.

The researcher is of the view that successful leaders develop successful

organizations. Leadership theories are discussed in literature to explain
the character, attitude, personality and behaviour of a leader and as a
necessity to achieve enhanced performance at the organization. The
researcher then deals with some of the theories of leadership ranging
from conventional theories to contemporary theories in an attempt to
explain how certain leaders are able to achieve extraordinary levels of
follower motivation, commitment, respect, trust, dedication, loyalty and
performance. The following leadership theories are discussed below: Great
Man Theory/Trait Theory, Behavioural Theories, Contingency/Situational

9
Theories, Charismatic Theory of Leadership, Transactional Theory of
Leadership, and Transformational Theory of Leadership.

These theories are discussed and analysed to get an understanding of

human behaviour and create a more engaged workforce and more
productive workplaces. And if leaders want to lead successfully, they must
know how to manage their followers so that they feel more inspired,
empowered and engaged, leading to a successful organisation.

2.3.1. Great Man Theory and Trait Theory

In the beginning, the assumption behind trait theory was that leaders are
born and not made. This concept was popularly known as the ‘Great Man
Theory’ of leadership. Thomas Carlyle originally proposed the great man
theory in 1949, and the assumption behind this theory is that great
leaders will arise, when there is great need. These theories often portray
leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise to leadership when needed.
The term great man was used because at the time, leadership was
thought of primarily as a male quality, especially military leadership
(Ololube, 2013).

Some of the leaders in the history have always been identified as strong
leaders based on the qualities or traits that they display.

Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioural

characteristics that are shared by leaders. Many have begun to ask of this
theory, however, if particular traits are key features of leaders and
leadership, how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are
not leaders? Inconsistencies in the relationship between leadership traits
and leadership effectiveness eventually led scholars to shift paradigms in
search of new explanations for effective leadership hence in the mid 60’s
focus was laid on behavioural theories of leadership (Maritz, 2003, p.243).

2.3.2. Behavioural Theory

In the 1940s, apart from the research studies being conducted on the
traits displayed by leaders, research was also conducted on the
behaviours exhibited by leaders. The first and foremost study on

10
leadership was carried out by psychologist, Kurt Lewin and his associates
in 1939 and identified different styles of leadership, that is, autocratic,
democratic and laissez-faire leadership, which has been discussed in the
next section of this study. Naylor (1999) noted that interest in the
behaviour of leaders has been stimulated by a systematic comparison of
autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire leadership styles. While the
assumption behind traits theory is that ‘leaders are born, rather than
made’, behavioural theories assume that specific behavioural patterns of
leaders can be acquired through learning and experience. While the trait
theory concentrates on what the leaders are, the behavioural theories
concentrate on what leaders do. In this section, four different behavioural
theories of leadership have been dealt with.

2.3.2.3 The Managerial Grid

Like the Ohio State studies and Michigan studies, the Managerial Grid
theory of leadership was also based on the styles of concern for people
and concern for production. The Managerial Grid theory of leadership,
according to Maritz (2003), was proposed by Robert Blake and Jane
Mouton in 1964. Mantlana (2006) observed that in an organizational
setting, leadership consists of two-dimensional factors: concern for task
and concern for people. The emphasis placed on each factor determines
the kind of leadership behaviour that result. The managerial grid is a nine-
by-nine matrix which outlines 81 different styles of leadership. The grid
has nine possible positions along each axis creating 81 different positions
in which the leader’s style may fall. This can further emphasise the fact
that no single leadership style may be used effectively in all situations.
Mantlana (2006) simplified this by stating that no leadership style is
always the best all the time and in all situations.

2.3.3. Contingency and Situational Theories

Focus by earlier research theories was on personality traits, and later

research theories observed leadership behaviour as determined by
contingency and situational factors. Sometimes the success of a leader
does not depend upon the qualities, traits and behaviour of a leader

11
alone. Success depends upon a number of variables, including leadership
style, qualities of followers and situational features (Charry, 2012). The
context in which a leader exhibits her/his skills, traits and behaviour
matters, because some style of leadership may not be suitable for
different situations. According to this theory, no single leadership style is
appropriate in all situations. Lamb (2013) argued that effective leadership
depends on the degree of fit between a leader’s qualities and leadership
style and that demanded by a specific situation.

Situational theory proposes that leaders choose the ‘best’ course of action
based upon situational circumstances. Different styles of leadership may
be more appropriate for different types of decision-making. This theory
views leadership in terms of a dynamic interaction between a number of
situational variables like the leader, the followers, the task situation and
the environment (Lamb, 2013). Some of the noteworthy models or
theories on situational contexts that gained wide recognition include
Fiedler’s model, Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational theory, Leader-
Member Exchange theory, Path-Goal theory and Leader-Participation
model, which are discussed below.

2.3.3.2 Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory

One of the models that were developed in leadership studies is that of the
Situational Leadership Theory (SLT) put forward by Paul Hersey and Ken
Blanchard. The focus of this theory is laid on the followers and the
readiness that followers show in accepting a leadership. The basic
assumption behind this theory is that, it is the followers who accept or
reject a leader and thus, effectiveness of a leader also depends on their
followers. Thus, regardless of what a leader does, effectiveness of
leadership depends upon the actions of the followers. By readiness,
Hersey and Blanchard meant to say the extent to which people have the
ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task set by the leader. In
analysing the leader-follower relationship, the SLT, equates the
relationship with that of a parent and a child (Blanchard, 2010).

12
According to Hersey and Blanchard (1977), there are four types of
leadership behaviours that vary from highly directive/autocratic to
highly laissez-faire, which again depends upon the ability and willingness
of followers to perform a given task. (i) According to SLT, if a follower is
unable and unwilling to do a task, the leader needs to give clear and
specific directions; (ii) if followers are unable and willing, the leader needs
to display high task orientation to compensate for the followers’ lack of
ability and high relationship orientation to get the followers to ‘buy into’
the leader’s desire; (iii) if followers are able and unwilling, the leader
needs to use a supportive and participative style; (iv) and if the followers
are both able and willing, the leader does not need to do much, but
delegate certain tasks to followers (Mantlana, 2006).

2.3.4. Charismatic Leadership Theory

Origins of charisma exposition and discussion date back to Weber (1964).
Charisma, the term used by Max Weber, literally means ‘the gift of grace’.
It was used by Weber to characterize self-appointed leaders followed up
by people who are in distress and who need to follow the leader because
they believe him to be extraordinarily qualified. The charismatic leaders'
actions are enthusiastic, and in such extraordinary enthusiasm a way is
given to enthuse and involve followers. Weber emphasizes that the
charismatic leader is self-ordained and self-styled. The foundation for this
self-styling is the charismatic leader's ‘mission’.

Mantlana (2006) established that the leader can charismatically evoke in

the followers a sense of belief and thereby earn their obedience. Followers
working under charismatic leaders enjoy a lot of motivation and can work
an extra mile in expression of their satisfaction. According to Martitz
(2003), there is high correlation between charismatic leadership, high
performance and satisfaction among followers. Charisma is derived from
the duty of the followers to recognize the leader. Research has shown that
individuals can be trained and can learn to exhibit charismatic leadership
behaviour (Mantlana, 2006).

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According to Bell (2013), charismatic leadership style is recognizable but
may be perceived with less tangibility than other leadership styles. The
leader possesses extraordinary gift to communicate with their followers
thus making it very easy to influence his followers. Such leaders are able
to give clear directions and instructions. Spahr (2015) also notices that
leaders with charismatic leadership style are very skilled communicators;
they are individuals who are verbally eloquent and able to communicate
to followers on a deep and emotional level. It is for this reason that the
leader with charismatic leadership style is able to easily convince,
persuade and influence followers on working towards what they believe in.
It is equally important for a leader to possess certain qualities that
command respect (Sobekwa, 2017). In organizations with such leaders,
followers enjoy high degree of enthusiasm and in such situations,
followers discharge their duties with zeal and consequently, the
organizational goals are easily achieved.

Hillman (2015, p.8) identified five characteristics of a charismatic leader.

They are:

a) emotional simplicity;
b) self-confidence;
c) creativity;
d) charm; and
e) risk-taking.
In order for a leader to deliver good services, he must remain simple, cool-
headed, should not degenerate and must never be complicated. The
leader must be firm on implementing resolutions that were taken through
consultative processes. In this way, the leader develops self-esteem.

The creative leader is able to provide solutions to problems and is able to

provide strategies that will promote the organization. The leader should
be aware that there are risks that need and worth to be taken in order to
take the organization forward. Spahr (2015) notes the following
advantages of leaders with charismatic leadership style: leaders inspire
followers to work together for a common cause; organizations under

14
charismatic leaders are made to be committed to their central mission;
learning from mistakes is prioritizes in an effort to advance the
organization; workers tend to internalize vision of the organization and
devote their energies towards realizing it and the results in charismatic-
led organizations are cohesive because workers have a clear purpose.

Sparh (2015) also points out some disadvantages of the charismatic

leadership style. Charismatic leaders over sometime tend to believe that
they are above the law by mismanaging finances or committing ethical
violations. They may develop tunnel vision or arrogance by undoing their
previous good. Sometimes, they become unresponsive to their
subordinates or constituencies. Organizations that became dependent on
the charismatic leader suffer when the leader retires, leaves the
organization or suddenly dies. Such behaviours of the charismatic leaders
could be detrimental to the aspirations of the organization because
followers look up to the leader for direction, encouragement and
inspiration to do right.

The discussion of these leadership theories shows that these theories

should not be regarded as separate entities rather as interwoven because
they complement each other due to their connectedness. In actual sense,
they overlap and appear to be repeating one another with the aim of
giving more clarity in the work life situation.

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2.6 LEADERSHIP STYLES OF SCHOOL PRINCIPALS
Effective school principals are crucial on improving schools and raising
levels of learners’ academic performance. In fact, it has been found in
literature that principals are second only to teachers among school-
related influences on learners’ learning (Gordon, 2013). Learners’ level of
academic performance is attributable to teachers and principals’
effectiveness, with principals accounting less of a school’s total impact on
learners’ academic performance. There are no documented instances of
troubled schools being turned around without intervention by an
exceptional principal. According to recommendations proposed by the
research results of Vacchio, Justin and Pearce (2008), Biswas (2009), Cerit

16
(2010) and Avey, Palansk and Walumbwa (2011), principals’ leadership
styles are related to teachers’ job performance and which accordingly
increases high levels of learners’ academic performance.

According to Allie (2014), the particular leadership style of the principal

sets the tone of the school as well as the level of professionalism; it is
considered a precondition for an effective school. For instance, the
principal may use instructional leadership style in in order to raise levels
of learners’ academic performance. However, for principal to keep staff
and learners motivated and committed to task, he or she may use
transformational leadership style. The school principal should be able to
analyse the context and apply a style that will better suit such a
contextual circumstance in order to raise levels of learners’ academic
performance. In essence, the school principal should be able to employ
different strategies to influence quality teaching and learning however the
situation is. Hence a number of scholars observed that one school
leadership style does not succeed at all times and in all contexts (Clark,
2008; Ngcobo, 2012; Bush, 2013; Allie, 2014).

Leadership styles are approaches used by leaders to motivate their

followers. Leadership is not a ‘one size fits all’ phenomenon. Leadership
styles should be selected and adapted to fit organizations, situations,
groups, and individuals. It is thus useful to possess a thorough
understanding of the different styles as such knowledge increases the
tools available to lead effectively. Below are a number of leadership styles
used by leaders in management settings. The researcher selected these
leadership styles in order to explore different styles of leadership school
principals use and how they adapt them to fit different situations in their
schools.

2.6.1 Autocratic/ authoritarian leadership style

Cherry (2011) defines autocratic leadership as a style characterized by
individual control over decisions and desires little input from the group
members. An autocratic leader is usually very far from staff and the leader
never allows staff decisions (Ardichvili and Kuchenke, 2010; Egwunyenga,

17
2010). It is a leadership style imposed on an organization, and it is
sometimes referred to as coercive leadership (Baughman, 2008).
Subordinates under an autocratic leader may be perceived as working in
fear and under pressure most of the time, and often show dissatisfaction
to this form of leadership by various means such as lateness to work,
reduction of work output, sabotaging the work, seeking transfer or
voluntarily resigning from the organization. The autocratic leader finds it
difficult to get genuine love, support and cooperation from subordinates
who regard leader’s management and administration as a one man show.

Some people tend to think of autocratic leadership style as a sort of

command-and-control mechanism, using patronizing language, leading by
threats and abusing their authority (Clark, 2015). The authoritarian style
should normally only be used on rare occasions. Eze (2011) and Maqsood,
Bilal and Baig (2013) indicate that if you do not want to gain more
commitment and motivation from your staff, then you should use the
autocratic style. Not a single leader wants it that way. Every leader wants
to see their staff motivated and committed to work.

Autocratic leadership style, according to Maqsood, Bilal and Baig (2013),

is known for individual control over all decisions and little input from staff.
Autocratic leader makes as many decisions independently as possible and
maintains control of the decision-making processes. This leader also tends
to retain responsibility and limit delegation and consultation with others.
Typically, autocratic leadership makes choices based on their own ideas
and judgments and rarely accept advice from followers. Autocratic
leadership employs absolute, totalitarian control over staff. Some features
of autocratic leadership as observed by Gosnos and Gallo (2013) include
little or no input from group members; leaders make the decisions; group
leaders dictate all the work methods; group members are rarely trusted
with decisions or important tasks.

The autocratic style of leadership, according to Gosnos and Gallo (2013),

is characterized by staff not participating in decision-making process; all
decisions are made without the agreement of the staff and leaders control

18
with iron fist. They define tasks and methods and do not care about staff’s
decisions and initiative. This cultivated some knowledge in Ovarhe (2016)
to suggest that a leadership position is supposed to be a shared
responsibility which no one should lay claim to within an organization. The
autocratic style is also characterized by implementing the will of a leader,
without taking into consideration the opinion of staff. Autocratic leaders
decide alone, give orders to staff and expect them to carry them out,
based on unilateral, top-down communication. In order to motivate,
leaders use their position to decide on the appropriate remuneration.

The what, when and how a task should be done questions are, in most
times, clearly stated by autocratic leadership. Leader and staff
relationship are also clearly defined. Staff inputs are often not sought in
decision making. Researchers have found that decision-making was less
creative under autocratic leadership, hence Cherry (2015) indicates that it
is more difficult to move from the autocratic to a democratic style than
vice versa. One of the management principles always put to use by an
autocratic leader is control.

Autocratic leaders give their subordinates clear and short instructions on

what to do and how to do it. This style allows staff to focus on performing
specific tasks without worrying about making complex decisions and to
become highly skilled at performing certain duties, which can be
beneficial to the organization. This helps to perform tasks effectively,
solve identified problems, and meet targets or deadlines, in particular
when time is a critical factor (Sauer, 2011; Cunningham, Salomone,
Wielgus, 2015). Consequently, performance may increase on a short-run
(İnandi, Uzun, Yeşil, 2016). The leader’s presence and expectations often
result in people working to capacity; at least while the leader is present.

Autocratic leadership could be good at times, but there may be many

occasions where this leadership style could be a reason for inaction and
this is why leaders who abuse the use of autocratic leadership style are

19
often viewed as dictatorial. Northouse (2015) argued that innovative ideas
may elude organizations as a result of the use of autocratic style and this
stems from the inability of staff to contribute because they are not
consulted. Some researchers have reported inadequate creative solution
to problems in an autocratic environment. An autocratic leadership style is
sometimes termed the traditional style. It is a situation where the leader
has all the power in terms of decision making and exercise of authority.
The leader does not consult staff, nor are they allowed to give any input,
but are expected to obey orders and instructions without receiving any
explanations. This is due to the fact that motivation environment is
produced by creating a structured set of rewards and punishments
(Cherry, 2018).

Autocratic leadership is an exchange process, so it is a matter of

contingent reinforcement of staff based on performances. It motivates
staff by appealing to their personal desires and on instrumental economic
transactions. The autocratic leaders prefer to establish strict regulations,
control processes and remain in formal, professional relationships with
their subordinates (Maloş 2012). They generally use organizational
bureaucracy, policy, power, and authority to maintain control. Previous
leadership scholars, according to Delong (2009), have identified providing
contingent rewards on the fulfilment of contractual obligations as a reason
for staff performance. This principal behaviour represents autocratic
leadership because it captures the exchange notion deep-seated in
autocratic leader conduct. The transactions included in contingent reward
may include tangible for instance, pay increases or intangible for
example, recognition.

The autocratic leadership style is determined by the leader’s power due to

the fact that the leader has absolute power in a group or organization. The
leader alone makes decisions and takes responsibility for the conduct,
results and achievement of the organization. He requires subordinates to
exclusively follow, respect and implement his instructions and directives.
This leadership style can be applied for tasks that need to be urgently

20
completed. In the beginning, this leadership style is effective and gives
good results. However, argued Cherry (2015) if this type of leader
behavior is applied long-term, without considering the level of human
resources and the need for independence of associates, it becomes a
limiting factor in the development of the organization. This style of
leadership, characterized by one way communication channels, confirms
that autocratic leaders are mostly not interested in feedback and staff do
not have influence and control over the decision making process. Hence,
Hoyle (2012) explained that the autocratic leadership style can be
illustrated in the structure of a pyramid, whereby on the top of the
hierarchy stands the leader, while staff are below.

The autocratic leader strictly enforces rules, but staff members often feel
left out of process and feel their ideas are not appreciated. The autocratic
leadership style does not instil learning mentality which is crucial to
stimulate positive attitudes among employees (Sauer, 2011). Lack of
consultation with subordinates may mean that opportunities are missed
and risks are underestimated. The autocratic leader is often viewed with
bitterness because staff members feel they are not valued or appreciated.
This can lead to lack of support and growing efforts to undermine the
leader. People simply do not like to be ordered around, regardless of the
skills or abilities of the leader. Staff members are not able to gain
experience and skills they need in order to advance or assume leadership
responsibilities.

Autocratic leadership style has been greatly criticized during the past
years and some studies informed that organizations with many autocratic
leaders have higher turnover and absenteeism than other organizations
(Cherry, 2015). In literature, there are reported cases that autocratic
leaders rely on threats and punishment to influence staff; do not trust
staff or allow for their input in decision making. Staff members often feel
intimidated and afraid to point out problems, especially since they had no
involvement in decisions about the process, so problems may go
unreported and unaddressed. The leader’s workload may become

21
unmanageable because of the person’s inability or unwillingness to
delegate. In the long run, this can result in increased stress, decreased
efficiency, and staff burnout.

Some autocratic leaders are effective because they have a clear vision
and effective decision-making skills, but in many cases, people who are
unsure of their abilities and lack leadership skills resort into autocratic
leadership because they simply do not know what else to do and believe
that this type of leadership demonstrates good leadership by showing
they are in charge. The situations upon which the style could be used,
stated Cherry (2018), could include new, untrained staff who do not know
which tasks to perform or which procedures to follow and effective
supervision can be provided only through detailed instructions. This style
can also be employed when staff does not respond to any other leadership
style; when there are high-volumes of production needs on a daily basis
and limited time in which to make a decision.

2.6.2 Democratic/Participative leadership style

Democratic leadership style, sometimes called participative, is where a
leader encourages staff to be part of decision-making. A democratic
leadership provides a situation where all policies are derived from group
decision (Emmanuel and Ronke, 2013). The democratic leader helps their
subordinates to work as a group. Democratic leaders look for consensus,
consulting decisions with subordinates while providing guidance,
empowering subordinates to make the best use of their competencies and
talents, and prioritize social aspects of group work (Maloş, 2012). They
also reward employees for commitment and prefer not to penalize
mistakes but work on problems instead. Empowered employees feel more
responsible for meeting goals (İnandi, Uzun and Yeşil, 2016).

According to Ray and Ray (2012), democratic leadership style is a very

open and collegial leadership style of running an organization. The
authors further stated that, with democratic leadership style ideas move
freely amongst the group members and are discussed freely. This style of
leadership opens a room for all members within the organization to

22
participate in the decision-making process so that decisions arrived at are
shared.

Sobekwa (2017) emphasized that decisions and resolutions arrived at

should be a product of consultation and engagements that take place
between the leader and followers. In this manner all decisions arrived at
are owned by everybody who participated in the decision-making
processes. In participative decision-making, the leader encourages
employees to express their ideas and suggestions. This style of leadership
promotes trust, respect, collaboration and cooperation among the internal
stakeholders (employees) in the organization. When leaders respect their
followers, the followers get motivated and have the desire to do more.
Sobekwa (2017) posits that when followers are motivated, they are
satisfied and will double their efforts in making sure that the organization
that they are working for thrives. When subordinates double their efforts,
there may be greater efficiency within the organization.

Emmanuel and Ronke (2013) observed the following characteristics of a

democratic leadership style:

The democratic leader creates teamwork within an organization.

The leader leads through consultative processes. In such
organizations there is decentralization of planning, organization and
control. The people holding leadership position uses two-way
communication. There is a frequency of involvement of staff,
learners and parents in the decision-making process. The leader
exercises a policy of a positive nature rather than a disciplinary
nature. The leader delegates tasks, responsibilities and authority to
the subordinates. There is harmonious atmosphere that is caused
by good human relations. There is a healthy balance between a
people-oriented and a task-management style. Control is exercised
with a view of correcting behaviour and to encourage development.

Organizations under democratic leaders stand a good position of

developing to better and/or great organizations than what they were

23
before because the leader creates an environment where members can
develop to their full potential.

Some advantages of democratic leadership style include subordinates

that are motivated to realize the goals of the organization. Workers also
experience job satisfaction and job commitment. There is a simultaneous,
two-way movement of information and ideas. Human relations are good
among members of the organization. An atmosphere prevails in which
subordinates can develop to their full potential and there is low staff
turnover. Democratic leaders also involve employees in discussions on
organizational prospects and consultations on emerging and predicted
problems. Consequently, employees are more committed to their work
and willing to release creativity as a result of the confidence entrusted.
The democratic approach stimulates also quality assuring behaviours
(Cunningham, Salomone, Wielgus, 2015, p.34).

A participative leader induces intrinsic motivation through involving

subordinates in the decision-making process; this involvement makes
them feel that the leader places value on the ideas and suggestions of
subordinates. An involvement in decision-making stimulates subordinates
to believe that a leader has confidence in their skills and abilities. A
participative leader also promotes self-efficacy among employees and
recognizes their self-worth. When employees gain experience, they get
recognition and the leader acknowledges their innovative ideas and skills;
this self-recognition by the leader urges them to perform extra roles and
tasks that contribute to the organization’s growth and competitiveness
(Lu, Jiang, Yu and Li, 2015).

The main disadvantage associated with a democratic leadership style is

when a situation arises in which instant decisions have to be made. A
great deal of time can be lost because too many people have to be
consulted. Van Deventer and Kruger (2005, p.144) is in agreement that
even discussions may take too long, for example, setting dates for
meetings and can result in long discussions.

24
2.6.3 Laissez faire leadership style
Cherry (2012, p.3) defines laissez faire leadership style as a style in which
a leader is hands-off and allow group members to make decisions. Laissez
faire, as described by Chaudhry and Javed (2012, p.259) is a leadership
that abdicates responsibilities and avoids making decisions. Lockwood
(2015, p.10) defines laissez faire leadership as a free rein leader that
exerts little direct control over decision making processes but allows staff
members or teams to make decisions independently with little
interference. In this instance the leader does not make his presence felt.
There are no set rules by the leader to be followed by the followers.

The leader provides no direction and gives staff as much freedom as

possible. Staff has the freedom to make individual or group decisions. Van
der Westheizen (2011) argues that the leader guides staff by appealing to
personal integrity. This leadership creates a situation where individuals
feel totally trusted and should decide for themselves. The researcher is of
the view that subordinates would only be driven by their respect of the
organization and intrinsic motivation to perform successfully, otherwise
this style may adversely affect the productivity in the organization.

When using this style, the leaders grant complete freedom to their
followers. Leader who adopt this style accept that the work is being done
effectively by the subordinates. They only supply materials and ideas to
their followers and only participates whenever the need arises
(Emmanuel, and Ronke, 2013). This means that subordinates are free to
do what they want and as they please. The leader simply watches what is
going on in the organization. The leader in this respect has no authority
whatsoever. In such a situation anarchy or chaos may arise in the
organization because the leader does not guide people’s activities. The
primary role of the leader is merely to supply material needed by the
group he or she is supposedly leading. He or she remains apart from the
group and participates when the group has asked him or her to do so. A
laissez-faire style is, therefore leadership without direction, monitoring
and control.

25
Laissez faire leadership style has some advantages, and according to
Lockwood (2015), under laissez faire leadership, there is no close
monitoring by management and followers are free to explore and reach
some important decisions. Van Deventer and Kruger (2005) noticed that it
creates a situation in which the individual has to make his or her own
decisions which can stimulate individual development. When individuals
make decisions without being monitored, they become more
knowledgeable and empowered in the process because they have to come
up with own ideas and strategies to tackle looming problems.

2.6.4 Transformational leadership Theory/Style

Acording to Kauppi and Shaik (2010), transformational leadership is a
leadership approach that causes change to the individuals and in social
systems. Kirkan (2011) opined that transformational leadership style is a
leadership pattern used by leaders to change the current situation by
identifying those who follow the organization’s problems through
inspiration, persuasion, and excitement to achieve a high level of clear
vision for the purpose of recognizing common goals. Transformational
leadership needed today has the potential to inspire subordinates to do
their best, develop their skills so as to deliver those subordinates to
advanced intellectual levels. The transformational leader is able to inspire
and encourage his followers to achieve more than expected. It is a style of
leadership where a leader sets and communicates clear vision and goals
for the organization.

Although literature reveals several styles of leadership, transformational

leadership is one of the mostly used styles in organizations and plays an
important role in the organizational performance. As indicated by Bass
(1985), transformational leadership is one of the best methods to enhance
the individuals and group’s performance. Transformational leaders
motivate followers to exert and explore existing as well as new prospects.
Transformational leadership creates an environment in which employees
are motivated and energized (De Jong and Bruch, 2013). Motivated

26
employees working in a supportive climate provide more effective
customer service, reinforcing organizational performance and leading to
financial gains for shareholders (Giroux and McLarney, 2014). This means
that in a school context, motivated staff provides effective and quality
teaching and learning thus leading to improved levels of learners’
academic performance.

Lee (2008) suggests that transformational leadership is linked to

innovative capabilities and is defined as a leadership style that transforms
followers to rise above their self-interest by altering their morale, ideals,
interests and values. Leadership increases the emotional connection or
identification between the supervisor and the follower in such a way that
follower feels more confident to perform beyond expectations. Thus,
leaders have a positive effect on a follower’s performance. This motivates
the employees to perform better than initially expected. This relates to
motivating followers to achieve past expectation and encouraging
followers to look past their own self-interest for the betterment of an
organization (Arif and Akram, 2018).

Bass (1985) suggested four dimensions of transformational

leadership style which includes idealized influence, inspirational
motivation, intellectual simulation and individualized consideration. The
behaviours accepted in transformational leadership like motivation,
intellectual challenge, inspiration and individual consideration are
consider as a core function of outstanding leaders that could be familiar
around the world (Arif and Akram, 2018). A leader pays special attention
towards the needs of each follower which is imperative for their growth
and achievements (Bass and Avolio, 1990). Bass argued that
transformational leaders provide positive feedback to their employees,
which motivates them to show more effort and encourages them to think
innovatively about complex problems. Therefore, employees tend to
behave in a way that simplifies high levels of task performance. In
addition, transformational leaders encourage employees to weigh more

27
for collective profit of organizations and leaders over the personal
interests (Bass, 1985).

Organizations turn into more active entities when they are retaining,
sharing, capturing and reusing managerial knowledge to establish a
fruitful business environment (Arif and Akram, 2018). Leadership is very
important in knowledge management efforts and by using their
transformational behaviours activate follower’s innovative behaviour
(Jennex, 2006). The leader's characteristics and leadership style are key
determinants of innovative conduct in organizations. Literature revealed
that a collaborative, participatory leadership style (transformational) is
more likely to encourage organizational innovation than a transactional
style (Xenikou, 2017). Transformational leadership also increases self-
efficacy, raises intrinsic motivation, and contributes to employee’s
psychological empowerment (Gumusluoglu and Ilsev, 2009).

The researcher noticed that transformational leadership

encompasses a number of characteristics of other leadership
approaches. They should be able to communicate their visions clearly
using their charisma. They should also involve employees in decision-
making, thus promoting their motivation and this is an element of
participative leadership. They should inspire their followers in order for
them to be leaders and this is an element of distributed leadership. They
can be authoritative and democratic in order to make things done.
Transformational leadership are leaders who are transparent, open,
forward-looking and flexible in their approach and all in keeping their
followers inspired, motivated, enjoying their quality of work life and
committed to work.

2.10.3 Transformational Leadership Theory

According to Buda and Ying-Leh (2017) the origins of transformational
leadership can be traced back to seminal works of Bass (1985), Bass and
Riggio (2006) and Burns (1978). Bass and Avolio (2003) argue that

28
transformational leaders help subordinates to unlearn past routines,
develop creative solutions to ambiguous problems and respond
appropriately to new environments. Groenewald and Ashfield (2008) add
that transformational leadership could reduce the effects of uncertainty
and change that comes with new leaders and help employees to achieve
their objectives.

Bush (2007, p.396) argues that transformational leadership has eight

dimensions or qualities which include:

Building school vision; establishing school goals; providing

intellectual stimulation; offering individual support; modelling best
practices and values; demonstrating high performance
expectations; creating a productive school culture; and developing
structures to foster participation in school decisions.

These qualities and dimensions indicate how flexible the transformational

leader can be able to deal with every situation. Research on
transformational leadership indicates that there is a positive correlation
with organizational innovation, job satisfaction and staff retention
(Walumbwa, Fred, Orwa, Wang and Lawler, 2005; Nemanich and Keller,
2007; Jung, Wu and Chow, 2008; Matzler et al., 2008; Avey, Palanski and
Walumba, 2011; García-Morales et al., 2012; Green, Miller and Aarons,
2013; Tse, Huang and Lam, 2013).

Gathungu, Iravo, Namusonge (2015) listed four components of

transformational leadership, which Suresh and Rajini (2013) refer to as
factors that influence transformational leadership and are also referred to
as four I’s, namely:

a) idealized influence;

b) inspirational motivation;

c) individualized consideration; and

d) intellectual stimulation.

29
A leader is said to be idealized influence if he or she is able to become a
role model for the followers due to his or her ethical behaviour, respect,
pride and trust. Idealized influence refers to leaders’ ability to increase
level of loyalty, dedication and identification without focusing on the self-
interest Suresh and Rajini (2013). Leaders with idealized influence can be
trusted and respected by their subordinates to make good decisions for
the organization. Such leaders possess high standards of ethical and
moral conduct. At the same time, such a leader is willing to sacrifice
whatever necessary for the benefits of the group. Hence idealized
influence leaders gain great respect from their followers (Northouse,
2004).

In the meantime, inspirational motivation shows to what extent the

leader inspires the followers in articulating a vision. Such a leader will
challenge their followers to work enthusiastically and optimistically in
making sure that they instil the spirit of teamwork and commitment and
provides meaning to the work (Gathungu, Iravo, Namusonge, 2015). Ghadi
et al. (2013) state that inspirational motivation refers to leaders’ ability to
create a vision that impact subordinates to make them play a vital role
within the organization. Inspirational motivation describes leaders who
motivate staff to commit to the vision of the organization. Inspirational
leaders are not reliant on charisma but on self-generated emotional
feelings and sentiment. Inspirational leaders, like charismatic leaders, lack
inner conflict and use emotional support and appeals, stimulating
motivation in order to transcend self-interest (Bass, 1985). Effective
inspirational leaders appeal to one’s sensation and intuition and
emphasize persuasive appeals to faith rather than reason. Smith (2015)
discerns characteristics of inspirational leadership behavior as the ability
to stimulate enthusiasm, build confidence, inspire belief in a common
cause, and use a variety of other individual and institutional practices to
emotionally arouse subordinates.

Intellectual stimulation refers to the ability of leaders to give

employees indications to be innovative and being risk takers. According to

30
Suresh and Rajini (2013), leaders with intellectual stimulation promote
critical thinking and problem solving to make the organization better.
Intellectual Stimulation describes leaders who encourage innovation and
creativity through challenging the status quo or the current views of the
group about the organization. According to Smith (2015), organizational
executives using intellectual stimulation are able to discern, comprehend,
visualize, conceptualize and articulate the opportunities and threats to the
organization and determine the organization’s strengths, weaknesses and
comparative advantages. Intellectually stimulating leaders concentrate on
strategic thinking and intellectual activities in tasks of analysis,
implementation, interpretation, and evaluation. Intellectual stimulation
generates problem awareness and problem-solving, thought and
imagination, values and beliefs. In the meantime, with intellectual
stimulation, a leader is not only able to arouse their followers to become
more creative but also be more innovative. Those leaders encourage
followers to tackle the problems in new ways and at the same time,
hoping to provide new solutions by performing beyond their current
abilities.

For individualized consideration, a leader plays a role of mentor to the

followers. The followers are treated according to their different talents and
knowledge (Gathungu, Iravo, Namusonge, 2015). The emotional aspect is
a key element to being a good coach or role model to the followers.
Finally, individual consideration describes leaders who act as coaches or
mentors and advisors to followers and responding to followers’ needs and
concerns. Leaders with individual consideration encourage followers to
reach goals that help both the followers and the organization. When a
transformational leader uses individualized consideration, each
subordinate is treated differently according to his or her individual needs
and capabilities.

Individualized consideration is an important aspect of leader-follower

relationships or exchange as the leader tends to be friendly, informal,
close, and approachable. Effective leaders treat subordinates as equals,

31
as well as give advice, help, support and encouragement. These leaders
set an example to be followed, assuming subordinates’ desire to follow a
role model and assigning tasks individually to help significantly alter their
followers’ abilities and motivations (Bass, 1985).

Six ways a leader could use individualized consideration, according to

Smith (2015), are:

a) delegation;

b) promotion of familiarity and contact with subordinates;

c) effective use of communication;

d) individualized subordinate treatment;

e) counselling; and

f) Mentoring.

Effective transformational leadership results in performances that exceed

organizational expectations. This is accomplished by giving subordinates
the authority to make decisions and monitor their execution of delegated
authority.

Each of the four factors describes characteristics that are valuable to the
transformation process. Becoming an effective transformational leader is
a process. There is a wide range of aspects within transformational
leadership that are covered by transformational leaders with no specific
steps to follow. When leaders are strong role models, encouragers,
innovators and coaches, they are utilizing the range of aspects (four I’s) to
help change their followers into better, more productive and successful
individuals.

Lee (2014) argues that transformational leaders constantly articulate new

visions to motivate the followers in an organization, they exhibit high
passion and confidence in their beliefs, they give importance to ethics and
values while setting accountable standards in the organization. According

32
to Burns (1978), transformational leadership occurs when one or more
persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise
one another to higher levels of motivation and morality. In his view,
transformational leaders should give moral uplift to their followers. Moral
uplift leads to teachers’ commitment to work because they are motivated
and their commitment to work is key towards school success.

Transformational leadership is relevant to this study because the major

concern of transformational leadership is to transform organizational
performance either from poor to satisfactory performance or from
acceptable to excellent. Yukl (2012) states that the major aim of every
school as an organization is to improve teachers’ job performance, so they
can keep up with their work, their own self-interest, by increasing their
awareness of particular issues and by encouraging them to develop
themselves. A plethora of researchers are in agreement that
transformational leadership is also concerned with transforming
organizational performance either from poor to satisfactory performance
or from acceptable to excellent (Pawar, 2003; Tucker and Russell, 2004;
Bass and Riggio, 2006; Mullins, 2007; Walumba and Hartnell, 2011).

In order to raise levels of learners’ academic performance, there must be

some form of enthusiasm and zeal from both teachers and learners. The
principal needs to stimulate such enthusiasm and zeal onto teachers and
learners by being enthusiastic and zealous himself or herself. When
teachers and learners see that their principal is successful in achieving his
or her goals, then they want to share in that success by achieving their
goals too thus committing to achieve the school vision. Enthusiastic
teachers and learners can lead to high levels of learners’ academic
performance because of high morale and commitment.

This theory is linked to the study for it is leadership for change. One of the
most significant challenges that face leaders nowadays can be change
management and if it is not managed properly, the organisation is a
recipe for disaster. Change requires proper planning and vigilant
leadership to manage it properly. Principals, as transformational leaders

33
are change agents who are there to pioneer change by reflecting on the
current practices and considering challenging them. Yukl (2012) and
Afzaal and Mohd (2014) maintain that transformational leadership focus
much on its relation to and influence on the education environment,
cultural contexts, development, and organizational change.

Northouse (2013) states that literature of transformational leadership

shows that individuals who exhibited transformational leadership were
more effective leaders with better work outcomes. It can consequently be
most beneficial and profitable for educational leaders to apply the
transformational leadership approach in the education organization.
Transformational leaders are portrayed as leaders who motivate their
followers to achieve something more than they expected, being able to
inspire them, trigger their capabilities for innovation and looking at
problems from different angles (Gathungu, Iravo and Namusonge, 2015).
It is recommended that transformational leadership dimensions be applied
by the principal in every school to ensure the best school performance
(Man, Don and Ismail, 2016).

Principals are strategically positioned to have influence on teachers and

learners by convincing them to share their vision. Principals need to
consult with their subordinates and reach a collective decision in order to
effect such changes so that everybody has a sense of ownership about
the decision and be committed to achieving it. A vision created based on
collective interests generates and instils a sense of identity and a sense of
purpose into teachers at schools. Northouse (2013) posits that the vision
should be created based on collective interests rather than the interests
of a leader. In schools where there is a sense of identity and sense of
purpose, everybody can be motivated and that can translate to high levels
of learners’ academic performance.

Organizations employing transformational leadership have higher chances

of being more effective and increase the level of motivation among
employees so that they are more innovative, satisfied and willing to work
in teams (Fitzgerald and Schutte, 2010). Transformational leaders were

34
also said to be able to increase the level of organizational commitment
among employees in the field of education, especially in terms of their
continuance commitment (Saeed et al., 2013). Charry (2012) opined that
these leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also
on each person to fulfilling his or her potential. Leaders of this style often
have high ethical and moral standards.

2.6.5 Distributed leadership style

Numerous scholars have defined distributed leadership differently. Elmore
(2000) described distributed leadership as multiple sources of guidance
and direction following the forms of expertise in an organisation, made
coherent through a common culture. Andrews and Lewis (2004)
conceptualised it as a form of parallel leadership where teacher leaders
work with principal leaders, in distinctive yet complementary ways,
towards goals they all share. According to Thorpe, Gold and Lawler (2011,
p. 241), it refers to ‘a variety of configurations which emerge from the
exercise of influence that produces interdependent and conjoint action. It
represents relational activities and processes of a team constituted and
shaped by the interactions among team members and the team context
(Fitzsimons, James and Denyer, 2011).

The term distributed leadership is used in literature interchangeable

with shared and collective leadership. The terms used to describe
distributed leadership models, according to Pearce, Manz and Sims (2008)
and Nicolaides, LaPort, Chen, Tomassetti, Weis, Zaccaro and Cortina
(2014), include shared leadership and collective leadership. As Leithwood
et al. (2006) suggests, the conceptual overlap between distributed
leadership and shared leadership does not represent that these two are
equivalent, however, among all these terms, distributed is perhaps the
most common one in research.

Shared leadership, for example, is a widely used term in the USA,

especially in nursing, medicine and psychology (Bolden, 2011). It

35
represents a dynamic, interactive influence process among team
members to lead one another to the achievement of team goals (Pearce
and Conger, 2003), often linked to the CEO’s use of empowering
leadership behaviour specifically focused on the encouragement of
leadership from below (Pearce et al., 2008). In this sense, shared
leadership is a form of empowering leadership where leadership activities
or roles are distributed by the formal leader more widely to team
members.

Many studies are beginning to support the role of distributed leadership in

effective team performance. A number of other studies (Bolden 2011;
Fitzgerald and Schutte 2010; Fausing, Joensson, Lewandowski and Bligh,
2015) indicate a positive relationship between distributed leadership and
significant aspects of organization performance. Kempster, Higgs and
Wuerz (2014) examine how distributed leadership can help to promote
organizational change. In the specific context of education, scholars have
reviewed the evidence for the effectiveness of distributed leadership
(Harris 2008; Jones, Lefoe, Harvey and Ryland, 2014) and developed a
toolbox of distributed leadership skills for school leaders (McBeth, 2008).
Their findings indicate that here, leadership plays a key role, influencing
both school climate and teacher capacities and motivations, especially in
schools facing difficult situations.

Sibanda (2017) argued that it is important to note the key elements of

distributed leadership: There is social distribution of power and
influence within a school; functions and activities of leadership are shared
among individuals and are not monopolised by an individual (Harris,
2013); every individual in the school is a leader in one area or another and
there is interdependence between people; there is collaboration to
achieve goals and individuals share practices but work differently towards
the same goals; the purpose of distributed leadership in schools is to
enrich teaching and learning by building teachers’ capacity to lead
learning; and teachers can become generators of new knowledge rather
than remain passive recipients of official policies.

36
Botha and Triegaardt (2014) argued that distributed leadership is based
on the idea that all teachers can and must lead and contribute to
leadership. Since distributed leadership has a social aspect, interaction
takes place between the leaders as they share their views with members
of their organizations. According to Spillane (2006), organizations, both
formal and informal groups, constantly interact resulting in shared
patterns of communication, learning and action. For Spillane, distributed
leadership is central to the teaching and learning process and the
distributed framework involves two core aspects which are the principal-
plus others and practice. According to Bolden (2011), leadership is not
restricted to only those in top leadership, such as the traditional ‘leader-
follower’ dualism in which leaders lead ‘followers’ who are somewhat
passive and subservient, but it involves multiple individuals, ‘leader-plus’.
Spillane and Healy (2009) argued that the interaction of school
leaders, followers and situations in which the work is found
define leadership practice.

Distributed leadership can contribute to improved student achievement

(Botha, 2016) if it is implemented well. Recognition of the profession and
more effective management change is implemented (Choi and Schnurr,
2014), and the teachers’ role of teaching is also enhanced, where
distributed leadership is practised in the right way. Research has also
shown that in a school where distributed leadership is well practised,
teachers are motivated and empowered to make decisions in relation to
teaching, learning and assessments (Szeto and Cheng, 2017), and this
boosts learners’ achievement. Thus, in such a school, there is a warm
working environment, which keeps teachers happy and encouraged to
work hard for the sake of the learners.

Distributed leadership, like any other leadership style and as observed in

literature, has its own problems. Harris and DeFlaminis (2016, p. 143)
observed that distributed leadership is not a panacea; it depends on how
it is shared, received and enacted. They argued that there are some
people who see distributed leadership as a way of exploiting other

37
members who are not formal leaders, for example credulous teachers
given more work than they are supposed to do (Lumby, 2013).

Thus, according to Harris (2013), distributed leadership can be destructive

and damaging if it is not implemented the right way, and it has potential
to yield both positive and negative outcomes (Harris and DeFleminis,
2016), hence their argument that distributed is not the answer to
leadership but it depends on how it practised. Bush (2013) concurred with
them, noting that those with formal leadership can sometimes encourage
or aggressively prevent others from taking opportunities to lead new
initiatives or bring about change. Harris and DeFleminis ( 2016, p. 144)
continued to argue that distributed leadership does not imply that
everyone is a leader but it is for those best equipped or skilled or
positioned to lead, in order to fulfil a particular goal or organizational
requirement. Hence distributed leadership ceases to be of any positive
impact if the leadership is done by anyone or by all. Therefore,
distribution of leadership has to be carefully implemented in order to yield
expected results.

2.10.1 Instructional Leadership Theory

Graczewski, Knudson and Holtzman (2009) describe the traditional role of
the principal as that of focusing on administrative management activities,
such as enforcing discipline and having good relations with the
communities. Hallinger and Heck (2010) points out that instructional
models of leadership emerged from the research on effective schools
since the early 1980s. The principal, explain Pont, Nusche and Moorman
(2008) that, is no longer accountable mainly for inputs but is accountable
for the performance outcomes of teachers and students, hence Elmore
(2005) suggests that school leadership should foster organisational
learning in order to produce performance outcomes of high standard.

Instructional leadership, according Hallinger (2003), is goal-oriented, with

a special emphasis on the improvement of student academic outcomes.

38
The author further states that the focus of instructional leadership is on
the role of the school principal who should coordinate, control, supervise,
and develop curriculum and instruction in the school. Bush (2007) and
Hausiku (2015) support this by explaining that instructional leadership
focusses more on improving teaching and learning through
modelling good practices and monitoring classroom activities as
well as the professional learning of teachers in relation to
learners’ growth. This model is an important element of school
leadership because it focuses the schools on a particular dimension, that
is, to offer quality teaching and learning. Bush (2007) sums this up by
arguing that the instructional leadership theory was endorsed because of
its emphasis on managing teaching and learning as the core activities of
an educational institution.

Evidence in literature shows that principals have indirect influence on

learners’ academic performance. Horng and Loeb (2010) add that the
principal’s involvement in the classroom only has a marginal impact on
the quality of teaching and learning. Instructional leadership stresses the
importance of principal’s actual practice of classroom evaluation of
teaching and learning is essential for effective schools, particularly
enhanced student learning (Hargreaves et al., 2001; Hallinger, 2005).
However, principals are viewed to be able to influence the quality of
teaching and learning by mentoring and coaching teachers, creating
conducive environment for teaching to take place through lesson
observation, providing feedback, build a culture of high academic
expectation.

Hallinger and Murphy (1987) developed a comprehensive model of

instructional leadership which proposes three dimensions of the
instructional leadership roles of principals. The three dimensions include
defining the school’s mission, managing the instructional program, and
promoting a positive school learning climate. Each dimension has a
number of functions to be performed by the principal with strong
associations on student outcomes (Hompashe, 2018). The first

39
dimension is made of two leadership functions, that is, to frame school
goals and communicating them. These functions emphasise the principal’s
role in establishing and articulating clear school vision with the focus on
improving learners’ academic performance.

The second dimension comprises three leadership functions, such as,

supervising and evaluating instruction, coordinating the curriculum, and
monitoring student progress. This dimension demonstrates the
principal’s engagement in supervising, monitoring, and
evaluating curriculum-based activities in the school.

The third and last dimension incorporates five leadership functions,

namely, protecting instructional time, promoting professional
development, maintaining high visibility, providing incentives for teachers,
and providing incentives for learning. Compared with the two former
dimensions, this dimension is broader in scope and intent (Ng et al.,
2015b). The author further argues that leadership roles included in this
dimension are assumed to be highly influential principal practices and
important in creating and maintaining a school climate that supports
teaching and learning. These functions of principals are all the most
important leadership instructional responsibilities of principals for
successful schools.

This theory is relevant to the study because the study sought to compare
leadership styles of principals with high levels of learners’ academic
performance with those with low levels in rural secondary schools with the
purpose of trying to promote effective teaching and learning in rural
secondary schools. The researcher decided to choose instructional
leadership as the main theory to underpin the study because of the
primary responsibility that is given to school principals which is the
promotion of effective and quality teaching and learning in ensuring that
all learners succeed. Principals of rural secondary schools need to focus
their time more on effective and quality teaching and learning and also
ensure that teachers are capacitated in order to deliver effectively.

40
As school principals work on ensuring effective and quality teaching and
learning, they have to work closely with teachers, provide clear
instructions on aspects which support effective teaching and learning in
general and on issues pertaining to assessment in particular. As
instructional leaders, school principals also need to encourage, organize
and even release teachers to attend professional development sessions
that will better prepare them to deliver effectively. Under instructional
leadership, rural secondary schools have a direction because of clear set
goals, strategic allocation of resources, well managed curriculum,
consistent monitoring of lesson plans and regular evaluation of teachers.
With these carried out efficiently, effective and quality teaching, that will
raise levels of learners’ academic performance, is promoted.

However, the South African education was designed in a manner that

promotes other aspects in the school such as sports, arts, social relations,
welfare and many more to develop complete learners. Instructional
leadership model, because of its design and purpose, may appear to take
lightly the other aspects of a school. Its objective cannot be doubted, but
it cannot succeed if it is not supported and complemented by other
theories in order to take care of the other aspects that instructional
leadership theory seems to undermine. Although the principal remains a
key player in organizational change, schools cannot rely on the power of
one, hence, concepts such as collegiality, collaborative culture, learning
organization and teacher leadership, all suggest that the power to make
decisions in order to improve teaching and learning must be distributed
(Ng et al., 2015b). It is for this reason that the researcher decided to
incorporate transactional and transformational leadership to support the
prescripts of instructional leadership theory.

TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP

Transactional leadership, also known as managerial leadership, is a

leadership style where leaders rely on rewards and punishments to

41
 achieve optimal job performance from their subordinates. The
transactional executive leadership model is based on an exchange or
transaction Why is transactional leadership effective?

The advantage of this type of leadership is that you're initially motivating

people with things that might matter to them, like money or recognition.
However, the disadvantage of transactional leadership is that team
members tend to focus on achieving short-term goals in order to get those
rewards

The transactional leadership style follows these basic steps:

1. Leaders set goals for their teams.

2. They give employees orders and process documents to achieve the goals.

3. If employees perform well, their leaders reward them.

4. If employees perform poorly, their leaders punish them.

How does a transactional leader influence others?

Transactional leaders monitor followers carefully to enforce rules, reward

success, and punish failure. They do not, however, act as catalysts for
growth and change within an organization. Instead, they are focused on
maintaining this as they are and enforcing current rules and expectations.

Burns (1978) states that transactional leadership, commences from

defining the relationship between superiors and subordinates to
motivating followers through conditional rewards. The author further
states that transactional leadership comprises an exchange between the
follower and leader, in a way that subordinates are provided with rewards
for their effort. These rewards are results of reaching established goals
and task accomplishment. Bass (1990b) defines the transactional leader
as one who pursues a cost-benefit, economic exchange to meet

42
subordinate’s current material and psychic needs in return for contracted
services rendered by the subordinate. Cheng, (2003) argues:

Transactional leadership could also be viewed as involving

exchanges between leaders and followers that reflect more
traditional values such as honesty, fairness, responsibility and
reciprocal obligation. The exchange would result in the employee’s
compliance in exchange for the leader’s assistance in pointing the
way to the attainment of mutual goals.

McClesky (2014) is in line with the narrative that transactional leadership

style focuses on the exchanges that occur between the leaders and the
followers. The author further explains that these exchanges allow leaders
to achieve their objectives, complete their required tasks, maintain the
current organizational situation, motivate followers through contractual
agreement, direct behaviours of followers towards achievement of
established goals, emphasise extrinsic rewards, avoid unnecessary risks
and focus on improving organizational efficiency. In today’s competitive
environment, organizations are striving hard to meet their goals (Paracha,
Qamar, Mirza, Hassan and Waqas, 2012).

Bass (1985) characterises the exchange period, and emphasised the

importance of transactions between leaders and employees, as well as the
leader’s role in initiating and sustaining interaction. According to Bass and
Avolio (1994), transactional leadership approach has four components:

a) Contingent Reward: according to Odumeru and Ifeanyi (2013),

contingent reward can be classified into two types. Contingent
positive reinforcement and Contingent negative reinforcement.
Contingent positive reinforcement is given when the defined goals
are achieved on time or before time. This positive reinforcement is
given in form of praise or rewards. Transactional leaders recognize
followers’ successful performance and reward them for positive
output. On the other hand, contingent negative reinforcement is
given when the set goals are not met, tasks are not accomplished

43
 and performance falls below standard, this may go with some
punishment or forfeiting reward;

b) Management by Exception-Active: Active management by exception

means that leader observes followers’ performance, watches the
deviations from the rules and regulations, anticipate problems and
issues, take actions according to followers’ performance and makes
corrections to resolve the problems (Odumeru and Ifeanyi, 2013);

c) Management by Exception-Passive: leaders who follow passive

management by exception route do not involve in fixing the issues
unless the issue is severe. Leaders keep themselves aside and
intervene only if the problem becomes too serious (Odumeru and
Ifeanyi, 2013); and

d) Laissez-Faire: Laissez-Faire leadership is a characteristic of leaders

in which they avoid making decisions and avoid taking
responsibilities (Robbins, 2007). Leaders consider subordinates
completely responsible for any decision and give subordinates
complete freedom and power to make decisions about the work
(Chaudhry and Javed, 2012).

Transactional leadership was described by Zaleznik (1977) as individuals

who manage followers by setting goals, allocating tasks, and doing tasks
by punishing non-performers and rewarding performers.

This theory is relevant to the study because the study is about comparing
leadership styles of principals from high performing rural secondary
schools with those of low performing schools. The transactional leadership
theory proposes that principals give teachers clear instructions on what is
expected of them, and, also outline the consequences of meeting and/or
failing to meet those expectations. Lamb (2013) contends that a leader’s
job is to create structures that make it abundantly clear what is expected
of followers and the consequences (rewards and punishments) associated
with meeting or not meeting expectations. Principals are thus expected to
engage in the process of supervising and assessing performance of both

44
teachers and learners. Such performance is determined by external
motivational factors for improved performance; for instance, people tend
to work harder if they know they will be rewarded or in fear of getting
punished, hence Charry (2012) opines that when employees are
successful, they are rewarded and when they fail, they are reprimanded
or punished.

Transactional leaders play significant role in organizations and help

employees in achieving organizational goals and objectives. According to
Northouse (2007), leadership is the ability of an individual to motivate a
group towards the accomplishment of goals. It is a process in which an
individual interacts with the workers of the organization, motivate them
and helps them in achieving the target (Chaudhry and Javed, 2012).
Researchers argue that transactional leadership is a subset of
transformational leadership and both are related to organizational
performance (Odumeru and Ifeanyi, 2013). According to Robbins (2005)
and Charry (2012), transactional leadership is a style of leadership in
which leaders manage the followers through rewards and punishment. It
is a managerial leadership in which leader’s prime responsibility is to
focus on clarifying roles and tasks requirements (Dubrin, 2004). Miller
(2011) argues that transactional leaders clarify roles and tasks to the
followers and tell them what they need to do to reach their objectives and
consequences associated with meeting or not meeting expectations
(Lamb, 2013).

Sadeghi and Pihie (2012) demonstrates that transactional leadership

theory is based on the exchange between leaders and followers. Hargis,
Wyatt and Piotrowski (2001) state that transactional leaders emphasize on
extrinsic rewards for good work and give punishment for negative
outcomes. The transactional leadership process builds upon exchange
where the leader offers rewards or threatens punishment for the
performance or desired behaviours and the completion of certain tasks.
This type of leadership may result in followers’ compliance, but is unlikely

45
to generate enthusiasm for and a commitment to task. It becomes clear
that there is no perfect single leadership model that can be implemented
successfully in achieving the goals of the organization.

INVITATIONAL LEADERSHIP-INVITATIONAL EDUCATION

THEORY/STYLE

Invitational leadership is at the heart a moral activity, intentionally

showing respect and trust in the leaders themselves and in others, both
personally and professionally. In a similar manner, it seeks to empower
followers by asking others in the organization to meet their goals in
pursuit of their own success.

It involves sending positive messages to people, making them feel they

are valued, able, responsible, and worthwhile. The messages are often
delivered through inviting all followers to implement the institution's
policies, programs, practices, and physical environments. These are
referred to as the five P's of invitational leadership

The basic assumptions of invitational leadership is that: Once followers

are invited to perform task, the model of Invitational Leadership is one
that encourages leaders and their followers to pursue more joyful and
meaningful professional and personal lives through four guiding
principles: respect, trust, optimism, and intentionality.

What is the invitational model in education?

Invitational learning theory suggests that, in order to facilitate learning,

students should be provided with an environment (five P-s) that is
optimally inviting. Respect, trust, optimism and intentionality are
elements that will ensure that and should be a part of every educational
process.

SERVANT LEADERSHIP STYLE

46
The servant leadership style is based on the idea that leaders prioritize
serving the greater good of the organisation. Leaders with this style serve
their team and organization first. They do not prioritize their own
objectives. Employees in a servant leadership environment are more likely
to feel that their voices are heard.

What is the role of a servant leader?

A servant leader builds teams, listens, heals, persuades and empowers

followers until a consensus is reached. A servant leader ensures
successful shared governance by building effective teams. Indeed, servant
leadership promotes team effectiveness.
Characteristics of the servant leader that are of critical importance. They
are: listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion,
conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to the growth of
people, and building community. What makes servant leadership
successful?

What sets the servant leader apart is that they put the well-being, growth,
and success of those they lead and manage before their own personal
ambitions. They see their success as measured by their employees'
successes, and thus have a greater incentive to lead by example and
invest in the growth of their team

What are the 11 pillars/characteristics of servant leadership?

The ultimate servant leader has developed all 11 characteristics and is

continuously improving. These characteristics include having a calling,
listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization,
foresight, stewardship, growth and building community

Servant leadership is a management style that prioritizes the team's

growth and well-being over the organization's or leader's own ambitions.
Unlike traditional leaders, a servant leader focuses on coaching and
developing individuals, not just achieving the goals of the
organization.

47
Servant leaders live by a people-first mind-set and believe that when
team members feel personally and professionally fulfilled, they’re more
effective and more likely to regularly produce great work. Because of their
emphasis on employee satisfaction and collaboration, they tend to
achieve higher levels of respect.

Servant leaders motivate their teams and have excellent

communication skills. You may find this leadership style a match for
your own style if you tend to encourage collaboration and engagement
among team members and if you commit to growing your team
professionally.

The benefits and challenges of a servant leadership style include:

Benefits: Servant leaders have the Challenges: Servant leaders can

capacity to boost employee loyalty become burnt out as they often put
and productivity, improve employee the needs of their team above their
development and decision-making, own. They may have a hard time
cultivate trust and create future being authoritative when they need to
leaders. be.

VISIONARY LEADERSHIP

Visionary leadership is a leadership style where an individual is able to see

and communicate a vision of the future to others who will help turn it into
reality. Visionary leadership is a type of leadership that focuses on
creating a vision for the future and inspiring others to make it a reality. It
involves setting clear goals, creating a sense of purpose, and motivating
those around them to take action in order to achieve the desired outcome.
What are the qualities of a visionary leader?
A visionary leader ensures the vision becomes reality by stating clear
goals, outlining a strategic plan for achieving those goals and equipping

48
 and empowering each member to take action on the plan at the
organizational, team and individual levels
How do you apply visionary leadership?

Here are the steps you can take to become a visionary leader:

1. Define your vision. You should have a clear idea of your vision and how it
relates to the future of the company. ...

2. Create a sense of purpose. Communicate your vision and process to your

team. ...

3. Motivate your team. ...

4. Adjust your goals as needed.

Visionary leaders possess a powerful ability to drive progress and usher in

periods of change by inspiring employees and earning trust for new ideas.
A visionary leader is also able to establish a strong organizational bond.
They strive to foster confidence among direct reports and colleagues
alike.

Visionary style is especially helpful for small, fast-growing organizations,

or larger organizations experiencing transformations or restructuring,
hence it is linked to transformational leadership. Visionary leaders tend to
be persistent and bold, strategic and open to taking risks. They're often
described as inspirational, optimistic, innovative and magnetic.

A good visionary leader sets a practical vision with suitable and

achievable targets. They know how to set SMART goals that are
specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and timely. Using the
SMART goal framework can establish a strong foundation for achieving
success

The benefits and challenges of a visionary leadership style include:

Benefits: Visionary leadership can Challenges: Visionary leaders may miss

help companies grow, unite teams important details or other opportunities,

49
and the overall company and
like recognizing their teams, because
improve outdated technologies or
they’re so focused on the big picture.
practices.

2.7 IMPLICATIONS ON SCHOOL PRINCIPALS

Several leadership styles that are used in management landscape by
different leaders, had been discussed by the researcher. The researcher
wanted to explore different leadership styles that school principals may
utilize on their daily operations. School principals are at the focal point of
school improvement and efficiency. One of the primary roles of school
principals, as leaders, is to do whatever they have to do in order to
improve learners’ academic performance. This has also been shown in
literature that school principals have an influence on learners’ academic
performance. There are also a number of variables that the school
principals have to consider in order to influence high levels of learners’
academic performance. Principals should first and foremost consider the
leadership style/s that will be effective for efficient academic activities to
take place. According to Tatlah and Iqbal (2012), the leadership styles of
school leaders are significant in making an efficient academic
performance of the school.

School principals are leading a group of people who are coming from
different backgrounds and with different personalities and attitudes. They
should lead such groups with great passion and also manage them well in
order to avoid unnecessary conflict. School principals are there to increase
the interests of teachers and learners to perform highly. They may use
various forms of encouragement and motivation to raise in both teachers
and learners that willingness to achieve greatness. They encourage
teachers and learners to be innovative and take initiative. School
principals should establish strong human relations with their staff and
make it a point that there is harmonious working environment. The
principal should consider the wellbeing of learners and staff and see to it
50
that all are enjoying being at school. In carrying out all these tasks, school
principals use different leadership styles because they are leading
different people and in different circumstances, hence they differ in their
approach.

As the researcher explored diverse leadership styles, it became obvious

that every leadership style has its bright and dark side. This means that
as school principals employ different leadership styles, they should be
aware of their disadvantages so that leadership style/s are used
effectively. The school principals should not adopt a single leadership
style if they want to be effective and produce great results. Though some
leadership styles tend to be more advantageous and with brighter sides
than others, school principals cannot be successful at all times relying on
a single style of leadership. Using the same approach in different
situations cannot always yield the same desired results. Principals have to
always use one and a combination of leadership styles in order to carry
out their mandate as principals efficiently.

2.8 PRINCIPALS’ STRATEGIES TO SUSTAIN EFFECTIVE SCHOOLS

In South Africa, substantial investments have been made in education
sector with the hope of producing highly skilled labour force and create
huge amount of employment opportunities. Despite these investments,
there is growing concern that many rural secondary schools are not doing
well, and that learners’ academic performance is of a low standard.
However, many nations around the world have undertaken wide-ranging
reforms of curriculum, instruction, and assessment, with the intention of
better preparing principals for the educational demands of life and work in
the 21st century (Russell and Cranston, 2012). The rapid rate at which
changes have taken place, and are still taking place, together with the
increased volume of administrative work, has placed principals under
enormous pressure (Kinney, 2009). Bottery (2016) concurs that principals
find themselves working extra hours, not just on weekday evenings but

51
also on weekends and during school holidays where the job becomes
unsustainable if they do not.

School principals should make sure that teachers are monitored and
supported in their quest to provide quality education and make sure that
they keep their professional records up to date. School principals, as
instructional leaders have to visit teachers in their classrooms to see what
individual teacher is doing. Teachers ought to be involved to decide on the
best strategies to improve teaching and learning because they play a
great role in the learning and teaching process. More on this is a study
carried out by Usman and Sa’ad (2014) which revealed that teachers have
a great role to play when it comes to the learning of learners.

School principals have a duty to make sure that teachers are provided
with relevant teaching and learning resources for improved levels of
learner performance. Principal ought to supervise teachers to ensure that
the syllabus is finished in good time. Staff members who continue to do
well must be publicly appraised as a means of trying to motivate those
who lag behind to do better in the future. Principals have to encourage
teachers to be innovative and dynamic in their approaches in order to
improve learners’ academic performance.

School principals should plan to undertake, together with staff early in the
year these initiatives in order to monitor teachers’ work and progress of
learners’ academic performance: build school vision; class visits;
provisioning of resources; provide motivation; creating a culture of unity
and positive climate and parental involvement, all in order to raise levels
of learners’ academic performance. A student’s performance in any
examination is dependent on many variables such as the type of school
and its facilities, the qualification of teachers, learners’ academic
background and the environment from which they come, the type of
leadership provided by head teachers and their qualifications and parental
support (Njagi and Amukowa, 2013).

52
2.8.1 Building of school vision, goals and communication
Principals are important figures that are there in schools in order to
encounter and try to resolve challenges that are facing schools. Mantlana
(2006) affirmed this by stating that transformational leadership is
important in meeting challenges facing schools today. The role of the
school principal is to create the school environment that emphasises a
shared school vision and cooperation in keeping with changing times. The
school vision should be a product of consultative process so that every
body works towards realizing it. This planning process helps principals to
foresee the future and anticipate proper ways of behaving in advance. You
can leave a lasting legacy only if you can imagine a brighter future, and
the capacity to imagine exciting future possibilities is the defining
competence of leaders (Gurley and Peters, 2014).

Principals meet with internal stakeholders to create the school vision and
set ideal school goals and attainable targets. The school vision, goals and
targets can be communicated to external stakeholders (community and
business) for them to understand the direction the school is taking.
Development of a clear school mission, shared vision and specific goal
statements have also been applied more specifically to the fundamental
processes of school improvement focused on increased levels of learning
for all students (Gurley and Peters, 2014). The school vision has to be
internalized by the key stakeholders. The principal then should provide
teachers and learners with opportunities to grow and support them
achieve greater heights. This contributes to school improvement and
enhances levels of learners’ academic performance because the principal
is able to provide leadership that changes people’s attitudes and school
setting for the better.

2.8.2 Classroom visits and observation

The South African Department of Basic Education’s Action Plan to 2019
envisages school principals who ensure that teaching in the school takes
place as expected and in accordance to the national curriculum (Republic
of South Africa, 2015). The principal is also expected to have insight into

53
his or her role as a leader whose responsibility is to promote harmony,
creativity and a sound work ethic within the community and beyond
(Republic of South Africa, 2015). The National Development Plan (NDP)
imagines a schooling system with highly motivated students and teachers
by 2030. The NDP also envisages school principals who are effective in
providing administrative and curriculum leadership at school (Republic of
South Africa, 2011). The principal’s task is to ensure a sound and enabling
environment for teaching and learning in the school. Hallinger and Heck
(2010) concur that school leadership should mainly direct its energy to
improving student outcomes.

Classroom visit and observation is a method of directly observing teaching

practice as it unfolds in real time. This helps school principals understand
what teachers are doing in their respective classrooms. In addition to
helping define clear goals and creating a shared vision, classroom
observations can provide an objective method for measuring progress
towards these goals and provide a framework for giving constructive and
perhaps focused feedback that helps teachers incorporate higher levels of
desired behaviours into their teaching. The purpose of classroom visits
and observation is to support professional development, and to assess
and/or evaluate teaching quality (Hora and Ferrera, 2013). School
principals, heads of departments (HODs) and subject advisors meet one-
on-one with teachers and often use classroom observations for coaching
and mentoring. Hora and Ferrera (2013) further state that often, faculty
developers will not simply conduct a single observation but will integrate
pre- and post-class interviews or coaching sessions and provide targeted
feedback.

There seems to be disagreement among education scholars about the

responsibility of monitoring implementation of curriculum. On the one
hand, some argue that the main responsibility of HODs is curriculum
delivery (Nkonki and Mammen, 2012). They maintain that HODs should
spend most of their time supervising teaching and learning in their
respective subject or learning areas. This is in line with the distributed

54
leadership model. On the other hand, others are sceptical of delegating
curriculum matters to middle managers (HODs) (Hoadley, Christie and
Ward, 2009). These authors are critical of distributed leadership due to its
lack of conceptual clarity. In a nutshell, classroom visits and observations
help school principals to monitor curriculum delivery.

2.8.3 Resource provisioning

Education is the major instrument for academic progress, social
mobilization, political survival and effective national development of any
country (Dangara, 2016). Investment in education is a necessary condition
for promotion of economic growth and national development. Both human
and material resources make it easy for schools to provide quality
education to its learners. Principals have a duty to ensure that their
schools are provided with sufficient and necessary resources in order to
promote quality teaching and learning. The quality of every society is
largely dependent on the quality of its educational system. Adebayo
(2010) posited that there has to be administration in any organization as
long as an organization consists of people brought together in hierarchical
set-up making use of tools, equipment, human and material resources, all
in the quest of attaining the goals for which the organization is
established.

The administration of a school institution has the responsibility for

bringing together various resources and allocating them effectively to
accomplish the general goals of the institution (Dangara, 2016). Teachers
are an essential resource for effective teaching and learning. The quality
of a school system cannot exceed the quality of its teachers. Principals
ought to recruit qualified and excellent teachers in order to provide
quality education and raise levels of learners’ academic performance.
Teachers interact with students daily and help students acquire the
knowledge that they are expected to have by the time they leave school.
Thus, attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers is a priority
for public policy, although the policies related to teachers differ widely
across countries (OECD, 2013). The type and quality of the training they

55
receive, as well as the requirements to enter and progress through the
teaching profession, have significant consequences on the quality of the
teaching force. School principals’ task is to ensure that there is also
adequate instructional and educational resources to ensure that teaching
and learning is supported. According to Sitati, Kennedy and Ndirangu
(2017) instructional resources are useful as they facilitate learning of
young children. While an adequate physical infrastructure and supply of
educational resources does not guarantee good learning outcomes, the
absence of such resources could negatively affect learning. What matters
for student achievement and other education outcomes is not necessarily
the availability of resources, but the quality of those resources and how
effectively they are used (Gamoran, Secada and Marrett, 2000).

It can be said that schools with high levels of learners’ academic

performance are able to carefully select, provide and allocate resources
equitably within the school and teachers use the resources effectively.
Today, it is believed that technology can bring our education sector from
the Dark Ages to the bright future. This is because the implementation of
information and communication technology (ICT) in schools can bring
about some potential benefits. Such benefits according to Edozie, Olibie
and Aghu (2010) are to empowering the potential abilities of people
through the use of the available ICT facilities, to improve their life skills
and strengthen their capabilities. However, to obtain those benefits, we
have to overcome the challenges that come along with ICT. These
challenges may vary from school to school, region to region, and country
to country. Some teachers have access to technology but are not willing
to learn using it, while other teachers are thirsty to use technology but
cannot access it.

ICT can provide a considerable benefit in supporting learning. Mdlongwa

(2012) argues that one of the main reasons for the introduction of ICTs in
the educational curriculum is to enhance the effectiveness of teaching and
learning. By using technology in their learning, the students can be active
learners. They will be aware of what information they need, why they

56
need it, and how they can get that information. As mentioned by Huffaker
(2003), active learning allows the students to decide when they require a
particular information and whether they have already understood that
information or not. This active learning also implies an independent
learning. By having access to internet in their schools, students will not
entirely depend on the teachers but can explore information available in
the internet, find information that they need, and go on to find more and
more information. By using this learning system, students also become
self-managed in their learning process. Suryani (2010) notes that self-
managed learning allows the students to be self-motivated and quickly
respond to the quick change of information.

2.8.4 Keeping teachers and learners motivated

Principals, as school leaders, are responsible for motivating teachers and
learners and positively influence them to work towards improving and
raising levels of learners’ academic performance. Principals influence
positive behaviour by encouraging and motivating staff to complete tasks
and improve learners’ academic performance. Motivation refers to
reasons underlying behaviour (Guay, Chanal, Ratelle, Marsh, Larose and
Boivin, 2010). Principals should give staff and learners reasons to do or
not to do their work. Researchers mostly define effective leadership to
include the ability to understand what motivates learners and staff and
ability to direct future behaviour. One common component across
researchers’ definitions of leadership is that the leader exerts influence
over their subordinates.

There have been various definitions of motivation across different

disciplines in the academic circles, from management, psychology and
other fields. According to Ramlall (2004), motivation is derived from the
Latin word movere which means to move. Butkus and Green (1999) also
stated that motivation is derived from the word motivate which also
means to move, push or persuade to act to satisfy a need. Motivation has
been defined as a decision-making process through which the individual
chooses desired outcomes and sets in motion the behaviours appropriate

57
to acquiring them (Dartey-Baah, 2010). According to Marques (2010),
motivation is what people need to perform better. Motivation is generally
about what drives a person to work in a particular way and with a given
amount of effort.

Theorists such as Maslow (1954), Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman

(1959), and Alderfer (1972) explained employee motivation by holding on
to the assumption that all individuals possess the same set of needs and
therefore prescribe the characteristics that ought to be present in the
jobs. These theorists have afforded opportunities to managers and leaders
to design motivational programs to influence performance. What need to
be answered is the direction to which motivation drive the performance of
teachers and learners in schools. Motivation is therefore about what a
person wants and about his emotional state, which drives him in the
direction of achieving what he wants (Mullins, 2010). The conceptual
approach to motivation is, therefore, based on the idea that individual
needs or expectation results in the behaviour or action that drives him or
her to achieve desired goals which provide fulfilment in the individual.
Effective motivational programs of employees can achieve efficiency to
develop a good organizational culture.

Human resource, especially teacher quality, is generally believed to be

one of the most important resource for the production of quality
education. One of the possible strategies to raise levels of learners’
academic performance is to keep teachers and learners motivated. Fryer
(2011) posits that a potential method to increase student achievement
and improve the quality of individuals selecting teaching as a profession is
to provide teachers with financial incentives based on student
achievement. Although, it is believed that the reward for the teachers is in
heaven as observed by Adeyamo, Oladipupo and Omisore (2013), but
there is no doubt that if there is limited or no motivation for teachers in
terms of incentives and innovation, that may drastically reduce their
morale which may in turn have a negative impact on levels of learners’
academic performance.

58
When employees are motivated, the potential for them to work harder and
become more satisfied with their jobs increases compared to demotivated
employees (Elias, Smith and Barney, 2012). It can be generally said that
motivation is key in enhancing teachers’ performance and consequently
improve levels of learners’ academic performance.

Adams’ Equity Theory calls for a fair balance to be struck between

employees’ inputs (hard work, skill levels, tolerance, and enthusiasm) and
employees’ outputs (salary, benefits, and intangibles such as recognition).
According to the theory’s finding, a fair balance serves to ensure a strong
and productive relationship with the employees, with the overall result
being satisfied, thus motivated employees. For example, teachers expect
their principals to reward them after the completion of a particular project.
Teachers may think that their principals will make rewards available to
them based upon their excellent job performance. This is important to
understand because expectations have been found to influence an
individual’s motivation (Gorges and Kandler, 2012).

Adams’ Equity Theory is built-on the belief that employees become

demotivated, both in relation to their job and their employer, if they feel
as though their inputs are greater than the outputs. Employees can be
expected to respond to this in different ways, including demotivation
(generally, to the extent the employee perceives the disparity between
input and output), reduced effort, becoming disgruntled, or, in more
extreme cases, perhaps even disruptive. The reason is that inadequate
motivation may lead to frustration and the attendant results may be low
job performance and turnover in organization (Ogolo, Obianuju and
Chukwujama, 2016). This then is a problem for most organizations.

The importance of employee motivation can also be understood through

organizational culture (Dimitrios, Kastanioti, Maria and Dimitris, 2014).
Employee motivation and organizational culture are intertwined (Sokro,
2012). When employees feel a bond with other employees such as
through their organizational culture, they tend to be more motivated and
satisfied with their job compared with employees who do not feel a

59
connection with their organizational culture (Scheers and Botha, 2014). An
organizational culture can communicate to employees what is important
to the organization, such as employee motivation (Berry, 2011).
Supervisors can help by creating an organizational culture that
encourages employee motivation (Mancini, 2010). This can be done by
supervisors communicating expectancy theory to their employees. This
theory is about making choice and explains the processes that one
undertakes to make a choice. According to Pranav and Shilpi (2014)
expectancy theory is a theory that says that the strength to act in a
certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be
followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to
the individual.

Supervisors can create an organizational structure that rewards certain

employee behaviours with rewards that are valuable to employees. The
organizational culture can create a motivated organization in accordance
with expectancy theory. The organizational culture can communicate to
employees what behaviours are associated with which outcomes. It can
also present possible outcomes that employees value in order to meet the
second component of expectancy theory. The organizational culture can
also communicate to employees the different amounts of effort that is
needed to accomplish each specific outcome valued by employees and
fulfil the third part of expectancy theory.

There are different theories of motivation, some focus on quantity of

motivation and others on quality. Quantity of motivation could be high or
low. Quality of motivation depends on whether the source of motivation is
internal or external. Self-determination Theory (SDT) of motivation
considers quality of motivation to be more important than quantity and
describes a continuum for quality of motivation (Kusurkar, Ten Cate, Vos,
Westers and Croiset, 2012). This ranges from intrinsic motivation at one
end, to extrinsic motivation on the other end. Furlich (2016) further
identifies two forms of motivation as intrinsic motivations and extrinsic

60
motivations. Intrinsic motivations result from satisfying an individual’s
beliefs and values.

Extrinsic motivations are based on tangible economic returns, goods,

recognition, or services to the individual (Kreps, 1990). One form of
extrinsic rewards is money. Extrinsic rewards indicate a decrease in
control over the situation. An individual shifts his or her focus from the
enjoyment of an activity to the reward value of performing activities
(Cinar, 2011). However, intrinsic motivation occurs when an activity is
performed for the enjoyment of doing the tasks. Intrinsically motivated
employees often perform an activity because they find the activity itself
rewarding. People experience the enjoyment, competence, and self-
motivation when performing a task and credit their behaviours to internal
factors, which they control, such as emotions (Abuhamdeh and
Csikszentmihalyi, 2012).

Schools as organizations should determine intrinsic and extrinsic

components that motivate teachers and learners. This will allow school
principals to put in place rewards that are valued by both teachers and
learners. This is consistent with the second component of expectancy
theory involving valence of the rewards and is important to employee
motivation. Katzell and Thompson (1990) identified seven intrinsic and
extrinsic factors, which can increase employees’ motivation. The seven
factors include: ensure that workers’ motives and values are appropriate
for the jobs on which they are placed; make jobs attractive to and
consistent with workers’ motives and values; define work goals that are
clear, challenging, attractive, and attainable; provide workers with the
personnel and the material resources that facilitate their effectiveness;
create supportive social environments; reinforce performance and
harmonize all of these elements into a consistent sociotechnical system.

2.8.5 Building a culture of unity and positive climate

One of the most important actions that a school principal takes is to pay
attention to the culture within a school. Organizational theorists, as
witnessed by Macneil, Prater and Bush (2009), have long reported that

61
paying attention to culture is the most important action that a leader can
perform. A principal’s impact on learning is mediated through the climate
and culture of the school and is not a direct effect. If the culture is not
hospitable and conducive to learning, then levels of learners’ academic
performance can suffer. School principals are responsible for establishing
an ever-present culture of quality teaching and learning in their schools to
ensure that learners’ levels of academic performance are always
improving. Focusing on the development of the school’s culture as a
learning environment is fundamental to improved teacher morale and
ultimately, student achievement (Barth, 2008).

The school principal plays a key role in establishing a school’s culture. It is

equally important that the school principal to first understand the school’s
culture before implementing change (Leithwood et al., 2006). The school
principal should ensure that all decisions made in his/her school align with
the school’s mission and vision, and all stakeholders embrace this mission
and vision. That is a school’s belief system. School principals seeking to
improve student performance according to Macneil, Prater and Busch
(2009) should focus on improving the school’s culture by getting the
relationships right between themselves, their teachers, students and
parents.

The researcher believes that learners who are comfortable in the school
surrounding feel safe and loved and also want to regularly come to school
and learn in order to achieve high levels of academic performance. If
teachers are respected and supported and allowed to make decisions,
they love coming to school each day. Parents would not want to transfer
their children to other schools when they are encouraged to be part of the
school community and given opportunity to raise their views to help
improve the school. Any other person who comes to visit the school can
feel the school’s pulse upon entering the premises with the feeling that
says there is some substance here.

Successful leadership requires a leader who can unify, create harmony,

and produce effective results (Rajbhandari, 2012). In a school, in which

62
there is a culture of unity and a shared vision that produces harmony and
effective results, there is beautiful music (Herbert, 2011), and successful
leadership of a school requires nothing less (Hallinger and Heck, 2010). A
principal who can bring the staff together, articulate a vision and reinforce
that vision until others are inspired to embrace it achieves leadership
success thereby allowing the students to achieve greater academic
fulfilment (Hallinger and Heck, 2010; Herbert, 2011; Mosley, Boscardin
and Wells, 2014). A school is perceived to be successful by its teachers
and students when the principal is focused on creating a climate
conducive to that success (MacNeil, Prater and Busch, 2009).

Being a school leader is not the same as years in the past (Grobler, 2012).
However, leadership training has not kept up with the changing times
(Copland, 2014). Leadership encompasses many elements that are often
conflicting or discursive (Bruggencate, Luyten, Scheerens and Sleegers,
2012). Principals must be able to balance all of those elements while
being aware of what impact the climate of a school in order to meet
demands and maximize outcomes (Leithwood and Sun, 2012). There is
widespread belief that the quality of leadership makes a significant
difference to school and student outcomes, which requires trained,
committed, and highly effective principals (Bush, 2009; Rivers, Brackett,
Reyes, Elbertson and Salovey, 2013; Tatlah, Iqbal, Amin and Quraishi,
2014).

2.8.6 Parental involvement

Every one of us, the human beings in this universe, are created as unique
individuals. Unique in every way, we are born with our own individual
characteristics, from our physical appearance, our emotional state of
mind, our moral character and our intellectual abilities. Intellectually, we
all have varying levels of intelligence, capacities to learn and abilities to
apply the knowledge and skills that we have acquired (Antoine, 2015).
Antoine further states that a child's education starts at birth, and the most
crucial years of learning actually come in the first six years of a child's life.

63
This means that parents hold the key to a child's future academic success
(Smith, 2011).

It is largely perceived that parental involvement has a strong, positive

effect on learners’ academic performance, yet parents do not accept that
responsibility. This reminds me of conversation I had with one parent in
my early teaching career. I was working at a rural school which was
considered a failing school by the members of the community and
beyond. I asked this parent, who had just removed her child from us to a
fee-paying urban school why she did that, and she told me that we are not
doing our work, and many more parents are still coming to remove their
kids. I was puzzled because I never saw her participating in any school
activities. The same parent during the course of that year then came to
me asking that I help her with her child’s school-work. That gave me an
indication that parents only put an effort in the education of their children
because they think of losing their money, should their children repeat a
grade. Smith (2011) emphasizes that it is the parents who hold the key to
children’s future and academic success. It is important that parents
become active participants in the learning process to ensure that their
children has the tools and support necessary to be an effective and
efficient learner for the long term. Antoine (2015, p.10) is of the view that
children tend to work harder when their parents put more effort into their
education.

According to many researchers and educational leaders, parents are

considered the first and most influential teachers in a child’s life (Smith,
2011). The reason why parents are considered the most influential
teachers in their children’s early and later lives is that children observe
and learn from certain behaviour from the parents, and later apply as
parents their early observations. Since each parent provides different
experiences at home, the observations of each child result in differences
related to their parents’ attitudes, values and beliefs in education. It is
imperative for a school principal to strategically involve parents
in decision making processes in order to improve academic

64
performance. According to Mashau, Kone and Mutshaeni (2014), parents
bring valuable quality to the educational experience of their children
because they are better able to understand their own children and can
influence, significantly, student behaviours such as time management and
study habits, eating practices, and their personal safety and general
welfare. Parents, as educational stakeholders, provide additional
resources for the school to assist with student achievement and which
may also be influential in the general success of the school.

It can be logically concluded that it would be much easier to influence

parental effort to get involved than it would be to attempt to change a
family’s social or economic status. Generally, it is not lack of money that
results in poorer academic performance, but parents do not use their time
to provide proper academic support at home to their children. Therefore,
if the school vision is to improve levels of learners’ academic
performance, school principals need to educate parents on the important
role that they play in the academic space and provide resources where
necessary, that they can utilize to be more involved in the educational
process.

ADDITIONAL READINGS ON LEADERSHIP

Innovative Leadership?

Indeed Editorial Team

Updated July 22, 2022
Published March 1, 2021

The Indeed Editorial Team comprises a diverse and talented team of

writers, researchers and subject matter experts equipped with Indeed's
data and insights to deliver useful tips to help guide your career journey.

Working in a leadership role often involves identifying different styles of

leadership as you determine how you want to move forward. Applying

65
creativity to your own leadership style can help you create your own
unique style that aligns with your goals and the needs of your staff. One
leadership style to consider is innovative leadership, which involves
creative thinking. In this article, we will discuss innovative leadership and
how to apply this style when leading those around you.

What is innovative leadership?

Innovative leadership is a style of leadership that involves applying

innovation and creativity to managing people and projects. Innovative
leaders often inspire productivity in new ways and through different
approaches than have typically been used and taken. The ability to apply
innovation is especially important in times of uncertainty, ambiguity and
risk, so companies and industries that often encounter such situations can
benefit from bringing on innovative and creative leaders.

Another element of innovative leadership is the willingness to consider a

different concept or approach, which can be challenging for those who
prefer to stick to tried and true methods. You can see innovative
individuals who lead several major global companies. One example is
Steve Jobs, the co-founder and former CEO of Apple, Inc., who
revolutionized the idea of the personal computer and worked closely with
staff members on the innovative “Think different” marketing campaign
that led to the success of the iTunes and the iMac, iPod and iPhone.

Innovative leaders do not necessarily have to be the people behind all of

the creative ideas. They can recognize greatness from their team
members and work to develop paths and success from those ideas. What
really helps an innovative leader stand out is their willingness to adapt to
change, experiment with new concepts and envision the path forward for
a creative idea.

Related: 10 Common Leadership Styles (Plus How To Find Your

Own)

66
8 Common Leadership Styles (Plus How To Find Your Own)
Indeed Editorial Team
Updated February 15, 2023
Published October 22, 2018

At some point in your career, you may take on a leadership role. Whether
you’re leading a meeting, project, team or an entire department, you
might consider identifying with or adopting a defined leadership style.

Most professionals develop their own style of leadership based on factors

like experience and personality, as well as the specific needs of a
company and its organizational culture. Every leader is different, but there
are eight leadership styles commonly used in the workplace.

In this article, we'll cover eight of the most common leadership styles and
provide examples and common characteristics of each.

Related: What Does Leadership Mean?

What Does Leadership Mean?

Indeed Editorial Team

Updated July 22, 2022
Published October 7, 2019

The Indeed Editorial Team comprises a diverse and talented team of

writers, researchers and subject matter experts equipped with Indeed's
data and insights to deliver useful tips to help guide your career journey.

The success of a structured organization depends on effective leadership.

Executive leaders are responsible for determining and guiding the
direction and purpose of an organization by setting and achieving goals.
There are many other leaders critical to the success of a business, many
of which may not even have a leadership title. In this article, we will

67
discuss what leadership means and how you can become an effective
leader.

What is leadership?

Leadership is the act of guiding a team or individual to achieve a certain

goal through direction and motivation. Leaders encourage others to take
the actions they need to succeed. To be a great leader, it is necessary to
learn and cultivate the skills it takes to be effective. Fortunately, anyone
can develop these skills with time and practice.

Leaders exist in every company at all levels, from CEOs and high-level
executives to supervisors and project leaders. You may even use
leadership skills as an entry-level associate when training new hires or
leading a meeting. Each leader may have a defined leadership style or a
mix of several depending on the team and situation. There are many
leadership styles, including:

 Transactional: Sets predetermined incentives for reaching goals

 Transformational: Focuses on setting and achieving company
goals
 Autocratic: Focuses on setting goals based on efficiency
 Democratic: Works to listen and incorporate team member’s ideas

You can choose the leadership styles that work best for certain
individuals, projects or companies.

Read more: 10 Common Leadership Styles

Benefits of strong leadership skills

There are many benefits to learning leadership skills, including:

You can quickly recognize your strengths and weaknesses

68
Growing as a leader means learning what you do well and areas you may
need to improve so both you and those you lead can read your potential.
You will learn your strengths and weaknesses quickly because they are
often multiplied and reflected by the team, project, meeting or other
entity you are managing.

You can better understand the company’s direction

As you take on more leadership responsibilities, it is necessary to learn

more about the goals of your company. Learning more about your
company’s outlook can help you align your goals to succeed within the
organization. It will also help you set defined goals for yourself and your
team.

You can increase the motivation of your team

Learning more about becoming an effective leader may help you find the
best ways to motivate your team, whether it is by recognition, rewards or
incentives. Motivating your team well may increase their productivity and
morale, helping you to achieve goals quickly.

You can unify your team

Leadership works well when you have a clear vision or goal.

Understanding exactly what you want to achieve will help you define the
direction your team should take. When your team clearly understands the
goals and their responsibilities in achieving them, they can work together
to succeed.

You can retain more team members

When you know how to lead your team well, they can achieve more and
experience a feeling of accomplishment. Feeling accomplished will help
boost your team’s morale and they may be more likely to stay with you
and the company.

69
Qualities of an effective leader

Effective leaders should strive to possess several qualities or soft skills.

Being a great leader also means having strong technical skills as it relates
to your team and industry. Here are a few skills you should consider
developing as you focus on building your leadership abilities:

Flexibility

As you lead, you will encounter a variety of people, processes and

functions. These elements may change frequently. Knowing when you
need to be flexible will help streamline processes and encourage
members to grow and learn new skills. For example, you may notice a
team member excelling at a new task. Instead of having them complete
the rest of their original work, you may assign tasks that will help them
expand on this new skill.

Empathy

Practicing empathy can help you better understand the people around
you, building trust and developing relationships. Make yourself available
to listen to their accomplishments and challenges, and offer suggestions
and guidance in response if necessary. Understanding your team’s actions
can help you develop better processes as you work toward your goal.

Decisiveness

As a leader, you will likely need to make challenging decisions. When you
make a decision, it is helpful to be as logical, thoughtful and timely as
possible. Use decision-making tools such as data or SWOT analyses to
help you make informed choices. Taking the time to learn from your past
experiences and the decisions of others before you will also help you
make better decisions.

Communication

70
Communication can help reduce conflict and increase productivity. It can
also increase collaboration within your team. Maintain an open line of
communication with your team and explain your vision and any changes
that happen as you work toward it. Active listening is another crucial
aspect of strong communication to understand the needs and ideas of
those around you. When you communicate with your team, try to be as
clear as possible so everyone understands what you need and expect
from them.

How to become a good leader

Becoming a great leader is a lifelong process that takes time and

experience. Some people dedicate their entire careers to studying and
identifying what it means to be a good leader. You can, however, begin to
build basic leadership skills and hone your personal management style
with the following steps:

1. Find a mentor

A mentor can help guide you toward the leadership methods that work
best for you. They can work with you to identify relevant strengths and
traits and how to apply them. They can also help you set goals to develop
areas in need of improvement. You can find a mentor at your current
company, through previous jobs or from your professional network.

2. Conduct research

There are countless resources available you can use to learn more about
becoming an effective leader, including books, online articles and
podcasts. Further, you can study leaders you admire to understand the
skills they possess and learn how they apply them to achieve their goals.

3. Practice

71
To continue to develop good leadership habits, practice them. Practicing
will help you continue to identify what works and where you can learn
more to improve.

4. Take a training course

There are many leadership training courses available online or in-person,

including group seminars one-on-one courses. Taking a leadership course
can help you learn more about effective leadership practices and how to
apply them. You might also ask your organization if they have any
leadership training available.

5. Identify your leadership styles

It can be helpful to study and identify the leadership styles that work best
for you, your team and your organization. Most leaders use a combination
of several styles as the needs of their team changes.

6. Ask for feedback

You can ask for constructive feedback from your team to help you
improve, just as individual contributors should receive regular feedback
about their performance. Your team should be able to identify what
worked for them and offer suggestions for improvement. You can then
apply that feedback to become a better leader.

LEADERSHIP STYLES

Here's an overview of eight common leadership styles, from autocratic to

visionary, with a look at the benefits and challenges of each style:

1. Autocratic leadership style

Also called the “authoritarian style of leadership,” this type of leader is

someone who's focused primarily on results and team efficiency.

72
Autocratic leaders often make decisions alone or with a small and trusted
group and expect employees to do exactly what they’re asked.

Autocratic leaders typically have self-confidence and are self-motivated.

They communicate clearly and consistently, are dependable and follow
the rules. They value highly structured environments and are proponents
of supervised work environments.

The benefits and challenges of an autocratic leadership style include:

Benefits: Autocratic leaders can promote Challenges: Autocratic leaders are oft
productivity through delegation, provide prone to high levels of stress because th
clear and direct communication and reduce feel responsible for everything, plus th
employee stress by making decisions lack of flexibility can lead to tea
quickly on their own. resentment.
Read more: What Is Autocratic Leadership?
2. Bureaucratic leadership style

Bureaucratic leaders are similar to autocratic leaders in that these leaders

expect their team members to follow the rules and procedures precisely
as written. The bureaucratic style focuses on fixed duties within a
hierarchical system, where each employee has a set list of responsibilities,
and there's little need for collaboration and creativity.

This leadership style is most effective in highly regulated industries or in

departments like finance, health care or government. This style may fit
your leadership approach if you're detail-oriented and task-focused, value
rules and structure, are strong-willed and self-disciplined and have a great
work ethic.

The benefits and challenges of a bureaucratic leadership style include:

Benefits: This style can be Challenges: This style doesn't

efficient in organizations that need promote creativity, which can feel
to follow strict rules and restricting to some employees. This

73
regulations. These leaders separate
leadership style is also slow to change
work from relationships to avoid
and does not thrive in an environment
clouding the team's ability to hit
that needs to be dynamic.
goals.
Related: 23 Leadership Characteristics To Be a Good Leader
3. Coaching leadership style

A coaching leader is someone who can quickly recognize their team

members’ strengths, weaknesses and motivations to help each individual
improve. This type of leader often assists team members in setting smart
goals and then provides regular feedback with challenging projects to
promote growth. They set clear expectations and creating a
positive, motivating environment.

The coach leadership style is one of the most advantageous for employers
as well as the employees they manage. Unfortunately, it’s often also one
of the most underused styles—largely because it can be more time-
intensive than other types of leadership. Coaching leaders are
supportive and value learning as a way of growing. They're self-
aware, offer guidance instead of giving commands and ask guided
questions.

The benefits and challenges of a coaching leadership style include:

Benefits: Coaching leadership is Challenges: While this style has

positive in nature and promotes the many advantages, it can be more
development of new skills, empowers time-consuming as it requires one-
team members and fosters a on-one time with employees which
confident company culture. They're can be difficult to obtain in a
often seen as valuable mentors. deadline-driven environment.
Read more: What Is Coaching Leadership? (And When To Use It)

74
 4. Democratic leadership style

The democratic style (aka the "participative style") is a combination of the

autocratic and laissez-faire types of leaders. A democratic leader asks
their team members for input and considers feedback from the team
before they make a decision. Because team members feel their
contributions matter, a democratic leadership style is often credited with
fostering higher levels of employee engagement and workplace
satisfaction.

Democratic leaders value group discussions and provide all information to

the team when making decisions. They promote a work environment
where everyone shares their ideas and are characteristically rational and
flexible.

The benefits and challenges of a democratic leadership style include:

Challenges: This leadership style

Benefits: Working under the
has the potential to be inefficient
democratic leadership style,
and costly as it takes time to
employees can feel empowered,
organize group discussions, obtain
valued and unified. It has the power
ideas/feedback, discuss possible
to boost retention and morale. It also
outcomes and communicate
requires less managerial oversight, as
decisions. It also can add social
employees are typically part of
pressure to members of the team
decision-making processes and know
who do not like sharing ideas in
what they need to do.
group settings.
Read more: What Is Participative Leadership?
5. Laissez-faire leadership style

The laissez-faire style is the opposite of the autocratic leadership type,

focusing mostly on delegating many tasks to team members and
providing little to no supervision. Because a laissez-faire leader doesn't

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spend their time intensely managing employees, they often have more
time for other projects.

Managers may adopt the laissez-faire style when all team

members are highly experienced, well-trained and require little
oversight. However, it can cause a dip in productivity if employees are
confused about their leader’s expectations, or if some team members
need consistent motivation and boundaries to work well.

The benefits and challenges of a laissez-faire leadership style include:

Benefits: The laissez-faire Challenges: This style typically

leadership style encourages doesn't work well for new employees,
accountability, creativity and a as they need guidance and hands-on
relaxed work environment, which support in the beginning. Other
often leads to higher employee employees may not feel properly
retention rates. supported.
Read more: Laissez-Faire Leadership: Definition, Tips and
Examples
6. Pacesetter leadership style

The pacesetting style is one of the most effective for achieving fast
results. Pacesetter leaders primarily focus on performance, often set
high standards and hold their team members accountable for
achieving their goals.

While the pacesetting leadership style can be motivational in fast-paced

environments where team members need to be energized, it’s not always
the best option for team members who need mentorship and feedback.

The benefits and challenges of a pacesetter leadership style include:

Benefits: Pacesetting leadership Challenges: Pacesetting leadership

pushes employees to hit goals and can also lead to miscommunications
accomplish business objectives. It and stressed-out employees as they

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promotes high-energy and dynamic are always pushing toward a goal or
work environments. deadline.
Related: How To Demonstrate Leadership Skills at Work
How to choose a leadership style

As someone who's interested in the leadership path or looking for more

structure in their current leadership approach, it can be helpful to choose
a leadership style that feels authentic to you. Some questions you may
ask yourself when trying to determine which style is right for you include:

 What do I value more—goals or relationships?

 Do I believe in structure or freedom of choice?
 Would I rather make a decision on my own, or collectively?
 Do I focus on short or long-term goals?
 Does motivation come from empowerment or direction?
 What does a healthy team dynamic look like to me?

Strategies for choosing

The above are just a few examples of questions to ask yourself while
reading through leadership styles to help you decide on which style you
relate with most. To develop your leadership style consider these
four strategies:

1. Experiment. Try out varied approaches in different circumstances

and pay attention to the outcome.
2. Seek a mentor. Consulting a leader with more experience than
yourself can offer great insight into how they developed their style
and what worked for them.
3. Ask for feedback. Constructive feedback helps you grow into a
successful leader. Seek feedback from individuals you trust that will
give you an honest answer.
4. Be authentic. Trying to perfect a leadership style that's in
opposition to your personality or morals will come across as

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 inauthentic. Try to choose a leadership style that’s in alignment with
your strengths and work to improve it.
Why develop a leadership style

In an Indeed survey, 55% of employers cited asking about leadership

skills in a job interview as the most accurate evaluation of a candidate’s
ability to succeed in a role.¹ As you develop leadership skills, you’ll likely
use different processes and methods to achieve your employer’s
objectives and meet the needs of the employees who report to you. To be
effective as a manager, you might use several different leadership styles
at any given time.

By taking the time to familiarize yourself with each of these types of

leadership, you might recognize certain areas to improve upon or expand
your own leadership style. You can also identify other ways to lead that
might better serve your current goals and understand how to work with
managers who follow a different style than your own

Skills of innovative leaders

An innovative leader must have certain skills, regardless of the industry in

which they work or the team they oversee. Some of the key skills required
for innovative leadership include:

Communication

The ability to communicate is an essential skill for an innovative leader.

These leaders can communicate in all directions, emphasizing the
importance of each team member and keeping everyone aware and
involved. Innovative leadership also requires the ability to communicate
the vision and generate awareness and enthusiasm moving forward.

Imagination

Using your imagination is a must when applying the innovative style of

leadership. You must be able to imagine and envision the future from a

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simple concept, as well as consider the steps it will take to achieve a
particular goal.

Willingness to embrace opportunities

A willingness to embrace new ideas and opportunities is a unique way to

approach your work. It is an important skill to become an innovative
leader, as it allows you to look for new opportunities and embrace the
chance to try them out. This willingness also allows you to see concepts
on a larger scale, rather than worrying about the details.

Empathy

The ability to empathize with others is an important skill across all

leadership styles, but in this application, the skill involves empathizing
with the end customer or the person who will benefit from the innovative
idea being developed. Looking for disconnects between the organization
and the target audience allows you to empathize with the audience
members' needs and identify ways to improve the offering to better
accommodate those needs.

Creative brainstorming

If you think back to your early educational days, you may remember
brainstorming ideas as a way to get creative and come up with new
concepts. The ability to continue to develop and apply this skill can
benefit you as an innovative leader. It is easy to get bogged down with
day-to-day tasks, so set aside some time each day to think creatively and
write down any ideas you might have. You may also consider making your
workplace more conducive to creativity by closing your inbox for several
hours each day or adding unique visual cues to the space.

Efficiency

Innovative leaders tend to be efficient workers and motivators, focusing

on getting things done.

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How to become an innovative leader

If you want to become an innovative leader and apply the concepts of this
leadership style to the team you manage, you can start by following a few
steps.

1. Be willing to keep learning

Continuous learning is important for all leaders, including innovative ones.

To be able to move a project forward and come up with creative concepts,
you need to have relevant knowledge and the willingness to continue to
learn about new ideas in your field.

20 Leadership Qualities that Make a Great Leader (With Tips)

Erin Wike

Updated February 17, 2023

Published January 30, 2019

Erin Wike is a career coach and lecturer at The University of Texas at

Austin and owner of Cafe Con Resume. Erin has over 14 years of
experience in advertising, public relations, nonprofits and higher
education, in addition to recruiting for many brands and small businesses.

Image description

Whether you're leading a team or a meeting, developing and owning

leadership skills can help you succeed at any stage in your career.
Leadership skills include a combination of soft and technical skills, such as
using your interpersonal skills to motivate your team or applying your
technical knowledge to solve problems and complete tasks. Learning
about the qualities of effective leaders can help you develop and apply
these skills in your workplace.

In this article, we discuss 20 qualities that make a leader great and offer
tips on how to improve yours.

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20 qualities of an effective leader

Here are 20 important qualities for effective leadership:

1. Accountability

Taking ownership of responsibilities and positive and negative outcomes is

key to effective leadership. Leaders should be able to take responsibility
for their team's work, as well as their own. This may involve apologizing
for mistakes and developing new systems and processes to avoid errors in
the future.

2. Active listening

Successful leaders should be able to give, but also receive feedback from
team members and listen. To actively listen, a leader can listen to the
words being spoken but also understand the meaning behind them. You
can practice active listening by minimizing distractions when having
conversations, showing interest by using non-verbal cues and
summarizing the speaker's words to show your understanding.

3. Collaboration

Often, leaders need to collaborate internally across departments and

externally with vendors, third-party companies and contractors. It's
important that they know how to find common goals and create
partnerships for the most successful and mutually beneficial outcome.
Good collaboration often involves prioritizing communication between
parties to ensure your goals align and all participants understand your
expectations.

4. Courage

Effective leaders should have the courage to do what is in the best

interest of the team and company at all times. There may be times when
leaders need to make unpopular or difficult decisions, so having courage

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can help them accept the difficulty of their role and make necessary
decisions with confidence.

Additionally, leaders may need courage to pursue new challenges. You

can show courage by accepting more responsibilities or pushing yourself
to gain new skills.

5. Communication

Communicating in an articulate and positive style creates a clear path for

the rest of the team, project or meeting you are leading to follow. Good
communication skills include listening effectively to the needs and
expectations of others while also expressing your own. When you
communicate well with your team, it helps them understand your
expectations and goals. Additionally, your team members may feel
comfortable expressing their interests and concerns to you.

6. Empathy

Leaders need to understand how the people around them feel about
projects, decisions, morale, direction and company or team vision. Strong
leaders show empathy by recognizing and considering their employees'
feelings.

Having empathy for your team members means identifying their struggles
and showing understanding toward them. When you show care and
concern about your employees, it can help you develop stronger
professional relationships.

7. Flexibility

A flexible leader can adjust and maintain ownership of the team, project
or meeting as needed. They're open to new ideas and change as long as it
moves the team and company forward. Being flexible can help you adapt

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to changes in your workplace, project or stakeholders' expectations so
you can adjust your strategy for achieving goals.

8. Focus

A good leader sets a practical vision and suitable, achievable targets.

They know how to set SMART goals that are specific, measurable,
attainable, realistic and timely. Using the SMART goal framework can
establish a strong foundation for achieving success.

9. Growth mind-set

Leaders do well when they adopt a growth mind-set. Circumstances often

change from when a project, challenge or issue began. Leaders consider
that technology may have changed or personal issues may have arisen for
their team. If they can keep a growth mind-set and adapt, they can
overcome challenges to continue to make progress toward goals.

10. Eager to learn

Leaders are effective and inspirational when they stay knowledgeable of

trends and the topics they are leading. Not only does this help leaders
improve their skills and contribute to their purposes, but it also helps to
inspire the team to continue learning, too. For example, when you commit
to continuing your education or taking part in professional development
opportunities, it may motivate your team to invest in their own learning.

11. Innovation

Leaders often develop ideas, solve problems and complete tasks that
require innovation and creativity. They encourage creativity and
innovation in their teams through activities like brainstorming or
prototyping. Good leaders actively listen to their employees and motivate
them to think creatively or consider new perspectives.

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12. Optimism

Optimistic leaders show they believe their company is working toward a

better future. They value their team members' contributions to achieve
that goal. Effective leaders often plan ahead and maintain a positive
outlook through changes and transitions. Being positive during stressful or
adverse situations can help your team manage difficulties effectively.

13. Passion

Leaders can motivate their teams by demonstrating their passion in the

workplace. The team leader should be passionate about workplace goals,
creating unity among their team to work together. When you believe in
the value of your work, and you show your care for the work you do, it can
motivate and inspire the members of your team to engage with their
work.

14. Patience

Effective leaders know that mistakes, miscommunications and failures are

part of the workplace and that having patience can help their team
overcome workplace errors.

Patience involves understanding that mistakes can happen, accepting

mistakes when they happen and focusing your efforts on staying
productive. You may also show patience when helping employees learn
new roles and responsibilities since it can take time for those you
supervise to gain new skills.

15. Problem-solving

Developing problem-solving skills allows teams to move past challenges

with minimal disruption. Good leaders also make training a priority for
their employees, allowing them to develop skills to do their work and
minimize the potential for problems. Being able to identify problems and

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use critical thinking skills to resolve them is an important leadership
quality.

16. Resilience

Leaders are perceptive and know how to handle themselves in both

positive and potentially difficult situations. This might mean creating new
processes, hiring new people or changing the status quo. A resilient leader
focuses on the end result, avoids distractions and leads by example.

17. Respect

Effective leaders treat their teams with respect, which can help them gain
respect in return. They value feedback and want to hear the opinions of
their teammates. Effective leaders show their respect by empowering
their employees to make decisions and use their expertise to achieve
goals. Showing respect builds their sense of worth and commitment to the
organization.

18. Self-awareness

Successful leaders express the skills and knowledge required for a certain
role in an organization or a specialty. They know their abilities and
limitations and advocate for themselves based on their self-awareness.

Effective leaders make reflection a priority to understand their own

strengths and weaknesses. Based on their self-awareness, they can work
toward improving their abilities and applying their strengths to help their
team succeed.

19. Transparency

Being open and honest makes work more efficient and enjoyable. Good
leaders consider the consequences of their decisions and actions for both
teams and customers, setting a role model for employees to do the same.

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They ask for help when needed and provide honest and constructive
feedback.

20. Trust

Showing trust in your team can improve employee morale and motivation.
When you allow your team members to work autonomously, make their
own decisions and apply their skills and knowledge in the workplace, they
may feel more valued for their professional expertise.

To show trust in your team, involve them in decision-making processes

when possible and empower them to make choices in their roles. Invite
them to help define reasonable expectations for their role, set their own
goals and create processes that guide their efforts.

How to improve your leadership skills

Learning soft skills is not as straightforward as learning technical skills.

While it takes time and practice, developing qualities that make you a
great leader is possible. Here are a few tips for improving your leadership
skills and qualities:

1. Identify your leadership style

While you may use different leadership styles in different situations, it can
be helpful to define how you want to lead your team, projects or
meetings. Most professionals develop their own style of leadership based
on factors like experience and personality, as well as the unique needs of
their company and its organizational culture.

For example, leaders in some industries offer their teams more autonomy
than leaders in other industries. If you manage a team of creative
professionals at an advertising company, you may offer more employee
agency than the leader of an aerospace engineering team where technical
precision is key to success.

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2. Define areas of strength and areas for improvement

Take time to consider which qualities you already have and which offer
opportunities to improve. Asking for professional feedback from trusted
colleagues or mentors can help you identify strengths and weaknesses
you might have missed. Self-assessments can also help you learn how to
use those strengths and weaknesses to benefit yourself, your employees
and the workplace.

3. Find a mentor

Identify a person who you feel is a great leader and whose actions you'd
like to imitate. You might consider someone from your childhood who was
a role model for you, like a teacher, coach or band instructor.

Ask them to be your mentor or find someone in an area that interests you.
Use the opportunity to learn from them and adopt the qualities that make
them effective. You can find mentors in your community through friends
and family or even look up experts or alumni on professional networking
sites.

4. Be patient

Becoming an effective leader can take months, years or even decades.

Some people dedicate their entire lives to becoming successful leaders.
Be patient and allow yourself to make mistakes, learn from them and
improve over time.

Also, consider that you may be a different type of leader during various
phases of your life. You may be a president of an organization in college,
move into a volunteer position while working and then even lead your
child's school or hobby-related group.

2. Study innovative leaders

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Learning by example can help you identify some of the key traits of
successful innovative leaders and apply those traits in your own
leadership style. Look at leaders who have proven their success as
innovators and consider what they did differently.

3. Look for ways to improve upon current concepts

Some of the best innovative leaders have improved upon things that
already exist, rather than creating all-new concepts. Innovation is not the
same as invention, but rather a way to introduce a new idea to the world
in a way that has not yet been seen. In the previous example, we learn
that Steve Jobs did not invent the personal computer but rather changed
the way the product was shown to the end consumer and talked about it
differently.

4. Set manageable goals

Setting goals is an important aspect of successful leadership. You can set

goals for yourself and your team members, but these goals should be
clear, manageable and easy to understand. When setting goals, ask
yourself why the idea matters to the business or the consumer, as well as
what purpose the goal is working to achieve.

5. Find your passion

Passion is a key driver in success, so finding what you are passionate

about can help you become more successful in your professional career. It
is harder to remain motivated if financial gain is your only reason for
doing your job. Feeling passionate about what you do helps you achieve
greater fulfillment, which you can then pass on to those you lead.

6. Be willing to adapt

Change can be challenging for people across all industries, as it involves

adjusting a mindset and adapting to new ways of thinking and doing.
Becoming more willing to adapt to change and even push change forward

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can benefit you in your goal to lead by innovation. The entire concept of
innovation is built around change and creative thinking, so it is critical to
be open to change and the benefits that may come from adapting and
shifting existing processes.

7. Be persistent

Persistence is another shared trait of some of the most successful leaders

in history. You may fail before you achieve success, but what will set you
apart from others is your willingness to keep going and try again.

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