[Topic 8.
13
The Environment and Natural
Resources from 1968 to 1980
Industrial vomit . . . fills our skies and seas . . .
Our technological powers increase, but the side effects
and potential hazards also escalate.
Alvin Toffler, Future Shock, 1970
Ur
Learning Objective: Explain how and why policies related to the
environment developed and changed from 1968 to 1980.
The Progressive Era conservation movement was fairly small and led by
politicians such as Theodore Roosevelt. In contrast, the modern environmental
movement had widespread popular support. Some conservation measures,
however, were driven by world events such as oil shortages and high prices.
Origins of the Environmental Movement
In the 1950s and 1960s, three bolo ists h l
8 C pe dlarch the modern environs -
tal
movement. Through their writings and activism th CII
h . , > ey made issues such as
C erica pollution, nuclear fallout and o ulat`
' P P ion growth a public concern.
Rachel Carson Many historians mark the beginning f
America environmental
' 8 O the modern
movement with th C publication of bolo ist R
Carson's Silent Spring in 1962. Silent S r' . 8 achel
P ing explained the ne at'
environmental effects of DDT, a potent insecticid h 8 1V€
Am erican
` • C t
agriculture. Carson argued that unchecked ind t • at had been used '
IN
destroy animal life and ultimately h Oman life
' on earth Th' US rlal growth - would
f . - a - 1S best-selhn b k
arced Americans to question whether better livin h . 8 OO
- . gt rough chemistr "
the solution or the cause of the emerging environmental ° Y WaS
crisis.
Barry Commoner In the late 1950s Barr C
. . ' Y Ommoner and th
researchers began finding high levels of a cancer-causi O er
strontium-90, in children's teeth. It came from nuclear wng substance,
Commoner led the political fight to end such testify I capons tests.
. . g' N the Un't d
States, the Soviet Union, and other countries agreed to st . 1 C
op testing Wea O
aboveground. P 1'1S
Paul Ehrlich In his book 'Ihe Population Bomb (1
968), biologist P 1
Ehrlich argued that overpopulation was causing the WO id' - all
r S environmental
668 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP' EDMON
P roblem s. Th e most ffig
' h tening
' O f h'1S pre d'1ctlo
' ns , that starvation would
increase dramatically, did not come to pass. Increases in agriculture1
pro d uctlvlty
' an d antl'- poverty programs mo derated the effects of P 0 P ulation
growl h . However, h°IS b ook d'd1 spark a debate over how manY P eople the
earth could sustain.
Public Awareness
During the 19505, 1960s, and 1970s, several environmental disasters raised the
public awareness of damage to the environment caused by human behavior.
Media coverage of industrial disasters increased public questioning of the
benefits of industry and new technologies in what some called a "postmodern"
culture.
Environmental accidents reinforced the fears of the deadly combination of
human error and modern technology.
In 1954, the 23-man crew of the Japanese fishing vessel Lucky Dragon
was exposed to radioactive fallout from a hydrogen bomb test at Bikini
Atoll, a chain of islands in the Pacific Ocean.
» In 1969, an oil well blowout in Santa Barbara Bay spilled more than
200,000 gallons of oil into the ocean. The widespread pollution of the
California coastline forced the oil industry to reform its operations.
Also in 1969, Ohio's Cuyahoga River burst into flames from all the oil
and chemicals floating on the surface.
» In 1979, opinion also turned against building additional nuclear
power plants after an accident at the Three Mile Island power plant in
Pennsylvania.
Such events convlnced many Americas that the United States had serious
environmental problems.
Earth Day The first Earth Day in 1970 reflected the nation's growing
concerns over air and water pollution and the destruction of the natural
environment, including wildlife. In New York City, 100,000 people showed
their support for protecting the earth. Organizers estimated that 1,500 colleges
and 10,000 schools took part in Earth Day. Time magazine estimated that about
20 million Americans participated in some activity related to the event. The
popularity of the environmental movement grew after 1970 and became an
important political issue.
Pictures from Space The Apollo crew's first photographs of Earth from
space in 1968 also raised awareness of humanity's home. These images portrayed
a relatively small and fragile planet in the vast lifeless vacuum of space. The
photograph, named "Earthrise," and variations of it, became iconic images for
the environmental movement. They helped people around the world gain a
new perspectiveson the human condition and better understand their shared
but finite environment.
TOPIC 8.13 THE ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES FROM 1968 TO 1980 669
Source: Bill Anders, NASA
Environmental Activists The environmental movement grew and
gained strength by the late 1960s. For example, membership in the Sierra
Club expanded from 123,000 in 1960 to 819,000 in 1970. Building on the
organization and tactics of the civil rights and antiwar movements, thousands
of citizens, especially middle-class youth, men, and women, joined the
environmental movement. During the 19705, mainstream environmental
organizations, such as the National Audubon Society, the Environmental
Defense Fund, the National Wildlife Federation, the National Resources
Defense Council, the National Parks Conservation Association, and the Sierra
Club, established sophisticated operations in Washington, D.C. These groups
served a watchdog function, monitoring whether environmental regulations
were properly enforced by federal agencies. They hired lobbyists to advocate
for environmental legislation, lawyers to enforce environmental standards in
the courts, and scientists to help determine when new regulations were needed.
Government Environmental Protection
While the federal government was slow to develop environmental protection
legislation, the state of California became a leader in auto emissions standards
by mandating that engine gases be recycled to cut back on the pollution and
smog choldng its large cities. Congress had passed some air and water quality
legislation during the postwar period but often left regulation and enforcement
to the individual states.
In the 1960s, President Lyndon Johnson (1963-1969) signed almost 300
conservation and beautification bills, supported by more than $12 billion
in authorized funds. The most significant was the Wilderness Act, which
permanently set aside certain federal lands from commercial economic
development in order to preserve them in their natural state. The federal
government also took a new interest in controlling pollution.
During the Nixon administration, protecting the environment was a
bipartisan issue, and the administration worked with a Democratic majority
in Congress. President Nixon recognized the power of a popular movement
670 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP' EDITION
and over the next few years proposed an ambitious program, including the
Environmental Protection Agency, the foundation of the nation's modern
environmental protection system.
Environmental Protection Agency To enforce federal regulations,
Nixon created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970. An
independent federal agency, the EPA was given responsibility for regulating
and enforcing federal programs and policies on air and water pollution,
radiation issues, pesticides, and solid waste. The agency began with a staff of
8,000 and a budget of $455 million, but by 1981 it had a staff of nearly 13,000
and a budget of $1.35 billion. Enforcing environmental regulations proved to
be a difficult and complex task, particularly as new legislation gave the agency
more responsibilities.
Clean Air and Water During the 19705, the federal government took
over responsibility for clean air and water. Growing concerns about the
environmental and economic impact of polluted air and water came from
growing cities as well as rural areas. The Clean Air Act of 1970 regulated air
emissions from both stationary and mobile sources and authorized the EPA to
set standards to protect public health by regulating emissions of hazardous air
pollutants.
Other legislation followed, including the Marine Protection, Research,
and Sanctuaries Act of 1972; the Safe Drinldng Water Act (1974); the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (1976); the Water Pollution Control Act
Amendments of 1977, which became known as the Clean Water Act; and the
Superfund Act (1980) to clean up tonic waste from former industrial sites.
Wildlife Protection The Endangered Species Act of 1973 was created
to protect critically imperiled species such as the American bald eagle
I from extinction as a "consequence of economic growth and development
untempered by adequate concern and conservation » The Endangered Species
Act was created to also protect the ecosystems upon which wildlife depend. The
habitat of wildlife became the source of contention between preservationists
and land developers and industries. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 was
called "the Magna Carta of the environmental movement."
The Oil Embargo and Fuel Economy As a result of the 1973 Yom Kippur
War (Topic 8.7), the Arab members of the Organization ofPetroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC) placed an embargo on oil sold to Israel's supporters, which
included the United States. This caused a worldwide oil shortage and long lines
at American gas pumps. In response, Congress reduced speed limits to save
gasoline. And consumers switched from big American-made gas guzzlers to
smaller, more fUel-efficient cars imported from Japan. In 1975 Congress first
enacted standards for fuel economy, which resulted in more fuel-efhcient
American cars. More fuel-ellicient cars meant fewer harmful emissions,
bolstering the regulation of tailpipe emissions that was part of the Clean Air
Act of 1970 and helping to reduce the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that
scientists blame for climate change.
TOPIC 8.13 THE ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES FROM 1968 TO 1980 671
. ew .
Antinuclear Movement Antinuclear protests gr out . of the
1 O
environmental movement, peaking in the 1 970s and 1980s. Publlc op1nlon
d
aS
tat the
. . . . . 1 OWCI' plants after the accl en
turned agalnst bulldlng addltlonal nu ear p . . OIlC€Ill1S
. . 1 ma Besldes . the growing d. C actrve
Three Mlle Island power plant in Pennsy va .
over the safety of nuclear power plants, t h C 1 sue of disposal of the ra h10 I°€ for
waste became a ma]or issue, as it nee d e d to be safely stored so mew C
t delayed construction or
many generations. The antinuclear mover en N 1 al
l
halted commitments to bulld new nu ear P lents 3 and pressured the . LIC €f
. .
Regulatory Commlsslon to enforce and strength e n the safety regulations or
nuclear power plants.
Backlash to Environmental Regulations
In the 1980s, President Ronald Reagan songht tO curtail the scope 44 of
environmental protection. For example, by 1984 the EPAs budget was cut by
percent, and the number of enforcement cases sub m1tted to the EPA declined
. by1
56 percent. It turned out that the 1970s were a high point in the environments l
movement as industrial and conservative groups fought back against federa
regulations.
REFLECT ON THE LEARNING OBJECTIVE
1. Explain how and why policies related to the environment developed and
changed from 1968 to 1980.
KEY TERMS BY THEME
Environmental Movement (GEO) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Rachel Carson Clean Air Act
Silent Spring Clean Water Act
Paul Ehrlich Superfund Act
The Population Bomb Endangered Species Act
Three Mile Island emissions
Earth Day greenhouse gases
"Earthrise" climate change
Wilderness Act antinuclear movement
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Questions 1-2 refer to the following excerpt.
"There was once a town in the heart of America where all life seemed to
live in harmony with its surroundings. . . . Then a strange blight crept OV€I`
the area and everything began to change. Some evil spell had settled on the
community: mysterious maladies swept the flocks of chickens; the cattle
672 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP' EDITION
