Changes in Sensory Motor Behavior in Aging
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CHANGES IN SENSORY MOTOR
BEHAVIOR IN AGING
Edited by
Anne-Marie FERRANDEZ
CNRS URA 1166
Universit( de la M(diterran~e
Marseille, France
Normand TEASDALE
Laboratoire de Performance Motrice Humaine
Universit~ Laval
Quebec, Canada
1996
ELSEVIER
Amsterdam - Lausanne - New York - Oxford - Shannon - Tokyo
NORTH- HOLLAND
ELSEVIER SCIENCE B.V.
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9 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
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Preface
For the last two or three decades, studies on aging processes and age-
related changes in behavior have been expanding considerably, probably
due to the dramatic changes observed in the demographics. This in-
crease in the overall age and proportion of elderly people has heightened
the severity of problems related to the safety and well-being of elderly
persons in everyday life. Many researchers working on motor control
have thus focused more intensely on the effects of age on motor comrol.
This new avenue of research has led to programs for alleviating or
delaying the specific sensory-motor limitations encoumered by the
elderly (falls for example) in an attempt to make elderly people more
autonomous.
The aggregation of studies from differem perspectives is often
fascinating, especially when the same field can serve as a common
ground between researchers. Nearly all contributors to this book work
on sensory-motor aging; they represent a large range of affiliations and
backgrounds including psychology, neurobiology, cognitive sciences,
kinesiology, neuropsychology, neuropharmacology, motor performance,
physical therapy, exercise science, and human development.
Addressing age-related behavioral changes can also furnish some
crucial reflections in the debate about motor coordination: aging is the
product of both maturational and environmental processes, and studies
on aging must determine how the intricate imerrelationships between
these processes evolve. The study of aging allows us to determine how
compensatory mechanisms, operating on different subsystems and each
aging at its own rate, compensate for biological degenerations and
changing external demands. This book should contribute to demonstrat-
ing that the study of the aging process raises important theoretical
questions.
In this book, some models of aging in motor control are presemed.
Greene and Williams, through a dynamic-system perspective, describe
changes in coordination with aging. They focus mainly on how aging
affects the coordination of movements with multiple degrees of free-
dom. They speculate on underlying neural mechanisms and non-neural
comrol parameters which could account for contradictory evidence of
both reduced and maintained coordination across the adult life span.
According to this theory, aging may be viewed as a non-linear, thermo-
dynamic process in which constraints are altered in ways that affect
behavioral stability and the ability to cope with environmental demands.
Jiinicke and Coper discuss some areas of gerontological research on the
vi
basis of animal experiments: they endeavor to assess the possibilities,
limits, and validity of animal tests for evaluating age-related changes in
sensory-motor behavior. Studies on animals make it possible to system-
atically clarify the functional association of a sensory-motor behavior
that diminishes with chronological age, and the delay in the reduction of
performance due to physical training.
Many of the studies in this book are at least partially devoted to the
control of balance and locomotion (Ferrandez, Durup, and Farioli;
Greene and Williams; Hay; Hill and Vandervoort; Lajoie, Teasdale,
Bard, and Fleury; Patla, Prentice, and Gobbi; Tang and Woollacott).
This topic seems to have been a general trend for about fifteen years:
researchers focus more and more on the coordination of multi-degree of
freedom actions, rather than on unilateral and uniarticular movements.
Moreover, this question is of particular interest in research on aging,
insofar as inefficient control of balance and locomotion is often respon-
sible for falls, so frequent in the elderly, and can have dramatic conse-
quences on their autonomy.
Through various contributions, the book addresses the issue of
behavioral plasticity. It is well known that one characteristic feature of
aging is the loss of adaptability to environmental perturbations. J~inicke
and Coper, and Greene and Williams discuss the reduced age-related
ability to adapt. The general theme of adaptability is covered through
the study of compensation strategies to counteract disturbances in the
environment (Ferrandez, Durup, and Farioli; Hay; Patla, Prentice, and
Gobbi) and of cognitive regulations in static balance and locomotion
(Lajoie, Teasdale, Bard, and Fleury). The study of the effects of
practice or training (Brown; Tang and Woollacott) and of adaptation to
different levels of task complexity (Roy, Weir, and Leavitt) also shed
some light on age-related adaptive behavior and plasticity. The question
of how organisms (and especially humans) deal with the various degen-
erations that occur with increasing age is addressed by Brown, and by
Hill and Vandervoort. These two studies consider how elderly people
learn to cope with deficits in the motor system (cerebellar degeneration,
or consequences of a stroke). One possible line of research consists of
exploring how best to optimize neuromuscular function at all ages.
Slowness in cognitive and sensory-motor processes is a major
characteristic of elderly people's behavior. This feature is highlighted in
nearly all of the chapters in the book. Salthouse and Earles and Amrhein
address the question of general or common factors contributing to age-
related slowing. Salthouse and Earles examine the influence of health
factors on the age-related slowing exhibited in simple measures of
sensory-motor and perceptual speed. This study certainly contributes to
vii
discriminating between general and localized factors in the age-related
slowing-down process. Amrhein supplies some new arguments to the
debate over cognitive and sensory-motor slowing (general-slowing pro-
ponents versus localized-slowing proponents), by analyzing a wide
range of data in tasks where reaction time and movement time have
been measured.
The majority of the studies presented here were conducted on a
healthy population. However, all researchers engaged in studies on
aging are necessarily confronted with the problem of discriminating
between pathological and physiological aging. Aging is accompanied by
ever-increasing vulnerability which makes elderly subjects more likely
to contract diseases and less able to resist. Because the probability of
illness increases with age, how can we define "healthy elderly"? Does
"normal aging" mean "free from disease" or "statistically normal"?
These questions cannot be answered.
An increasingly large number of studies on aging involve a wide
range of ages (from young adulthood or even childhood, to old elderly).
This procedure is highly suited to improving our understanding of
aging. Due to substantial interindividual differences, one needs both an
extended scale of ages and a great number of subjects to investigate
aging. Life-span studies are certainly destined to become more and more
numerous. Considering the aging process as a part of the life-span
development process is probably the most successful way to gain insight
into the links between changes in age, vulnerability, and adaptation.
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
ix
Acknowledgements
We are indebted to many individuals who helped us make this book a
reality.
First, of course, we thank the contributing authors for their hard
work and excellent chapters, and for their patience. They never com-
plained when referees asked them to rewrite complete sections or do
additional data processing. They always answered quickly when asked
to provide better quality figures.
We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Richard A. Abrams,
Christine Assaiante, James E. Birren, Pierre. B. Boucher, John Cerella,
John Dobbs, Sylvia Dobbs, Pertti Era, Michelle Fleury, Yves Girouard,
Noreen Goggin, JiJrgen Harting, Donald K. Ingram, Brian E. Maki,
Jean Massion, Theo Mulder, Hajime Nakagawa, Jim G. Phillips, Jay
Pratt, Ilari Pyykk6, Gregor Sch6ner, Albert B. Schultz, Deborah J.
Serrien, Ann Shumway-Cook, Waneen W. Spirduso, Siegfried Stoll,
Stephan Swinnen, Amy E. Tyler, and Carole P. Winstein, who
reviewed the manuscripts.
We also thank Vivian E. Waltz for revising the preface and the
chapters written by non-English speakers. She never failed to consider
the emergency of the situation and gave this job priority each time.
Last, but not the least, we warmly thank Franqoise Joubaud, manag-
ing editor of Current Psychology of Cognition, and Revue de Neuropsy-
chologie. Since the contract called for delivery to the publisher of
camera-ready copy, in a real sense, the printer of this book was
Franqoise Joubaud. She carried out many of the required tasks with
constant diligence and professionalism. Her extended experience also
proved highly fruitful in contacts with authors and referees. This book
could definitely not have been achieved without her.
Anne-Marie Ferrandez and Normand Teasdale
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
xi
Contributors
Paul C. Amrhein
Department of Psychology, University of New Mexico, Logan Hall, Terrace
and Redondo Streets, NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, U.S.A.
Chantal Bard
Universit6 Laval, Laboratoire de Performance Motrice Humaine, PEPS,
Qu6bec, PQ G1K 7P4, Canada
Susan H. Brown
Center for Human Motor Research, Division of Kinesiology, University of
Michigan, 401 Washtenaw Avenue, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2214, U.S.A.
Helmut Coper
Free University of Berlin, Institute for Neuropsychopharmacology, Ulmenallee
30, 14050 Berlin, Germany
Madeleine Durup
Cognition et Mouvement, URA CNRS 1166, Universit6 de la M6diterran6e,
IBHOP, Traverse Charles Susini, 13388 Marseille Cedex 13, France
Julie L. Earles
Department of Psychology, Furman University, Greenville, SC 29613, U.S.A.
Farioli Fernand
CREPCO, URA CNRS 182, Universit6 de Provence, 13621 Aix-en-Provence
Cedex 1, France
Ferrandez Anne-Marie
Cognition et Mouvement, URA CNRS 1166, Universit6 de la M6diterran6e,
IBHOP, Traverse Charles Susini, 13388 Marseille Cedex 13, France
Michelle Fleury
Universit6 Laval, Laboratoire de Performance Motrice Humaine, PEPS,
Qu6bec, PQ G 1K 7P4, Canada
Lilian T. Gobbi
Neural Control Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, University of
Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
Laurence S. Greene
University of Colorado at Boulder, Department of Kinesiology, Boulder, CO
80309-0354, U.S.A.
Laurette Hay
Laboratoire de Neurobiologie Humaine, URA CNRS 372, Universit6 de
Provence, Avenue Escadrille Normandie-Niemen, 13397 Marseille Cedex 20,
France
Karen Hill
Group Health Centre, 240 McNabb Street, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario P6B 1Y5,
Canada
xii
Bernhard J~ticke
Free University of Berlin, Institute for Neuropsychopharmacology, Ulmenallee
30, 14050 Berlin, Germany
Yves Lajoie
Universit6 Laval, Laboratoire de Performance Motrice Humaine, PEPS,
Qu6bec, PQ G1K 7P4, Canada
Jack L. Leavitt
Department of Kinesiology, University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario N9B
3P4, Canada
Aftab E. Patla
Neural Control Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, University of
Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
Stephen D. Prentice
D6partement de Physiologie, Facult6 de M6decine, Universit6 de Montr6al
CP 6128, Succursale A, Montr6al, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
Eric A. Roy
Department of Kinesiology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L
3G 1, Canada
Timothy A. Salthouse
School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-
0170, U.S.A.
Pei-Fang Tang
Department of Exercise and Movement Science, and Institute of Neuroscience,
University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403-1240, U.S.A.
Normand Teasdale
Universit6 Laval, Laboratoire de Performance Motrice Humaine, PEPS,
Qu6bec, PQ G1K 7P4, Canada
Anthony A. Vandervoort
University of Western Ontario, Department of Physical Therapy, London,
Ontario N6G 1H1, Canada
Patricia L. Weir
Department of Kinesiology, University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario N9B
3P4, Canada
Harriett G. Williams
University of South Carolina, Department of Exercise Science, Columbia, SC
29208, U.S.A.
Marjorie H. Woollacott
Department of Exercise and Movement Science, and Institute of Neuroscience,
University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403-1240, U.S.A.
xiii
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements ix
Contributors xi
Age-related slowing in movement parameterization studies: Not
what you might think
Paul C. Amrhein
Control of simple arm movements in the elderly
Susan H. Brown 27
Slowness, variability, and modulations of gait in healthy elderly
Anne-Marie Ferrandez, Madeleine Durup, and Fernand Farioli 53
Aging and coordination from the dynamic pattern perspective
Laurence S. Greene and Harriet G. Williams 89
Posture control and muscle proprioception in the elderly
Laurette Hay 133
Posture and gait in healthy elderly individuals and survivors of
stroke
Karen M. Hill and Anthony A. Vandervoort 163
Tests in rodems for assessing sensorimotor performance during
aging
Bernhard J~nicke and Helmut Coper 201
Attentional demands for walking: Age-related changes
Yves Lajoie, Normand Teasdale, Chantal Bard,
and Michelle Fleury 235
Visual control of obstacle avoidance during locomotion: Strate-
gies in young children, young and older adults
Aflab E. Patla, Stephen D. Prentice, and Lilian T. Gobbi 257
xiv
Constraints on prehension: A framework for studying the
effects of aging
Eric A. Roy, Patricia L. Weir, and Jack L. Leavitt 279
Age, perceived health, and specific and nonspecific measures
of processing speed
Timothy A. Salthouse and Julie L. Earles 315
Balance control in older adults: Training effects on balance
control and the integration of balance control into walking
Pei-Fang Tang and Marjorie H. Woollacott 339
Author Index 369
Subject Index 383
Changes in sensory motor behavior in aging
A.-M. Ferrandez and N. Teasdale (Editors)
9 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
A G E - R E L A T E D SLOWING IN M O V E M E N T
P A R A M E T E R I Z A T I O N STUDIES:
NOT W H A T YOU MIGHT THINK
Paul C. AMRHEIN
University of New Mexico
Abstract
In this chapter, the nature of age-related slowing in speeded motor per-
formance is explored. In particular, experiments assessing movement
parameterization are reviewed. In these studies, specific movement pa-
rameters (e.g., arm, direction, extent) comprising a motor program are
assessed concerning their preparation, maintenance, restructuring and
execution within a movement plan. An advantage of movement parame-
terization studies is that they assess cognitive processing latency to
assess a movement response (reaction time, RT) distinct from the
latency to complete the movement response (movement time, MT). In
general, most speeded tasks assess both of these latencies in aggregate
(and refer to this aggregate latency as simply "RT"). As such, parame-
terization studies allow a test of prevailing response slowing theories of
aging using components of task performance. Separate "Brinley plot"
regressions of RT and Total Time (TT, TT - RT + MT) from these
studies reveals additive slowing, but nominal (if any) multiplicative
slowing. Moreover, the intercept difference between the best-fitting RT
and TT lines validates the additive impact of MT in these studies. Even
at a global level, these studies are inconsistent with claims of negligible
additive slowing (i.e., small positive or negative intercept), but substan-
Correspondence should be sent to Paul C. Amrhein, Department of Psychol-
ogy, University of New Mexico, Logan Hall, Terrace and Redondo Streets,
NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131, U.S.A. (e-mail:
[email protected]).
2 P.C. Amrhein
tial multiplicative slowing (slope approximating 2.0) for "nonlexical"
tasks espoused by General Slowing theorists (e.g., Lima, Myerson, &
Hale, 1991). In addition, review of the individual studies indicates what
the Brinley plot approach misses: Age Group x Condition interactions
from some of these studies actually indicate speed increases in elderly
relative to young subjects, due to apparent differences in parameter
preparation maintenance and restructuring processes for the two age
groups.
Key words: Aging, aimed movement, Brinley plot, movement time,
reaction time, slowing.
INTRODUCTION
One of the staple, if not classic, methodologies used to study the
effects of aging on human performance has been the reaction time (RT)
task (see, e.g., Salthouse, 1985; Welford, 1959, 1977; Spirduso &
MacRae, 1990). In particular, two reaction time tasks have been used
extensively: Simple reaction time (SRT) and choice reaction time
(CRT). Based, respectively, on Donders' (1869/1969) Type A and B
tasks, they provide a means to separately assess age effects on sensory-
motor and intervening cognitive processes (Dawson, 1988; Teichner &
Krebs, 1974). As such, they provide a useful way to assess at a process
level the pervasive response slowing seen in older persons (see
Botwinick, 1984; Goggin & Stelmach, 1990; Welford, 1977).
In the SRT task, a pre-specified stimulus is presented and the subject
responds with a pre-instructed response. (A variant of this task is where
the stimulus is presented but subjects respond upon a latent "GO"
signal; for example, see the delayed pronunciation task of Balota &
Duchek, 1988.) By knowing the stimulus and the response to it, subjects
are likely to prepare this response prior to actually receiving the stimu-
lus (or "GO" signal). In a typical CRT task, subjects respond to one of
a number of stimuli with a pre-instructed response unique to each poten-
tial stimulus. SRT and CRT tasks share perceptual and motor aspects in
their task demands; that is, in both tasks (excluding the latent "GO"
signal version), subjects must detect that a stimulus has been presented,
Age, slowing and motor control 3
and (including the latent "GO" signal version) the corresponding
response must be prepared and executed. What distinguishes SRT and
CRT tasks is the uncertainty concerning which stimulus is actually pre-
sented. Whereas there is no stimulus uncertainty for the SRT task, there
is for the CRT task. As numerous studies have reported over the years,
increases in this uncertainty yield corresponding increases in response
latency across the adult lifespan (see, e.g., Kausler, 1991; Salthouse,
1985; Welford, 1959, 1977).
Many motor performance tasks are built upon SRT and CRT task
methodologies. Indeed, SRT and CRT tasks typically require a manual
(i.e., aimed movement) response. In the SRT task, response parameters
(concerning which finger, hand, arm, foot or leg will be used) are pre-
pared by the subject prior to target stimulus onset (see e.g., Amrhein,
Stelmach, & Goggin, 1991). In the CRT task, by contrast, such prepa-
ration does not appear to occur (Amrhein et al., 1991; Klapp, Wyatt, &
Lingo, 1974). Thus, SRT and CRT tasks actually represent two
extremes on the scale of response preparation, and as such represent
useful reference points when studying movement plan preparation,
maintenance, restructuring and execution. While most SRT and CRT
studies have assessed response initiation (reaction time, RT) and execu-
tion (movement time, MT) in aggregate (but still refer to the data as
"RT" even though it might be better referred to as "Total Time", TT),
there have been some studies which have used RT/MT assessment.
Methodologically, what distinguishes the larger set of "RT" from the
smaller set of "RT/MT" studies is that subjects in the former set simply
press a target button upon stimulus response, often with little experi-
mental control over the initial resting location of their responding body
part, whereas in the latter set, upon stimulus presentation, subjects
release a button (often called a "Home button" or "Home key"), and
then move to press a target button. In the aging literature, these RT/MT
studies include: Amrhein et al. (1991), Amrhein, Von Dras, and
Anderson (1993), Clarkson (1978), Goggin, Stelmach, and Amrhein
(1989), Larish and Stelmach (1982), Spirduso (1975), Stelmach,
Amrhein, and Goggin (1988), Stelmach, Goggin, and Amrhein (1988),
Stelmach, Goggin, and Garcia-Colera (1987), Singleton (1954), Szafran
(1951), and Welford (1959, 1977). Generally, these studies have
revealed slower RTs and MTs for older (e.g., age range 50-87 years)
relative to younger (e.g., age range 18-31 years) individuals. However,
many of these studies failed to separate the role of visual guidance from
motor performance. That is, subjects in the other studies were allowed
to use vision to guide their movement responses. This is not a trivial
problem; there is a sizable literature which documents perceptual-motor
