OSI Model

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It was developed by ISO –

‘International Organization for Standardization’, in the year 1984. It is a 7-layer
architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform. All these 7
layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to another
across the globe.
Prerequisite: Basics of Computer Networking

What is OSI Model?

The OSI model, created in 1984 by ISO, is a reference framework that explains
the process of transmitting data between computers. It is divided into seven
layers that work together to carry out specialised network functions, allowing
for a more systematic approach to networking.
What are the 7 layers of the OSI Model?
The OSI model consists of seven abstraction layers arranged in a top-down
order:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
Physical Layer – Layer 1
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is
responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The
physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for
transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data, this
layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to
the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

• Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization

of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and
receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
• Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate
i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
 • Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh
topology.
• Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes
possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Note:
1. Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
2. Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known
as Lower Layers or Hardware Layers.

Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.
The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from
one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network,
it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC
address.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames
depending on the frame size of the NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also
encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution
Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the
destination host will reply with its MAC address.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

• Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way

for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the
receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to
the beginning and end of the frame.
 • Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds
physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in
the header of each frame.
• Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error
control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
• Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the
data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of
data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
• Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by
multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to
determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.

Note:
1. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.
2. Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and
device drivers of host machines.
3. Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

Network Layer – Layer 3

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other
located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of
the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available.
The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network
layer.

Functions of the Network Layer

• Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is

suitable from source to destination. This function of the network layer
is known as routing.
• Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork
uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The
sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely
and universally.
Note:
1. Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.
2. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers
and switches.

Transport Layer – Layer 4

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services
from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to
as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete
message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the
successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the
upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error
control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination
port numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network
Layer.
Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s
application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or
manually. For example, when a web application requests a web server, it
typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web
applications. Many applications have default ports assigned.
At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header
and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also
performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.

Functions of the Transport Layer

• Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from

the (session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each
of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The
transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
• Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct
process, the transport layer header includes a type of address called
service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this
address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered
to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
1. Connection-Oriented Service
2. Connectionless Service
1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
• Connection Establishment
• Data Transfer
• Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment,
back to the source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of
transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer.
In this type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a
packet. This approach allows for much faster communication between devices.
Connection-oriented service is more reliable than connectionless Service.
Note:
1. Data in the Transport Layer is called Segments.
 2. Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of
the OS and communicates with the Application Layer by making
system calls.
3. The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.
4. Device or Protocol Use : TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP

Session Layer – Layer 5

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of
sessions, and authentication, and also ensures security.

Functions of the Session Layer

• Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer

allows the two processes to establish, use and terminate a
connection.
• Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that
are considered synchronization points in the data. These
synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-
synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
• Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
Note:
1. All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a
single layer in the TCP/IP model as the ????pplication Layer”.
2. Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application
itself. These are also known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.
3. Device or Protocol Use : NetBIOS, PPTP.
for Example:-
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some
Messenger application running in his browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the
application layer which provides the user with an interface to create the data.
This message or so-called Data is compressed, encrypted (if any secure data),
and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.
 Communication in Session Layer

Presentation Layer – Layer 6

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the
application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format
to transmit over the network.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

• Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

• Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into
another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext
and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for
encrypting as well as decrypting data.
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be
transmitted on the network.
Note: Device or Protocol Use : JPEG, MPEG, GIF
Application Layer – Layer 7
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the
Application layer which is implemented by the network applications. These
applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network.
This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the
network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
Note: 1. The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
2. Device or Protocol Use : SMTP
Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of application layer are given below.

• Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
• FTAM- File transfer access and management : This application allows
a user to
access file in a remote host, retrieve files in remote host and manage
or
control files from a remote computer.
• Mail Services : Provide email service.
• Directory Services : This application provides distributed database
sources
and access for global information about various objects and services.
Note: OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the
Internet because of its late invention. The current model being used is the TCP/IP
model.

OSI Model in a Nutshell

Information
Layer Layer Form(Data Device or
No Name Responsibility Unit) Protocol

Helps in identifying the

Application
client and synchronizing Message SMTP
Layer
7 communication.

Data from the application

Presentation layer is extracted and JPEG,
Message
Layer manipulated in the required MPEG, GIF
6 format for transmission.

Establishes Connection,
Session Maintenance, Ensures
Message Gateway
Layer Authentication, and Ensures
5 security.
 Information
Layer Layer Form(Data Device or
No Name Responsibility Unit) Protocol

Take Service from Network

Transport
Layer and provide it to the Segment Firewall
Layer
4 Application Layer.

Transmission of data from

Network
one host to another, located Packet Router
Layer
3 in different networks.

Data Link Node to Node Delivery of Switch,

Frame
2 Layer Message. Bridge

Hub,
Establishing Physical
Physical Repeater,
Connections between Bits
Layer Modem,
Devices.
1 Cables

Routing
Routing is a process that is performed by layer 3 (or network layer) devices in
order to deliver the packet by choosing an optimal path from one network to
another.
Types of Routing
There are 3 types of routing that are described below.
1. Static Routing
Static routing is a process in which we have to manually add routes to the
routing table.
Advantages
• No routing overhead for the router CPU which means a cheaper
router can be used to do routing.
• It adds security because only an only administrator can allow routing
to particular networks only.
 • No bandwidth usage between routers.
Disadvantage
• For a large network, it is a hectic task for administrators to manually
add each route for the network in the routing table on each router.
• The administrator should have good knowledge of the topology. If a
new administrator comes, then he has to manually add each route so
he should have very good knowledge of the routes of the topology.
Configuration

R1 having IP address 172.16.10.6/30 on s0/0/1, 192.168.20.1/24 on fa0/0.

R2 having IP address 172.16.10.2/30 on s0/0/0, 192.168.10.1/24 on fa0/0.
R3 having IP address 172.16.10.5/30 on s0/1, 172.16.10.1/30 on s0/0,
10.10.10.1/24 on fa0/0.
Now because only static routes for router R3:
R3(config)#ip route 192.168.10.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.2
R3(config)#ip route 192.168.20.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.6
Here, provided the route for the 192.168.10.0 network where 192.168.10.0 is
its network I’d and 172.16.10.2 and 172.16.10.6 are the next-hop address.
Now, configuring for R2:
R2(config)#ip route 192.168.10.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.1
R2(config)#ip route 10.10.10.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.1
R2(config)#ip route 172.16.10.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.1
Similarly for R1:
R1(config)#ip route 192.168.20.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.5
R1(config)#ip route 10.10.10.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.5
R1(config)#ip route 172.16.10.0 255.255.255.0 172.16.10.5

2. Default Routing
This is the method where the router is configured to send all packets toward a
single router (next hop). It doesn’t matter to which network the packet
belongs, it is forwarded out to the router which is configured for default
routing. It is generally used with stub routers. A stub router is a router that has
only one route to reach all other networks.

Configuration: Using the same topology which we have used for static routing
before.

In this topology, R1 and R2 are stub routers so we can configure default

routing for both these routers.
Configuring default routing for R1:
R1(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 172.16.10.5
Now configuring default routing for R2:
R2(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 172.16.10.1
3. Dynamic Routing
Dynamic routing makes automatic adjustments of the routes according to the
current state of the route in the routing table. Dynamic routing uses protocols
to discover network destinations and the routes to reach
them. RIP and OSPF are the best examples of dynamic routing protocols.
Automatic adjustments will be made to reach the network destination if one
route goes down.
A dynamic protocol has the following features:
• The routers should have the same dynamic protocol running in order
to exchange routes.
• When a router finds a change in the topology then the router
advertises it to all other routers.
Advantages
• Easy to configure.
• More effective at selecting the best route to a destination remote
network and also for discovering remote networks.
Disadvantage
• Consumes more bandwidth for communicating with other neighbors.
• Less secure than static routing.

Difference between Static and Dynamic Routing

Both Static routing and Dynamic routing are the Types of Routing.
Static Routing:
Static Routing is also known as non-adaptive routing which doesn’t change
the routing table unless the network administrator changes or modifies them
manually. Static routing does not use complex routing algorithms and It
provides high or more security than dynamic routing.
 Dynamic Routing:
Dynamic routing is also known as adaptive routing which changes the routing
table according to the change in topology. Dynamic routing uses complex
routing algorithms and it does not provide high security like static routing.
When the network change(topology) occurs, it sends the message to the
router to ensure that changes then the routes are recalculated for sending
updated routing information.
 Difference between Static and Dynamic Routing:
S.NO Static Routing Dynamic Routing

In static routing routes are user- In dynamic routing, routes are updated
1.
defined. according to the topology.

Static routing does not use complex Dynamic routing uses complex routing
2.
routing algorithms. algorithms.

Static routing provides high or more

3. Dynamic routing provides less security.
security.

4. Static routing is manual. Dynamic routing is automated.

Static routing is implemented in Dynamic routing is implemented in large

5.
small networks. networks.

In static routing, additional In dynamic routing, additional resources

6.
resources are not required. are required.

In static routing, failure of the link In dynamic routing, failure of the link does
7.
disrupts the rerouting. not interrupt the rerouting.

Less Bandwidth is required in Static More Bandwidth is required in Dynamic

8.
Routing. Routing.

Static Routing is difficult to

9. Dynamic Routing is easy to configure.
configure.

Another name for static routing is Another name for dynamic routing is
10.
non-adaptive routing. adaptive routing.