MANAGEMENT TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 1
Training and development describes the formal, ongoing efforts that are made within
organizations to improve the performance and self-fulfillment of their employees through a
variety of educational methods and programmes. In the modern workplace, these efforts have
taken on a broad range of applications—from instruction in highly specific job skills to long-
term professional development. In recent years, training and development has emerged as a
formal business function, an integral element of strategy, and a recognized profession with
distinct theories and methodologies. More and more companies of all sizes have embraced
"continual learning" and other aspects of training and development as a means of promoting
employee growth and acquiring a highly skilled work force. In fact, the quality of employees
and the continual improvement of their skills and productivity through training are now widely
recognized as vital factors in ensuring the long-term success and profitability of small
businesses. "Create a corporate culture that supports continual learning," counseled Charlene
Marmer Solomon15 in Workforce. "Employees today must have access to continual training
of all types just to keep up.... If you don't actively stride against the momentum of skills
deficiency, you lose ground. If your workers stand still, your firm will lose the competency
race."

PHILOSOPHY OF TRAINING
According to S Chandra, management of the organization firmly believes that human
assets unlike other asset cannot be depreciated and must necessarily be appreciated over entire
tenure. Therefore training is regarded as investment and not a cost. Even long-term intangible
gains such as attitude change, are to be considered as valuable returns. Training is considered
as vehicle for effective communication and coordination. Training is catalytic in any man
management matrix for cohesiveness, compatibility, and cooperation in every organizational
endeavour.
Management proclaims Training & Development direction as permanent part & parcel
of operational process and not some experiment in isolation.
Management is fully committed to lend its total support to training tasks and is
dedicated through intense involvement in every phase of this activity.
CONCEPT OF TRAINING
It is about developing employees as an individual to make them capable and confident
in their jobs, and consequently in their life. Thus it is an organized process for increasing the

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knowledge and skill of the employees. Consequently it is a process aimed at changing the
behavior in such a way that the consequence would be useful for the upliftment of the
organization.
According to Wayne F Cascio, ―Training consists of planned programme designed to
improve performance at the individual, group, and /or organizational levels. Improved
performance, in turn, implies that there have been measurable changes in knowledge, skills
attitude, and/or social behaviour.
Training is considered as a tool for HRD. Training has immense potential in transfer
and utilization of latest technical know-how, leadership development, organization of people,
formation of self-help-groups, mobilization of people as well as resources, empowerment of
resource-poor rural mass, entrepreneurship development, etc., which are considered essential
components of HRD.
According to C B Memoria, ―Training is a process of learning a sequence of
programmed behavior. It is application of knowledge and it attempts to improve the
performance of employee on the current job and prepares them for the intended job. Training
is a short term process utilizing a systematic and organized procedure by which non managerial
personnel acquire technical knowledge and skills for a definite purpose. Training refers to
instructions in technical and mechanical operations, like operation of some
machine/equipment. Training is for a specific job related purpose.
Training is about developing people as an individual and helping them to become more
confident and competent in their lives and in their jobs. The learning process is at the core of
training and the ways of and opportunities for learning are numerous and varied.
CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT
Development is related to enhancing the conceptual skills of the employee, which helps
individual towards achieving maturity and self-actualization. In the words of Michael
Armstrong ― Employee development, often referred to as human resource development
(HRD) is about the provision of learning, development and training opportunities in order to
improve individual, team and organizational performance.
Development is defined by Alan Mumford 20 as an attempt to improve managerial
effectiveness through a planned and deliberate learning process. According to Bernard M Bass
& James A. Vaughan21 Development implies the nature and change induced among employees
through process of education and training. In the words of Harold Koontz and Cyril O. Donnel
Managerial development concerns the means by which a person cultivates those skills whose

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application will improve the efficiency and effectiveness with which the anticipated results of
a particular organizational segment are achieved.
In the field of human resource management, training and development is the field
concerned with organizational activity aimed at bettering the performance of individuals and
groups in organizational settings. It has been known by several names, including employee
development, human resource development and learning and development. Rosemary
Harrison.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT
According to Yoder although the terms ―training‖ and ―development‖ appear
synonymous, there is recognized difference between these concepts. Earlier training
programmes stressed preparation for an improved performance in largely specific rank and file
jobs. With growth of organizations several problems developed specifically at supervisory
level. Accordingly supervisory training programmes were launched enabling them to deal with
distinctive problems. During the training of the supervisors, the need for training of their bosses
appeared significant. Therefore, special developmental programmes for middle managers were
organized. Later on, the development programmes were started for top management as well.
These programmes indicated the significance of the concept of development, and thus training
appeared to be an improper designation for learning a wide variety of complex, difficult and
intangible functions of managerial personnel. Thus the concept training was degraded. As
managers themselves remarked ―training is for dogs, people are developed‖. Today, the terms
development and education are more suitable than the term training. It is not the training but
the full development of personality that enables the human resources to exert their full
potential. Accordingly training and development programmes are combined together for
developing skills as well as basic attitudes, leading to continued personal growth.
Distinction between Training & Development
TRAINING DEVELOPMENT
Vocationally oriented and on the job and A long term process for developing
so it is short term conceptual skills
It is generally for non managerial It is generally for managerial personnel
personnel
It is imparting of technical and mechanical It is theoretical and conceptual idea
knowledge implementation.
It is related with specific job It is aimed at acquiring general knowledge

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 A mechanic who repairs generator better An engineer may not be better mechanic
than engineer is only trained but he has theoretical and conceptual skill
as well as knowledge of principles of
engineering

Learning Dimensions Training Development

Who Non managerial Personnel Managerial Personnel
What Technical & Mechanical Conceptual ideas
Why For Specific jobs For a variety of jobs
When Short term Long term

As Michael Armstrong observes, ―Employee development, often referred to as human

resource development (HRD) is about the provision of learning, development and training
opportunities in order to improve individual team and organizational performance‖ Efforts are
made to develop employee so that they achieve their full potential for growth. Employee
development programme include learning, education and training. Learning relates to a
relatively enduring change in behavior taking place as a consequence of practice or experience.
Education refers to development of the knowledge required for varied activities of life rather
than for one particular activity. Training is planned and systematic change behavior through
learning. Training enables employees to accomplish the level of knowledge, skills and
competence to perform their job well.
NEED FOR TRAINING
As Price has observed, a training need exists when there is a gap between the present
performance of an employee or group of employees, and the desired performance. Growing
business performance is a journey, not an end. The success of business operations depends
upon the ups and downs of the employee performances. Hence, the HR managers started
looking for the methods to boost the performance and efficiency of its workforce to carry out
the work today, and to train them for meeting tomorrow's goals. Training programmes were
developed many years ago, but now-a-days, it has become a crucial factor in companies with
certain objectives in mind. Training and development practices should boost up performance
and develop the skills, knowledge and expertise of the employees.
The vital objective of training is to build-up right ability and capability in the labor
force so that they can perform to meet the needs, wants and expected returns of the employers.

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The need for Training may generally arise for the following-
 To improve the efficiency of employees
 To reduce wastage of time and money,
 To have quality output,
 To bring down supervision,
 To have preventive maintenance,
 To achieve optimum performance,
 To boost morale of employees,
 To prepare workforce for future challenging work,
 To reduce absenteeism,
 To bring down the grievances,
 To build career by personal growth.
TRAINING OBJECTIVES
According to Saiyadain , the objectives of training differ according to the employees
belonging to different level of organizations. The basic objective of training, however, is to
establish a match between man and his job. This training is designated to improve the
knowledge, skills and attitude and thus, equip the individual to be more effective in his present
job or prepare him for future assignment. However individual‘s growth should not be taken as
an end. From this point of view of an organization, individual‘s growth is a means to
organizational effectiveness. The principal objective of training and development division is to
make sure the availability of a skilled and willing workforce to an organization. In addition to
that, there are four other objectives: Individual, Organizational, Functional, and Societal.
Individual Objectives –
They help employees in achieving their personal goals, which in turn, enhances the
individual contribution to an organization.
Organizational Objectives –
They assist the organization with its primary objective by bringing individual effectiveness.
Functional Objectives –
They maintain the department‘s contribution at a level suitable to the organization‘s needs.
Societal Objectives –
They ensure that an organization is ethically and socially responsible to the needs and
challenges of the society.
Following can be briefly summarized as training objectives.

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  To create constant awareness in the minds of all sections of employees of the mission
of the industry, its objective and goals.
 To encourage self-development to achieve organization goals with a sense of belonging
and commitment to organization and thereby ensuring development of a proper work
 ethos in the Industry and fostering of team spirit.
 To identify the training needs of the entire personnel in industry in keeping with the
corporate plans and in consultation with the user departments.
 To impart knowledge and skills necessary for performing the job efficiently and
effectively and to keep the employees to acquire necessary conceptual, technical,
human and managerial skills in the areas of decision-making and problem-solving.
 To make available in adequate number sufficiently trained manpower to meet the
diverse needs of a rapidly growing industry.
 To organize special training programmes to improve employment opportunities as well
as career prospects of persons belonging to SC/ST, minorities, handicapped, ex-
servicemen, etc.
 To organize training activities as aids to:
o Career Planning and growth
o Succession planning.
 To educate and equip the employees to respond to the expectations of customers, and
to accept responsibilities to attain a sense of achievement.
 To achieve effectiveness of training through tapping the in-house training facilities as
well as sources available externally in a balanced manner so as to develop internal
faculty support at all levels and disciplines.
 To promote research and development activities and to establish linkages with the
operational front.
EMPLOYEE TRAINING PROGRAM
An employee training program is an initiative led by an organization’s HR and talent
department to upskill or reskill employees. A vital part of the broader employee experience,
training programs allow employees to develop new skills or refine existing ones to boost
productivity and performance. These opportunities can also be a great way to help an employee
transition to a new position.
When designed effectively, training programs benefit both organizations and
employees. For organizations, well-executed training can lead to improved employee retention,

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increased sales, and greater profitability. Training also fosters stronger camaraderie among
colleagues, contributing to a more cohesive work environment.
Employees who undergo a successful training program often get recognized through
promotions or rewards and feel higher job satisfaction. They also gain increased confidence in
their roles, enhanced career prospects, and a greater sense of accomplishment, all of which
contribute to their overall engagement and motivation at work.
STEPS INVOLVED TO CREATE AN EFFECTIVE TRAINING PROGRAMME:
Training programs can have different outcomes, and the key to success often lies in
thoughtful planning and a clear strategy. Well-planned programs are more likely to achieve
positive results for both the organization and its employees.
Creating an effective training program, like everything else in the business world,
requires having a vision, setting clear goals, and following through.
Here are a few steps to start implementing a training program that will last and
succeed.
1. Assess Training Needs
The first step in developing a training program is identifying and assessing needs. A
needs assessment helps you determine which teams or employees need training, what training
they need, and the best ways to deliver it.
Employee training needs may already be established in the organization’s strategic,
human resources, or individual development plans. However, if you’re building the training
program from scratch (without predetermined objectives), you must first assess which areas to
focus on.
There are several critical steps involved in assessing your organization’s training needs.
Begin by conducting a thorough assessment of the organization’s training needs. Identify skills
gaps, job-specific requirements, and areas for improvement. Gather input from employees,
supervisors, and HR professionals to determine the training priorities.
Here are a few questions you can start by asking:
 What areas in the organization will benefit from training right now?
 What problems are you trying to solve with the training?
 Who will benefit most from training?
Data points you can look at to answer these questions include CSAT surveys, employee
performance reviews, sales goals vs. achievement, employee engagement surveys, and exit
surveys. These data points touch on most organizations’ primary areas of concern: customer

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satisfaction, profitability, and employee experience. Once you have determined your current
needs, it becomes easier to set your training objectives.
2. Set organizational training objectives
The training needs assessment (organizational, task & individual) will identify gaps in
your current training initiatives and employee skill sets/knowledge. These gaps should be
analyzed, prioritized, and turned into the organization’s training objectives.
A training objective should:
 Clearly state the purpose and expected outcome of the training.
 Employ the parameters of the SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant,
and Time-Bound) methodology.
 Align with the company’s broader objective and contribute to it.
 Offer different options for hybrid, in-person, and online programs.
 Identify additional barriers to training. E.g., Do employees need time off to take
training?
Remember, any training program aims to set the employee up for success. Establish clear
and measurable objectives for the training program. Define what skills and knowledge
employees should acquire and outline the expected outcomes. These objectives will serve as a
roadmap for designing the training content.
3. Create a Training Action Plan
The next step is to create a comprehensive action plan that includes learning theories,
instructional design, content, materials, and other training elements.
Design Engaging and Relevant Training Modules
Start by designing relevant training modules that are engaging and aligned with
organizational goals. Incorporate various instructional methods, such as workshops, e-learning
platforms, and on-the-job training, to cater to diverse learning styles. By tailoring the content
and delivery to the needs of the employees, you can maximize engagement and knowledge
retention.
Assess and Allocate Resources
Next, assess the resources required to implement the training program effectively. This
includes identifying trainers, developing training materials, securing technology tools, and
arranging appropriate facilities. Proper resource allocation and budgeting are crucial to
delivering a high-quality, seamless training experience.

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Create a Training Timeline
Create a timeline that outlines the sequence and duration of each training module.
Consider factors such as employee availability, work schedules, and organizational priorities
to ensure smooth integration into daily operations. Clearly communicating this timeline to
employees and stakeholders helps manage expectations and ensures everyone is on the same
page.
Pilot and Gather Feedback
Many companies pilot their initiatives and gather feedback to make adjustments before
launching the program company-wide. This allows organizations to identify potential issues,
refine the content, and optimize delivery methods. Incorporating feedback early on ensures the
program is more effective when fully implemented.
4. Implement Training Initiatives
The implementation phase is where the training program comes to life. Program
implementation should consider:
 Timeline: Ensure the training schedule aligns with organizational priorities and
employee availability to avoid disruptions.
 Employee engagement: Develop strategies to keep employees motivated and engaged
throughout the training process, such as interactive sessions, quizzes, or gamified
elements.
 Learning Key Performance Indicator (KPIs) goals: Establish KPIs to measure the
effectiveness of the training and ensure that learning objectives are being met.
 Related resources (Facilities, Equipment, etc.): Verify that all necessary resources,
including training facilities, equipment, and technology, are available and functioning
properly to support the training activities.
Participant progress should be monitored during training to ensure the program is
effective.
5. Evaluate and Revise Training
The last segment mentions that the training program should be continually monitored.
Ultimately, the entire program should be evaluated to determine if it was successful and met
training objectives. Assess the effectiveness of each training module through learning
evaluations like Explorance Metrics that Matter (MTM). MTM offers best-practice KPIs,
Smartsheet evaluations, and measurement strategies, as well as the world’s largest validated
source of learning effectiveness benchmarks.

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 The training program or action plan can be revised or reassessed if objectives or
expectations are not met.
EMPLOYEE TRAINING METHODS AND TECHNIQUES:
Employee training methods refer to the various approaches and techniques used to
develop employees’ skills, knowledge, and competencies. These methods are designed to
enhance performance, improve efficiency, and promote career growth within the organization.
Employee training methods encompass a range of L&D strategies, from traditional
classroom-based training to modern technology-driven approaches. The choice of training
methods depends on factors such as the nature of the content, the learning objectives, the target
audience, available resources, and the organization’s goals.
1. E-Learning
As the corporate world embraced hybrid work environments, eLearning became the
most recognized employee training method for organizations. E-Learning (also known as
online learning) refers to delivering educational content through online platforms. It often
involves multimedia elements like videos, quizzes, interactive modules, and downloadable
resources. Learners can access the material at any time, which promotes self-paced learning.
Modern organizations leverage corporate learning management systems (LMS) to
create online training courses, manage learning content, distribute training, and assess
performance. eLearning is ideal for managing mandatory compliance training, onboarding new
employees, and knowledge-based training where consistent content delivery is essential.
Advantages of eLearning
 Scalability: Organizations can deliver training to many employees across different
locations simultaneously.
 Consistency: All learners receive the same content and experience.
 Flexibility: Employees can learn at their own pace, anytime, anywhere.
 Cost-Effective: Reduces the costs associated with travel, printed materials, and
classroom facilities.
Disadvantages of eLearning
 Lack of Engagement: Learners may lose interest if the content isn’t interactive or
compelling.
 Technological Barriers: Employees may face issues with internet connectivity or access
to devices.
 Self-Motivation: Employees must be self-disciplined to complete the courses without
direct supervision.

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2. On-the-Job training
On-the-job training enables employees’ active participation by allowing them to learn
on the hob or in the flow of work. The end goal of on-the-job training is faster task mastery or
accelerated time-to-proficiency through learning by doing exercises and real-life scenarios.
On-the-job training embraces the 70-20-10 rule of learning, which states:
 70% of learning comes from real experiences.
 20% from social interaction.
 10% from traditional learning sessions, like instructor-led or classroom-style learning.
On-the-job training is ideal for sales teams, manufacturing jobs, technical roles, call
centers, and customer service positions. On-the-job training may include mentorships, job
coaching or shadowing, and hands-on training exercises.
Advantages of on-the-job learning
 Immediate Application: Employees apply new skills in real-time, accelerating learning.
 Low Cost: Minimal formal resources are required since the training happens on-site.
 Feedback: Learners receive direct feedback from supervisors, allowing for real-time
adjustments.
 Learning in the Flow of Work: Employees learn new skills without disrupting their
daily routines and productivity.
 Personalization: Facilitates personalized training by allowing employees to focus on
the skills most relevant to their job.
Disadvantages of on-the-job training
 Inconsistent Learning: The quality of training can vary depending on the mentor’s skills
or time availability.
 Mistakes in a Real-World Environment: Errors can lead to costly consequences or
safety issues in high-risk industries.
 Limited Scope: Training may be limited to immediate tasks without broader context or
theoretical knowledge.
 Lack of Interaction: This can be less productive for employees who prefer face-to-face
interaction or guidance.
3. Instructor-led learning
Instructor-led training is a traditional type of training where an instructor or subject
matter expert leads a group of employees through the training content in person or virtually.
Instructor-led training (ILT) can be delivered in face-to-face learning experiences like
classrooms or workshops, or via online experiences like webinars. It allows interaction,

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discussions, and immediate responses to questions. Instructor-led learning is ideal for
leadership training, regulatory compliance, technical skills training, and team-building
exercises.
Advantages of instructor-led training
 Interactive: Allows for discussions, questions, and personalized guidance.
 Immediate Feedback: Instructors can clarify doubts and adjust teaching methods in real-
time.
 Structured Learning: Follows a planned syllabus, ensuring comprehensive topic
coverage.
Disadvantages of instructor-led training
 Time consuming: Requires scheduling sessions, which can interrupt work routines.
 Resource Intensive: High costs for training facilitators, venues, and materials,
especially for large groups.
 Geographical Constraints: In-person training may be difficult for remote or distributed
teams.
4. Role-playing learning
Role-playing is a highly interactive training technique where employees act out
scenarios they might encounter. It focuses on developing soft skills such as communication,
conflict resolution, and decision-making by placing employees in real-world situations to
practice responses. Role-playing is ideal for sales, customer service training, call center
training, leadership training, conflict resolution, negotiation, and teamwork skills.
Advantages of role-playing
 Builds Confidence: Employees can practice new skills in a low-risk environment.
 Improves Communication: Participants learn how to communicate and collaborate in
real-time.
 Problem Solving: Promotes critical thinking by making participants solve complex
situations.
Disadvantages of role-playing
 Engagement: Not everyone is comfortable with role-playing scenarios; this can affect
performance.
 Limited Realism: Scenarios may not fully replicate actual job challenges, limiting the
realism of the training.
 Time Consuming: Role-playing exercises can be time-intensive and challenging to
scale for large teams.

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5. Coaching
Job coaching involves an experienced professional, like a supervisor, mentor, or
experienced team member, coaching an employee on specific job tasks and responsibilities.
This on-the-job learning method can be implemented in person or virtually using coaching
software, making it ideal for both in-office and remote workforces. Coaching is also ideal for
leadership development, employee development, performance improvement, and succession
planning.
Advantages of job coaching
 Personalized: Tailored to the individual needs of each employee.
 Ongoing Feedback: Continuous feedback and adjustments ensure long-term growth.
 Goal Oriented: Focuses on achieving specific, measurable outcomes.
Disadvantages of job coaching
 Resource Intensive: Requires dedicated time and attention from both coaches and
trainees.
 Coach Skill Levels: The effectiveness of coaching depends on the coach’s skill and
expertise, which can vary.
 Scalability: Difficult to implement across large organizations due to the personalized
nature of the method.
6. Simulation training
Simulation training is an effective training method that involves realistic, immersive
replications of real-life work processes or scenarios. This hands-on, experiential technique
allows individuals to learn or practice different skills and decision-making procedures in a zero-
risk environment before applying them in real life. Simulation training is ideal for aviation,
healthcare, emergency response, customer service, and technical operations.
Advantages of simulated training
 Problem-Solving Skills: Builds problem-solving and critical thinking skills under
pressure.
 Risk-Free Environment: Employees can make mistakes and learn from them without
real-world consequences.
 Enhanced Retention: Hands-on simulation leads to better retention of knowledge and
skills.
 Real-World Application: Simulates complex situations where employees can practice
their responses.

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Disadvantages of simulated training
 High Costs: Developing and maintaining simulation environments can be expensive.
 Technology Barriers: Some employees may need help to adapt to simulation tools or
VR technology.
 Limited Access: Simulations might only be available for some job roles, especially
those with limited tech-based aspects.
7. Collaborative training
Collaborative training involves learning through teamwork and shared experiences.
Employees work together to solve problems, complete tasks, or discuss ideas. The collaborative
learning approach encourages knowledge sharing and mutual learning. Collaborative training
is ideal for team-building exercises, innovation workshops, problem-solving, and
brainstorming sessions.
Advantages of collaborative training
 Reduced Costs: When training is conducted in groups, it reduces time investment and
costs.
 Team Building: Fosters collaboration and teamwork.
 Diverse Perspectives: Employees learn from each other’s experiences.
 Engagement: Interactive and engaging, promoting higher retention rates.
 Knowledge Retention: When employees discuss concepts with each other, they solidify
their understanding and are more likely to remember the information.
Disadvantages of collaborative training
 Group Dynamics: Ineffective collaboration due to group conflicts or uneven
contributions can reduce effectiveness.
 Time-Consuming: Requires significant coordination and time to complete group
activities.
 Difficult to Manage: Training outcomes vary widely based on group chemistry and
dynamics.
8. Video training
Video training delivers educational content through video, either live or pre-recorded.
It includes tutorials, explainer videos, or recorded webinars that employees can watch at their
convenience. Creating training videos enables employees to digest information in an easy-to-
understand format that is easier to retain and that employees can go back and watch at any time.
Video training is ideal for product training and tutorials, compliance training, employee
onboarding, and soft skills development.

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Advantages of video training
 ROI: Video training is a one-time cost associated with video production that can be
used until your processes become outdated.
 Retention: Videos provide better knowledge retention, employee engagement, and
learner attention than basic text documents or traditional classroom seminars.
 Visual Learning: Great for visual learners and those who prefer multimedia content.
 Scalable: Easily accessible to employees across different locations.
 Engaging: High-quality visuals and sound can make content more engaging than text-
based materials.
 Measure Effectiveness: Your video hosting providers give you access to different
training metrics to track and measure training effectiveness.
Disadvantages of video training
 Passive Learning: This may not encourage active engagement or critical thinking.
 Limited Customization: Pre-recorded content cannot be tailored to individual needs or
questions.
 Technical Issues: Requires reliable internet and devices for smooth viewing.
9. Cross-training
Cross-training is a training method in which an employee learns how to perform another
employee’s role while performing the role they were hired for. This concept aims to help
employees boost their existing skills and become more flexible resources for the organization.
Not only does this create a more skilled employee, but it also encourages your workforce to
explore other opportunities throughout the organization, driving internal mobility. Cross-
training is ideal for manufacturing, retail, customer service, and team-based environments.
Advantages of cross-training
 Increases Flexibility: Employees can step into various roles, reducing operational
disruptions.
 Enhances Employee Skills: Helps employees develop broader skills and knowledge.
 Improves Collaboration: Employees better understand their colleagues’ roles,
improving teamwork.
Disadvantages of cross-training
 Risk of Overburdening: Employees may become overwhelmed if expected to take on
too many additional responsibilities.
 Shallow Learning: Employees may not gain deep expertise in any one area, leading to
competence gaps.

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  Resistance: Employees may resist learning tasks outside of their core job functions.
10. Job shadowing
Job shadowing allows employees to follow and observe other professionals working in
different job functions to gain insight into their work area. It is also implemented to allow less
experienced individuals to work alongside experienced professionals to sharpen their skills
from those who have already mastered them. Job shadowing is ideal for career development,
leadership training, and role transitions.
Advantages of job shadowing
 Relationship building: This approach builds strong relationships between new hires and
tenured employees.
 Real-World Experience: Provides first-hand insight into specific roles or
responsibilities.
 Career Development: Helps employees prepare for promotions or role changes.
 Low-Cost: Minimal resources are required since learning happens in real time.
Disadvantages of job shadowing
 Limited Interaction: Learning is passive, as the employee observes rather than does.
 Not Always Scalable: Difficult to implement across many roles simultaneously.
 Dependence on Mentor Availability: Scheduling can be challenging depending on
mentor availability.
11. Case studies
With the case study method, employees are presented with a real or fictional complex
situation to analyze and use as a reference for their solutions. While cases vary in complexity
and detail, trainees must be given enough data and information to analyze the situation and
devise solutions. Case studies are ideal for leadership training, strategy development, and
problem-solving exercises.
Advantages of case studies
 Critical thinking: Encourages analysis and problem-solving in real-world contexts.
 Collaborative Learning: Promotes teamwork and sharing of different perspectives.
 Real-World Relevance: Ties theory to practical, applicable situations.
Disadvantages of case studies
 Time-Consuming: Case studies require significant time to prepare and discuss.
 Subjective Outcomes: May lead to different solutions that could be difficult to evaluate
equally.

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  Not Suitable for all Learners: Some employees may struggle to relate case studies to
their specific roles.
12. Spaced learning
Spaced learning breaks down extended team member training programs into several sessions
or modules of shorter durations, with spaced intervals in between. Parts of these sessions are
reintroduced multiple times over the next few days or weeks for learners to recall information,
driving long-term knowledge retention. Spaced learning is ideal for skill-building, compliance
training, and technical knowledge.
Advantages of spaced learning
 Improved Retention: Reinforces learning through repetition over time.
 Low Cognitive Load: Breaking content into small chunks makes it easier to digest.
 Efficient: Short sessions make it easier for busy employees to participate.
Disadvantages of spaced learning
 Longer Timeframe: Requires a longer commitment as learning is spaced out over time.
 Coordination Required: Scheduling and organizing repeated sessions can be logistically
challenging.
 Disengagement between Sessions: Learners may lose engagement or forget content
between spaced sessions.
13. Gamification
Gamification is a training method that incorporates gaming elements such as points and
badges into training courses. By leveraging psychology, gamified training engages learners and
makes them more willing to take on repetitive tasks despite the risk of failure. Gamification of
training has been shown to increase employee performance and the adoption of new software.
The gamification approach is ideal for sales training, compliance training, onboarding, and skill
development.
Advantages of gamified training
 Motivates Engagement: Using rewards, badges, and points boosts employee
involvement.
 Increases Retention: Active participation through challenges leads to higher retention.
 Encourages Competition: Healthy competition can drive employee performance and
learning outcomes.
Disadvantages of gamified training
 Cost of Development: Gamified training content can be expensive and time-consuming.

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  Risk of Distraction: Overemphasis on the game elements can distract from learning
objectives.
 Not Suitable for All: Some employees may respond poorly to competitive or game-like
environments.
14. Blended learning
Blended learning combines traditional face-to-face and eLearning to create a more
holistic, effective training system. It leverages the best in-person learning experiences (like
social learning and subject-matter-expert-led training lessons) with online learning (via LMS
courses, hands-on training experiences, etc.) to provide a comprehensive, multi-method
approach to learning and development. Blended learning is ideal for leadership
development, technical training, complex skills development, and employee on boarding.
Advantages of blended learning
 Best of Both Worlds: Combines eLearning’s flexibility with instructor-led training’s
interactivity.
 Customization: Allows for tailoring of content based on individual needs and learning
preferences.
 Flexible Scheduling: Employees can complete digital components at their own pace,
with in-person sessions complementing the learning.
Disadvantages of blended learning
 Coordination Required: Organizing both online and in-person components can be
logistically complex.
 Varied Engagement Levels: Employees may engage more with one format than the
other, affecting overall effectiveness.
 Resource-Intensive: Requires both digital platforms and live instructors, which can
increase costs.
15. Micro learning
Micro learning is an approach to learning new knowledge that breaks learning content
into small, bite-sized information modules. Smaller learning sessions provide all the
information necessary for learners to quickly achieve a specific training objective, making
microlearning valuable in business contexts. Microlearning is ideal for product knowledge,
compliance training, skill reinforcement, and time-sensitive learning.
Advantages of micro learning
 Easy to Digest: Short lessons ensure learners are not overwhelmed with too much
information.

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  Just-in-Time Learning: Employees can access training as needed, ensuring timely
application.
 High Retention: Microlearning’s minor, focused nature improves retention and recall.
 Convenient: Fits nicely into busy schedules, allowing learners to access content quickly
during spare moments.
 Interactive: Accommodates various learning styles through multimedia elements and
interactive formats.
Disadvantages of micro learning
 Lack of Depth: Microlearning may not be suitable for complex topics that require in-
depth exploration.
 Fragmentation: Learners may need help to connect fragmented lessons into a cohesive
whole.
 Frequent Updates: Content needs to be regularly updated to ensure relevance and
accuracy.
16. Adaptive learning
Adaptive learning uses AI and data analytics to deliver personalized learning
experiences. The system adjusts the content, difficulty, and learning pace based on the
individual’s performance, learning style, and progress. Adaptive learning is ideal for
continuous professional development, technical training, compliance, and personalized
learning needs.
Advantages of adaptive learning
 Personalized Learning: Tailors content to the learner’s specific needs and pace,
optimizing learning efficiency.
 Scalable: Adaptive learning platforms can cater to large groups while delivering
individualized experiences.
 Increased Engagement: Customized content keeps learners more engaged and invested
in their progress.
Disadvantages of adaptive learning
 High Initial Costs: Developing or purchasing adaptive learning platforms can be
expensive.
 Data Privacy Concerns: Collecting personal performance data requires stringent
privacy and security measures.
 Limited Availability: Adaptive learning tools are still developing and may not be
widely accessible across all industries.

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TRAINING AIDS:
Training aids are basically aids that can assist the trainer to make training better. Visual
training aids in a training programme are used for the following reasons:
 To put a point across with more effect
 Participants take more in - 70% of the information is gathered through seeing
 To maintain interest
 To give experience by watching
 Focus attention in one spot or place
 It’s a break from presenting
 Extensive preparation leads to a polished product and professionalism
 If you write points down, people feel listened to and it boosts their confidence
 To get participation
 They are tailored to needs
 They are transportable, convenient and fit into a schedule
 They keep you on track
 People can look at them independently
 People learn better if information is organized
 To model behaviour or skills
 To aid memory - provide a summary
 To stimulate discussion.
The choice of an aid is left at the trainer’s discretion and no absolute rules are laid down.
Aids however have to fulfil certain requirements and the following can be of use:
 Simple: Aids must be simple and contain only essential information. Too much
information can lead to confusion
 Realistic: The aid used must provide a realistic and truthful image of the subject under
discussion. If possible, the real article or a is always the best aid
 Accurate: Aids must be accurate and correct in every way. If details are presented
incorrectly, some attendants will remember the incorrect details despite the trainers
effort to correct them during the presentation
 Colourful: Charts, transparencies, diagrams and models must appear professional and
have an impact on the imagination of the person attending the course. Colour can be
used to highlight important details, and can enhance the appearance of the aid.

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  Manageable: Aids must be easy to manage and to remove and the presenter must be
capable of handling them
 Readable: Illegible writing is very disturbing and creates a negative attitude towards
the presentation
 Suitability: Aids must be suitable and in a good working condition. Training aids must
suit the topic or activity
 Cost effective: The cost of acquiring or manufacturing training aids must be reasonable
and affordable.
General advantages
Visual training aids have various advantages to the presenter and learner alike. Here are
a few of the advantages:
 Arousing Interest
Passive listening by the attendant results in a decrease in the ability to concentrate
and interest, while an aid which shows a specific item or activity can stimulate
interest and bring about the necessary changes in the learning situation
 Correct presentation of ideas
If a new thought, procedure, process, etc. is only communicated verbally, each
course attendant would translate it in terms of his own frame of reference which can
result in different perceptions. But with the use of a good aid, illustration or model,
the attendant can see exactly what the presenter is trying to describe and a uniform
image will be created.
 They hear and see
Aids sharpen the impressions made on attendants as well as the trainers presentation
of facts. They enhance, the learning process is enhanced because more senses are
used. More than 80% of the learning process takes place through the eyes and ears
and for that reason is it obviously more effective to use both the auditive and visual
senses in the training process.
 Aids expand the attendant’s experience
Through the use of models, slides, video recordings, etc a situation can be created
in the classroom that might have been outside the attendant’s frame of reference
 Time saving
A training aid can save time for both the presenter and the attendant. The visual
image eliminates confusion as well as unnecessary questions

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VISUAL AIDS
The following are some important visual aids.
1. Blackboard
Blackboards are the most widely used teaching-training aids and are mostly used by
trainers for writing down important points. It is either a black wooden board or a blackboard
on the wall of the training hall. Different types of chalks are used for highlighting various
points.
Advantages
i) It is inexpensive and more durable than other visual aids.
ii) It is easy to handle.
iii) It creates interest among the trainees.
Limitations
i) It is not suitable for illiterate learner.
ii) Complex problems cannot be explained effectively.
iii) It is not suitable for a large audience.
2. Charts
According to Dale (1954), a chart is “a visual symbol, summarizing or comparing or
contrasting or performing other helpful services in explaining subject matter”.
Charts are of the following types.
1) Table Charts: presents information in ordinary sequences.
2) Tree Chart: highlights the development or growth of a thing.
3) Flow Charts: lines, arrows, rectangles, etc. depict the organization, or structure of an
organization, institutions, etc.
4) ISO type Chart: a pictorial representation of statistics.
5) Pie Chart: a pie or a circle is divided into segments, each representing a percentage of the
whole.
The following points should be considered while using charts as aids in a teaching method.
i) Large, short, and neat heading.
ii) Complete and simple idea.
iii) Related to topic or comparison of two ideas.
iv) Support by other related aids.
v) Large enough to suit the size of the class.
Advantages
i) It is inexpensive and more durable than other visual aids.

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ii) It is easy to handle.
iii) It creates interest among the trainees.
Limitations
i) It is not suitable for large audience.
ii) It is more time consuming.
iii) Complex problems cannot be explained easily.
3. Flip Charts
Flip charts are a set of charts, where the pictorials are sequentially displayed to explain
a particular subject matter. While preparing a flip chart, the trainer has to keep following points
in mind.
i) The pictures and graphs should be clearly drawn.
ii) The sequence must be properly maintained.
iii) The main outcome of the chart must be written on the bottom.
iv) Chart paper must be used.
Advantages
i) It is inexpensive and more durable than other visual aids.
ii) It is easy to handle.
iii) It creates interest among the trainees.
Limitations
i) It is not suitable for large audience.
ii) It is more time consuming.
iii) Complex problems cannot be explained easily.
4. Filmstrips
A filmstrip is a series of still photographs, diagrams, drawing or letterings on a strip of
35 mm film. Perforated edges of the film fit over projector sprockets. Once adjusted to project,
the first frame, each succeeding image will be in focus and in proper position on the screen.
When audience participation is placed, projection can be placed at a speed suitable to the
trainers as well as to the trainees. From the 1940s to 1980s, filmstrips provided an easy and
inexpensive alternative to 16mm projector educational films, requiring very little storage space
and being very quick to rewind for the next use. Filmstrips were once commonly used by
educators but now they have been overtaken by newer and increasingly lower- cost full-motion
videocassettes and DVDs.

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Advantages
i) Filmstrips are light, easily stored and condense and give much information in a small
package.
ii) Film strips and filmstrip projectors are less costly than film projector.
iii) It makes teaching-training interesting.
iv) Most suitable for illiterate audience.
v) It is suitable for large audience.
Limitations
i) Costlier than visual aids like posters, charts, etc.
ii) Preparation of filmstrip requires technical skill.
iii) It depends on availability of electricity and, in case of load shedding, the method fails.
5. PowerPoint Presentations
Today, a number of training centres use PowerPoint presentations. At the outset, slides
are prepared on a computer and then displayed to an audience. Some of the points which must
be kept in mind while preparing PowerPoint presentations follow.
i) The slides need to be properly prepared in sequence.
ii) In case of power cut or computer trouble as a backup, the trainer must have lecture notes.
iii) Rehearsal of presentation is a must in order to identify and rectify any errors.
Advantages
i) The method is quite useful for large audience.
ii) The method is interesting and more subject-matter can be covered in a shorter time.
iii) Case studies pictorial can be scanned and shown on a PowerPoint presentation.
Limitations
i) It is more expensive than some other visual aids.
ii) It is less suitable for illiterate learner.
iii) It requires skill trainer having knowledge on power point presentation.
6. Overhead Projector (OHP)
Transparencies on a subject are prepared and displayed to participants through the
overhead projectors. Some of the guidelines to be kept in mind while using OHP follow.
i) The OHP need to be kept in a proper distance from the projecting screen and must not have
any technical fault.
ii) Transparencies should be carefully prepared and a transparency must not contain more than
20 to 25 words.
iv) Separate transparencies need to be used for graphs and pictures.

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Advantages
i) It makes teaching-training interesting.
ii) It enables trainers to impart more focused training.
iii) If presented properly, it makes teaching-training more systematic.
Limitations
i) It is not suitable for illiterate participants.
ii) It requires a trainer who is trained to use OHP equipment.
iii) It is costly as compared to other visual aids.
7. Posters
Posters are an important visual aid for teaching and training. Although through posters,
it is not possible to educate all aspects of a subject-matter, yet it can stimulate and enthuse
participants to learn about an idea and to get more and more information about the idea. The
trainer must collect posters on a subject matter from different places about different ideas and
display it before trainees in the teaching training programme. Some of the guidelines for the
effective use of posters are given below.
i) One poster should convey one single idea.
ii) The poster should be clear, colourful and attractive.
iii) The posters must be more pictorial and with less words.
iv) Appropriate use of poster can make teaching training effective.
v) Posters should be hung in places so that they are visible to the target audience.
vi) After use, the posters should be properly folded and kept in IEC (Information,
Education, and Communication) room.
Advantages
i) It makes teaching training interesting.
ii) It is appropriate for illiterate trainees and trainees with a low level of literacy.
iii) It reduces monotony in teaching-training programmes.
Limitations
i) It is more expensive than other visual training methods like charts, blackboard, etc.
ii) It is difficult to get pictures for all issues in a subject matter.
iii) A complex issue cannot be explained through poster.
8. Models
Models are prepared in different materials on specific aspects of a subject. It is used
particularly in teaching science topics. Teaching-training through models makes it interesting
and practical.

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Advantages
i) It makes teaching-training interesting and learner centred.
ii) It is useful for illiterate and less literate learners.
iii) It makes learning more practical.
Limitations
i) It is costly.
ii) It is not always easy to get model for all topics.
AUDIO AIDS
The record player, tape recorder, CD, MP3 and DVD players and radio are some of the
commonly used audio aids. These methods are usually not used in classroom situation. Trainees
are asked to listen to radio programmes related to a specific subject being broadcast either on
the national or regional channels.
Some aspects required to be given considerations are:
i) Encourage the trainees to listen to the radio programme regularly on the subject.
ii) Encourage them to correspond with the broadcasting station and express their views, needs
and opinions.
iii) Supply trainees with cassettes and encourage them to listen by using their cassette players.
Advantages
i) The learning is reinforced.
ii) Talks by specialists serve the educational purposes.
Limitations
i) Many people lack radio set.
ii) The audio players may not be available with all trainees.
iii) The audio quality is not always good.
AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS
An old Chinese proverb says, “If I hear, I forget; if I see, I remember; if I do, I know”.
This proverb amply supports the belief that hearing alone is not enough in the learning process.
One must see and do, along with the hearing in order to gain understanding. In recent years,
television is widely used in the teaching- training programme. The Educational Television
(ETV) has made teaching- training interesting and learner-centred. Kinder (1959) aptly
remarked, “Televisionhas literally captured the country. Its expansion has been much more
dramatic than that of radio or the automobile. It has become an important part of our way

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of life, so much so that it is difficult to say whether it is a luxury or a necessity.” Besides, its
use in the class-room situation, the broadcasting of group-discussion, talks and panel
discussions on different subject-matters has re-enforced learning. Crassiner (1960) said that
when television lessons are presented with imagination, students are stimulated to active
participation, in short when television teaching is at its best; it makes a distinct contribution to
the institutions. According to Tyler (1958) the use of television to educational institutions can
be classified as follows:
Total television teaching.
ii) Supplemented television teaching.
iii) Television supplementing classroom.
iv) Television as a teaching aids
Sinha (1961) told that, “audio-visual materials supply a concrete basis for conceptual
thinking; they give rise to meaningful concepts towards enriched by meaningful associates.
Hence, they offer the best antidote available for the disease of verbatim.”
Dale (1954) on the basis of his research work has highlighted the following advantages
of audio-visual materials.
 They supply a concrete basis for conceptual thinking and hence reduce meaningless
word responses of students.
 They make learning permanent.
 They offer a relativity of experience, which stimulates self-activity on the part of
pupils.
 They develop a continuity of thought; this is especially true of motion pictures.
 They contribute to growth of meaning and hence to vocabulary development.
 They provide experiences not easily secured by other materials and contribute to
the efficiency, depth and variety of learning.
Some of the guiding principles for the effective use of TV are given below.
 The TV programme should be shown after the lecture-discussion on the topic.
The trainees must be told about the contents to be shown in the TV.
 Discourage discussion during the running of TV programme.
 Keep TV in such a place so that every participant can comfortably see it.
 It is better, if a separate room is kept for audio-visual.
 Keep generator set ready, so that in case of load shading, the audio-visual
communication is not interrupted.

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  Initiate discussion after the end of the TV programme.
 Use of colour TV will make teaching-training interesting.
Advantages
i) It makes teaching-training interesting.
ii) It is more useful for illiterate and less literate trainees.
iii) Learning is reinforced.
Limitations
i) It is expensive.
ii) It is difficult to get TV cassettes on all issues.
iii) Its use is conditional on the availability of electricity or a generator.
LEARNING:
Generally, learning implies socialisation leading to the modification of behaviour.
However, it should not be considered that learning is concerned with positive aspects of change
only. One learns good and bad things both. That is why one possesses virtues as well as vices.
Learning changes the mode of thinking and imagination. Practice also brings change or
modification of behaviour. Therefore, practice is a means of learning. Learning occupies an
important place in life. It is through learning that man brings changes in his instincts that appear
difficult to be changed. Learning therefore provides key to the structure of our personality and
behaviour.
Meaning of Learning
As young infants, we learn to hold ourselves upright, to walk, and to use our hands.
Later, we learn to run, to play cricket etc. We learn to read, to write, and to memorise
information to help us to pass an examination. Thus, we can say that except the simple innate
reflex activities like eye-blinking, salivation, knee- jerking, sneezing, vomiting and coughing,
all other activities or behaviours are learned. Every aspect of human development is related to
learning. Various modes of behaviour of a person are the outcomes of his learning. Every form
of learning depends on maturation which enables one to learn. Learning is the basis of our
ability and individual differences. Some people learn more than others, hence it makes them
different from others.
Definitions of Learning
Various psychologists have defined learning in different ways. Some such definitions are given
below (Lakshmi, 2000):
 Skinner: “Learning is a process of progressive behaviour adaptation”.

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  Crow and Crow: “Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes. It
involves new ways of doing things and it operates in individuals’ attempt to overcome
obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It represents progressive changes in behaviour.
It enables him to satisfy interests to attain goal”.
 Woodworth: “The process of acquiring new knowledge and new responses is the
process of learning”.
 Gates and others: “Learning is the modification of behaviour through experience and
training”.
 H.J. Klausmeir: “Learning is a process whereby a change in behaviour results from
experience, activity, training, observation and the like”.
Nature of Learning:
As learning is the process of modification of behaviour, it implies cumulative
improvement which is arrived at as a result of various changes that take place while learning
is in progress. It is growth through experience and improvement in efficiency of adjustment as
a result of practice, insight, observation, imitation or conditioning. Learning involves in making
the right response and in continuing to make it to a certain situation. It is a purposeful and goal-
directed process. No good learning can take place unless the goal is clear and definite. The
activity involved is both physical and mental and is in response to a felt need from within.
However, learning is not an individual matter; all learning is social. It takes place in
response to the environment in which there are individuals and group patterns. We learn many
things as a result of our association with people in our family, in school and colleges, on the
play grounds, and in our profession. Much of our unintentional learning or incidental learning
is the product of social influences; even our attitudes are coloured by the group to which we
belong.
Principles of Learning
There are certain principles involved in the learning process. Some of them are
mentioned below:
i. Universal: Learning is not restricted to any particular age, sex, race, culture, time and
place etc. So, it is universal in nature.
ii. Continuous process: It is a never ending process that extends from womb to tomb.
It denotes the lifelong nature of learning.

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 iii. Development through learning: Woodworth rightly said “all activity can be called
learning so far as it develops the individual. Development is a never-ending process as
learning”.
iv. Dynamic and flexible in relation to real life situations: Learning is not a static
process, it is a dynamic phenomenon. The way of living and acquiring knowledge
differs from context to context and person to person, hence, there are several channels
of learning based on real-life situations.
v. As a means: Learning is directed to reach goals purposively; therefore, it is a means
to achieve an end and not an end in itself.
vi. Leads to adjustment: Learning helps an individual to adjust himself adequately to
the existing as well as new situations/ environment. Most of the time learning occurs
by modifying, adapting and developing behaviour.
vii. Result of practice: Learning is the basis of drill and practice, hence, it has been
proven that students learn best and retain information longer when they have
meaningful practice and repetition.
viii.Physical and mental maturity: To learn anything, physical and mental maturity
are necessary, otherwise, real learning may not occur.
ix. Transferable: Whatever is learned by the individual can be transferred to another
person with a positive or negative impact.
Theories of Learning
Several psychologists have tried to explain how and why the learning process takes
place. Abundant experiments have been conducted on animals and human beings. The
researchers have come to certain conclusions that have taken the form of theories of learning.
There are many theories explaining the modes of learning: 1. Trial and Error learning theories,
2. Classical learning theories, 3. Operant conditioning, 4. Cognitive learning theories, and 5.
Social learning theories, etc.
Conditioning Theory
The word ‘conditioning’ means the process of ‘training or getting used to’ or
‘accustoming to’ a new situation or a stimulus. It is a process of self-substituting, the original
stimulus substituted by a new one and connecting the response with it. There are two types of
conditioning: 1. Classical conditioning 2. Operant conditioning.

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i. Classical Conditioning Theory
E.L Thorndike and R.S Woodworth (1929) proposed Stimulus-Response (S-R) bond of
learning. According to theory, a stimulus is connected to its response. These bonds between S
R may be motor, perceptual, emotional, and conceptual and can be organised into systems.
Later, the behaviouristic theory of conditioned response was put forwarded by the
Russian psychologist Pavlov and is well known as Classical conditioning. Pavlov’s
experiments with a hungry dog led to the formulation of Conditioning Theory. Normally, a
hungry dog salivates when food is presented. He started his experiments by ringing bell every
time when food is presented. He repeated the same for a number of times. Finally, he rang the
bell without presenting food. Even then he found that the dog salivated, since the dog had
become conditioned to a response by salivating to the stimulus of the ringing bell.
Here a weaker stimulus (bell) is associated with a stronger stimulus (food).So the dog
is enabled to transfer the response connected with the stronger stimulus. With these
experiments, the terminology including conditioned stimulus (ringing bell), unconditioned
response (salivation) conditioned response (salivation in the absence of food) has been
introduced in learning. Pavlov’s research was limited to psycho-physical nature. For example,
a small child may touch a small kitten without any fear, but if anybody shouts every time the
child touches the kitten, gradually the child will be afraid to touch it.
Educational implications: The theory of conditioning does not explain all types of learning,
yet through this theory we can understand that repetition is of great value in learning things.
Drill is necessary, but it should also be meaningful and motivating. Importantly, distracting
and opposing influences should be eliminated during the process of learning.
ii. Operant Conditioning Theory
E. L Thorndike in his S-R theory notes that the responses or behaviours are weakened
or strengthened by the consequences of behaviours. This concept was refined by B.F Skinner
and his theory is known as Operant conditioning. Operant conditioning means strengthening
desirable behaviour by reinforcing it, and at the same time, discouraging undesirable behaviour.
Skinner did a lot of research on the principles of Operant conditioning. These principles have
been extensively used in research and in clinical and therapeutic settings. Basically, Skinner
used reinforcers for changing behaviour. He created a learning apparatus box called the Skinner
box. It is a rat box so designed in which every time when the rat moves towards the lever, it
receives a food pellet. Thus the movement of the rat towards the lever is trained by giving
reinforcement with food pellets. This idea of shaping a rat’s behaviour was extended for
shaping human behaviour. The key components in this experiment that are integral to achieving

31
the modification of behaviour are timing and consistency that act as effective reinforcers.
Skinner highlighted the importance of these factors in his experiment.
 Timing: The time between the response and the reinforcer should be minimal. If the
rat does not receive food pellet immediately after it moves towards lever, that behaviour
will not be repeated.
 Consistency: The rat moves towards lever only when it receives food pellet. The
reinforcement should be given after every response.
 Skinner developed the concepts of two kinds of reinforcers: 1. Primary reinforcers
which are innate and have not been learned (food, warmth, sexual gratification); and 2.
Secondary reinforcers stimuli which are provided externally. Further, B.F Skinner used
the terms ‘positive reinforcement’ (rewards) and ‘negative reinforcement’
(punishment) for shaping behaviour. Though shaping is commonly used to train
animals, it is also a useful learning tool in modifying human behaviour.
Educational implications: According to the theory of Operant conditioning, giving rewards
to students reinforces the students’ behaviour. A desirable behaviour can be sharpened by using
positive reinforcers.
iii. Cognitive Learning Theory
In the previous types of learning behaviour, learning has been explained in terms of the
association of stimuli and responses, but there are several human learning situations which do
not involve specific kinds of association between the stimulus and response or between
response and reinforcement. In the 1920s, German psychologist Wolfgang Kohler studied the
behaviour of apes. He designed certain simple experiments that led to the development of one
of the first cognitive theories of learning which is also called ‘insightful learning’.
Kohler’s Experiment: Kohler placed a chimpanzee (Sulthana) inside a cage with a
desirable piece of fruit, often a banana, out of reach outside the cage. To obtain the fruit, the
animal had to use a nearby object as a tool. Usually the chimpanzee solved the problem and
proved that it had some insight. The following description is typical: Sulthana is inside the cage
and it cannot reach the fruit, which lies outside, by means of his only available short stick. A
longer stick is deposited outside the cage, about two meters on one side of the object and
parallel with the grating. It cannot be grasped with the hand, but it can be pulled within reach
by means of the small stick. Sulthana tries to reach the fruit with the smaller of the two sticks.
Not succeeding, he tears a piece of wire from the netting of his cage, but that too is in vain.
Then he stares around. He suddenly picks up the little stick with the help of which he pulls the

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long stick. By using the long stick, he reaches the fruit. Kohler calls the cognitive processes
underlying Sulthana’s behaviour as insight, a sudden awareness of the relationship among
various elements that previously appeared to be independent of one another.
Certain aspects of the performance of chimpanzee are unlike those of Skinner’s rats.
For one thing, struck by the chimpanzee, the solution was sudden rather than the result of a
gradual trial and error process. Also Kohlers’s chimpanzee could readily transfer what it had
learned to a novel situation. For example, in one case, Sulthana was not put inside the cage but
some bananas were placed too high for him to reach. To solve the problem, Sulthana staked
some boxes strewn around him, climbed the platform and grabbed the bananas. It means
learning takes place or a problem is solved all-of-a-sudden rather than through trial and error.
Implications
• Learning is a purposeful and goal-oriented activity.
• Emphasis is given to the whole, generating the ‘Whole to Part’ maxims of
learning.
• It develops higher order thinking, reasoning and creativity among
learners.
• It evolves the attitude of problem solving.
iv. Social Learning Theory/ Observational Theory
The Social learning theory has been propounded by Albert Bandura. According to
Social learning theory, learning occurs through the social context. This theory suggests that a
learner’s social interactions with other knowledgeable persons affect his learning. It focuses on
attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation as factors of learning. Bandura in his
theory proposes that observation of others’ behaviour plays a leading role in learning. For
example, a child learns to show love, anger or sympathy by observing the behaviour of elders.
He also learns speaking, reading, and writing by observing his parents and teachers. After his
studies, Bandhura determined three salient models of observational learning:
1. Live model: It includes an actual person performing behaviour.
2. Verbal instructional model: It involves giving description of model behaviour
3. Symbolic model: It includes a real or fictional character demonstrating behaviour through
TV, books, online media etc.
Bandura explains that the following steps are usually involved in learning:
1) Attending and perceiving: Observation of a role model catches the attention of a child.
2) Remembering the behaviour: The child remembers the actions and styles.

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3) Converting the memory into actions: The child imitates the role model. A behaviour
observed and remembered by the learner is analysed in terms of its acceptability to the learner.
It gets transformed into action only afterwards and thus the observed relevant and accepted
aspects of the model’s behaviour are imitated by the learner.
4) Reinforcement of the imitated behaviour: The child tries to change himself into the role
of a model. The behaviour of the model imitated by the learner is reinforced for proper adoption
and further continuance. In this way, social learning through observations and modelling
proves to be an effective means of learning many things concerning one’s behaviour. The
impact of these observations is perceptible on his environment, expression of love, anger,
hatred, companionship, friendship or solitude which collectively expresses his mode of
observation and behaviour. All these reactions and responses depend upon what has been
observed, remembered, imitated and reinforced in the context of his experiences and models.
Implications
• Observational learning increases the knowledge of learners, retention and life skills.
• Various reinforcements and modelling can be used by teachers to increase the attention of
learners.
• The learners follow the teachers having positive behaviours as their role model.
• Clear distinction between behaviours and their consequences can effectively result in increase
in the desired behaviour and decrease in the undesired behaviour.

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 CHAPTER II
In workplace education and employee development, the role of training facilitators has
become increasingly vital. These skilled individuals bridge the gap between instructional
content and effective learning experiences, ensuring that learners grasp the material and apply
it in practical scenarios. As catalysts for interactive and engaging training sessions, facilitators
hold the power to transform mundane lessons into dynamic journeys of discovery.
TRAINING FACILITATOR
A training facilitator is responsible for developing and producing organizational
training programs. This role includes conducting training sessions, developing lesson plans,
providing support to learners, overseeing meeting logistics, and measuring the program’s
success.
Training facilitators work closely with organizational leaders responsible for L&D to
ensure that training outcomes align with overarching business goals and meet employees’
needs.
Types/Roles of Training Facilitators:
Effective training programs require facilitators to wear many hats and sometimes work
as part of a facilitation team. There are several key roles facilitators play in building an optimal
learning environment. Each of these roles may be taken on by an individual on a team, or they
may all be played by the main facilitator:
1. Coordinator
Coordinators handle some of the base-level administrative aspects of training. They
reserve meeting rooms, check ahead to make sure any necessary equipment or materials are
present and in order, handle any catering or refreshment orders, and communicate with learners
ahead of time to make sure everyone is prepared.
2. Documenter
Also called a Scribe, the documenter records notes throughout the training program and
oversees the management of documentation, note-taking, and archiving. The notes themselves
should not be verbatim meeting minutes. Rather, they should be neutral observations about
session outcomes, outputs, and inflection points. This careful oversight ensures that notes can
be reviewed later on to adapt and improve employee training programs.
Other duties of the documenter include setting up the software and tools used for
documentation, distributing the notes after training has ended, and managing documents
through review and archiving.

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3. Methodologist
The Methodologist, or meeting designer, develops the format of the training program.
They steer the training program by defining the agenda, asking questions during lulls, and
reworking the structure after analyzing program outcomes.
4. Facilitator
The facilitator’s role is the main session leader. This team member might have a hand
in duties covered by other types of facilitators, requiring them to be masters of time
management in addition to subject matter experts and skilled communicators. Some key
responsibilities of the session leader include ensuring equal participation opportunities for
learners, facilitating classroom discussions, keeping learners on track, and managing any other
facilitators.
Essential Skills and Qualities of Training Facilitators
Let’s look at some essential skills and qualities of training facilitators.
1. Subject matter expertise
At the core of corporate learning experiences is, of course, learning. For this reason,
facilitators who lead training programs need to have extensive knowledge about the topics they
teach. While they do have a wider set of responsibilities than traditional trainers, subject matter
expertise should be a top priority.
2. Strong communication and presentation skills
All the knowledge in the world can only go so far if session leaders lack the skills to
communicate properly. Training facilitators should be able to convey information in a way that
is accessible to employees with different needs and learning styles, and the leadership skills to
guide the entire group of learners through the program as a unit.
These skills allow facilitators to work efficiently and successfully with the L&D team to
develop the best possible program and to help employee learners absorb information.
3. Active listening and empathy
Effective training facilitators must be skilled at active listening and promoting a safe,
accessible learning environment. Being able to tap into the attitudes and feelings of learners in
the moment will keep learners comfortable, engaged, and eager to learn.
4. Flexibility and adaptability
Facilitation teams can do a thorough job of designing the structure and progression of
the training program, but once the session starts, things rarely go exactly as planned. Training
facilitators need to be prepared to re-energize fatigued learners, change course when roadblocks
arise, and handle disruptions from students and external sources.

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5. Facilitation techniques and classroom management
There are many tried and true techniques facilitators can utilize to shape their approach
to course design and classroom management. These techniques are often backed up by
academic research, practice, and analysis, so there is no need for facilitators to start from
scratch each time they produce a new training program.
6. Problem-solving and decision-making abilities
Training facilitators not only need to ascertain the attitudes and comfort levels of their
students but also use those deductions to solve problems and make decisions throughout the
training session. When things go off track, adept training facilitators use these skills to reroute
the course and renew the training environment.
Responsibilities of Training Facilitators
By now, it’s clear that training facilitators are not simply instructors or lecturers. They
are jack of all trades and masters of corporate learning processes and production. Facilitators
are responsible for building the learning environment from top to bottom. Responsibilities may
vary depending on the needs of different organizations, and all training facilitators are
responsible for several key tasks.
1. Developing training materials and courses
Training facilitators develop corporate learning programs from the ground up. This
entails establishing training objectives, drafting and overseeing the development of training
materials, and designing the structure of the overall course.
2. Delivering training sessions
After developing corporate learning programs, training facilitators must then bring their
work to life by delivering training sessions. During training, facilitators guide the experience
by disseminating knowledge, making in-the-moment suggestions, encouraging participation,
resolving conflict, and helping employees learn.
3. Assessing the effectiveness of training programs
With each training session, facilitators accumulate data and feedback they use to
continuously assess and improve the efficacy of their corporate learning program. They use
tools like learning assessments to ascertain which learners need additional coaching, and even
to look for trends that demonstrate the need for improving the curriculum.
4. Providing continuous support
Training facilitators must provide support for learners before, during, and after the
training session. Before the training, they must communicate clearly about the scope of the
program and make sure employees know what to expect. As the session is happening they field

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questions and provide assistance learners need to succeed. Once training is finished, they
provide additional support or resources as needed.
5. Providing constructive feedback and encouragement
Training facilitators must provide support for learners before, during, and after the
training session. Before the training, they must communicate clearly about the scope of the
program and make sure employees know what to expect. As the session is happening they field
questions and provide assistance learners need to succeed. Once training is finished, they
provide additional support or resources as needed.
Why Training Facilitators Are Essential For Enterprises
Here’s why training facilitators are essential for enterprises.
1. Remain competitive
As employees accumulate knowledge and skills, they become better equipped to do
their jobs. Investing in training facilitators for corporate learning ensures that as employees
attend training programs, they emerge with not only knowledge but the ability and support that
is necessary to excel in their roles and drive the organization forward.
2. Reduce employee turnover
The holistic training experience that training facilitators bring to corporate
training helps engage employees and lets them know the organization is committed to their
continued success. By providing positive learning experiences, ongoing support, and growth
opportunities, organizations create an environment that makes employees more likely to stay
and grow with the company.
3. Maintain training integrity
Training facilitators curate training programs from start to finish to churn out
competent, and engage employees with the skills they need to succeed. This bolsters the
integrity of corporate learning initiatives, ensuring that organizations see a higher return on
investment for L&D programs than with traditional training alone.
4. Provide inclusive learning environments
By keeping learners’ experiences at the forefront of program design and
implementation, training facilitators guarantee a more accessible and inclusive learning
environment. This promotes collaboration and engagement, contributing to a better overall
culture across the organization.
Training Operations:
L&D teams certainly want learners to learn, but could making their training operations
more efficient help drive better outcomes? Efficiency in business is certainly nothing new, and

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increasing efficiency in training operations can improve the experience for everyone. This
includes instructional designers and subject matter experts who build the course; employees
taking the course to acquire knowledge or improve skills; and even customers, who will benefit
from interactions with a more skilled staff.
For a guide on efficient training operations, it’s perhaps helpful to better understand
what actually comprises training operations.
People
The individuals responsible for developing and delivering learning experiences are
essential to training operations. These individuals might be full-time staff or part-time
contractors, as hybrid teams with varied employment statuses are the norm these days. Such
learning teams might include:
 Instructional designers
 Developers and technical staff
 Subject matter experts
 Project managers
 Managers from the business unit
The way team members, stakeholders, business partners, and subject matter experts interact
and collaborate is a key component of efficient training operations. As digital transformation
and remote or hybrid workforces become more prevalent, addressing how and where the L&D
function is structured and works together is critical to operational success.
Processes
Processes are also a cornerstone of training operations. These could include anything
from the length and frequency of team meetings, checklists for initiating course design,
feedback and scoring systems for learning assessments, and even training intake systems that
initiate the development of courses.
Traditional models such as ADDIE typically focus on instructional design processes,
but the improving the workflows of day-to-day administrative processes in the L&D
department can unlock untapped capacity within the team.
Technology
The backbone of all operational components in the L&D department is the stack of
technologies that employees use, not just to create and deploy learning solutions, but to manage
their workload, collaborate on projects, and more.

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Efficiency
L&D operations exist in every team, no matter how they are conducted or managed.
But assessing and upgrading their efficiency is fast becoming a prominent area of focus for the
function. As organizations expect more from learning and development and a strategic seat at
the table is claimed, ensuring L&D is a well-oiled machine across all people, processes, and
technology should be a top priority.
TRAINING NEEDS ASSESSMENT:
As with any process, having a solid foundation can help ensure success. A training
needs assessment lays the necessary groundwork for determining your organization's true need
and how your employees will best receive the required training.
A training needs assessment (TNA) is an assessment process that companies and other
organizations use to determine performance requirements and the knowledge, abilities and
skills that their employees need to achieve the requirements. There are three key areas that are
considered accurate assessors of those needs:
 Skill proficiency of employees
 Employees' frequency of skill usage
 Level of employees' skills crucial to job performance
One of the outputs of the training needs assessment is a list of who needs what kind of
training. For instance, company may find that the IT department is failing to keep up with the
industry standards and needs to undergo training that increases their knowledge about the latest
technological innovations. Or maybe the IT interns are coming on full-time and require
mentoring to become a competitive and productive part of the company. TNA aims to answer
some familiar questions: why, who, how, what and when. Here's a look at the descriptions of
the questions and what analysis can to answer them.
Why conduct the training: Organizations typically conducts training to tie the performance
problem to a working need and make sure that the benefits of carrying out the training are
greater than the problems. To answer this question, training facilitator have to conduct two
types of analysis: feasibility analysis and needs versus wants analysis.
Who is involved in the training: A training typically involves appropriate parties to solve the
performance problem. To determine the target participants for the training, training facilitator
have to conduct a target population analysis. This type of analysis allows training facilitator to
learn as much as possible about the people who are involved in the deficiency and how to tailor
a training program to engage them.
How to fix the performance problem: Conducting training can help fix the performance

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problem. But training facilitator have to look for another remediation if training is not
appropriate. To identify what skill deficiency to address, training facilitator must conduct a
performance analysis. This type of analysis investigates how the company or department is
performing as a whole.
What is the best way to perform: There is a preferred or better way to do a task to get the
best results. To identify the best way to perform, training facilitator must conduct a task
analysis. This type of analysis gets down to the fine details of exactly what employees are doing
in their individual roles.
When to conduct the training: Because holidays, work cycles, etc. affect the participants'
attendance at the training, training facilitator must determine the best timing to deliver training.
Training facilitator may conduct a context analysis to answer logistics questions. Context
analysis is a method to examine the environment in which a business operates.
Training needs assessment levels
There are three levels of training needs assessment. These include the following:
1. Organizational level
The training needs assessment at the organizational level is a macro-level assessment that helps
training facilitator determine areas where the employees lack the necessary skills or knowledge
and provide need-based training. It aims to answer the following questions:
 Where is training most needed?
 Is the training needed for a specific department or a group of employees?
 Why is the training program recommended as a solution to the current problem?
TNA at the organization level helps training facilitator to clearly define measurable
outcomes for training, allowing them to improve the chances of success of the training
program.
2. Operational level
At the operational level (also known as task or job level), TNA determines what kind of
training do employees need to achieve a specified level of proficiency. It involves task analysis,
which determines the knowledge and skills required for specific tasks and correlates these
requirements to the actual knowledge and skills of your employees. The gaps or problems
revealed in this analysis can be used to determine the kind of training your employees need.
TNA at the operational level aims to answer the following questions:
 How is the job performed?
 What are the performance standards for the job?
 What are the knowledge, skills and abilities needed to complete the job successfully?

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Some of the data sources that training facilitator can use to conduct TNA at the operational
level include the following:
 Job specifications
 Job description
 Work performance standards
 Information from small and midsized enterprises (SMEs)
 Analysis of operational problems
3. Individual level
At the individual or personal level, the TNA determines how each employee performs his
or her role. The difference between the actual performance and the expected performance helps
you determine if there is really a need for TNA at the individual level. TNA at the individual
level gives training facilitator a complete picture of your employees' performance and whether
their performance meets expected standards. TNA at this level aims to answer the following
questions:
 What is the expected performance?
 Do your employees possess the necessary knowledge and skills?
 What is the gap between the expected and actual performance?
 What impedes your employees to perform efficiently?
 What training program must be provided to your employees to meet expected
performance standards?
How to Conduct Training Needs Assessments:
There are four steps training facilitator should take to successfully conduct a training needs
assessment. These steps include the following:
1. Determine desired outcomes
2. Identify problems or specific points of pain
3. Determine desired knowledge, skills and behaviors
4. Set training timelines and priorities
5. Choose training needs assessments and formats
1. Determine desired outcomes
Determine where things are not working the way company need or want them to, and
what success in those areas would look like. To establish the metrics for success of the training
program, training facilitator have to meet with the team leads, supervisors, managers, directors
and other stakeholders. Once training facilitator have identified what your goals are, training
facilitator can easily determine the behaviors that must be changed in order to reach those goals.

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2. Identify problems or specific points of pain
The next step is to match your desired outcomes with the improvements in information,
actions and abilities that support them. To do so, training facilitator have to break down duties
and processes inherent to the outcomes so they can determine specific problems or points that
need to be addressed. There are a number of ways to identify areas that require improvement.
Here are some of the most common and effective:
Observation and assessment: This requires team leads, supervisors or managers to observe
employees in order to determine common areas of difficulty.
Surveys: This method requires training facilitator to ask employees about which areas they
would like more training, support and resources. They have to make sure, however, that they
write down their specific needs. Team-building or communication are such broad training
needs, as an example, that you would need to conduct another training needs assessment on
each of these topics. Some examples of specific training needs include how to resolve a
conflict, how to effectively and deeply listen to a co-worker or how to give feedback to
colleagues.
Data evaluation: This requires training facilitator to analyze HR records to determine if there
are common errors, issues or inconsistencies that the training can address. HR records can
include exit interviews, job competencies, job descriptions, performance evaluations, accident
and safety reports and other company records such as sales, cost and production records.
Individual interviews: Training facilitator may also interview your employees, supervisors
and clients to identify problems or gaps. If your company is providing safety training, for
instance, interviewing the employees who have experienced or witnessed an accident would be
advisable. Also, interviewing employees who have never had an accident could be useful in
developing a training program that includes safe practices and procedures. If the accidents
involved equipment, you may need to interview the company that serviced or manufactured
the equipment. The information you can gather from the interviews can help to identify gaps
that the company needs to address.
3. Determine desired knowledge, skills and behaviors
Once identifying the specific problems you need to address, training facilitator match
training topics to the identified skill gaps. To do so, they should first come up with a list of
knowledge, skills and competencies each trained employee needs to attain the established
objectives. Then, they must have a way to determine if training has been successful at the
individual level—the way to measure if the identified competencies and skills were achieved

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to the level required. These metrics for success are usually expressed as a series of learning
goals tailored to each problem and the desired business outcome.
4. Set training timelines and priorities
After determining the knowledge, skills or behaviors that employees must develop to
achieve established goals, it's now time to develop the full training agenda. To do so, training
facilitator must first determine the targeted end date for the initiative, and then rank priorities
for individual sessions and groups and put them on a schedule. Training facilitator should
determine priorities based on their urgency (how quickly company need to see results from
employees) and sequence (training that must occur before other training can happen).
5. Choose training needs assessments and formats
Now that L&D team knows who their target participants are, what training is necessary,
what your goals are and how quickly the training program needs to be complete, training
facilitator can choose how you want to administer the training. Some good options include
virtual or in-person instructor-led sessions, self-guided audio and video programs, computer-
based simulations and online training.
TRAINING MATRIX
An HR training matrix is a strategic tool in workforce management designed to track,
plan, and manage employee training and skill development in line with human capital
management best practices. Its primary goal is to identify training needs, monitor skill
acquisition progress, and ensure workforce competence in alignment with organizational
objectives.
Typically a grid or table, the matrix details employee information, required skills and
competencies, training status, and history. It aids in skill gap analysis, career development,
compliance tracking, and efficient resource allocation. Regular updates ensure it reflects
current training statuses and organizational changes, making it an essential instrument for HR
professionals, managers, and department heads in decision-making and assessment
of training programs.
Advantages and disadvantages of using a training matrix
Training matrices offer structured and strategic benefits for employee development and
organizational alignment, but they require careful management and adaptation to individual
and organizational needs to avoid pitfalls like rigidity, resource intensiveness, and potential
inaccuracies.

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Advantages
 Skill gap identification: Allows for easy detection of skill shortages within the
workforce, facilitating targeted training interventions.
 Project assignment efficiency: Aids in assigning the right employees to appropriate
projects based on their training needs and skills.
 Training schedule optimization: Enables planning of training schedules, ensuring all
employees have up-to-date knowledge and skills.
 Enhanced safety and quality: Promotes workplace safety and improves work quality
by ensuring employees are adequately trained for their tasks.
 Increased employee engagement and retention: Contributes to higher employee
satisfaction by providing clear career development opportunities and fostering a sense
of progress.
 Objective performance measurement: Facilitates transparent and measurable
performance goals linked to training outcomes.
Disadvantages
 Time-consuming to maintain: Requires regular updates and management, which can
be time-intensive, especially for larger organizations.
 Possibility of inaccuracies: Risk of inaccuracies in data, especially if not updated
regularly or managed properly.
 One-size-fits-all approach: May not account for individual learning styles or specific
job nuances, leading to a generalized approach to training.
 Potential overemphasis on formal training: Might lead to an overreliance on formal
training programs at the expense of on-the-job learning or informal learning
opportunities.
 Resource intensive: Implementation and upkeep can be resource-intensive, requiring
dedicated software or administrative support.
 Limited flexibility: Can become rigid, limiting the ability to quickly adapt to sudden
changes in skill requirements or organizational priorities.

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