Young Adult Mental Health
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Young Adult Mental Health
Edited by
Jon E. Grant
and
Marc N. Potenza
1
2010
1
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Young adult mental health / edited by Jon E. Grant & Marc N. Potenza.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-19-533271-1
1. Young adults—Mental health. 2. Adolescent psychiatry. I. Grant, Jon E.
II. Potenza, Marc N., 1965–
[DNLM: 1. Mental Disorders. 2. Mental Health. 3. Young Adult.
WM 140 Y68 2010]
RJ503.Y675 2010
616.8900835—dc22
2009001729
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper
Contents
Contributors vii
Introduction 3
Jon E. Grant & Marc N. Potenza
1. Development in the Transition to Adulthood: Vulnerabilities and Opportunities 5
Keith B. Burt & Ann S. Masten
2. Adolescence: On the Neural Path to Adulthood 19
Monique Ernst & Julie L. Fudge
3. Risk-Taking Behaviors across the Transition from Adolescence to Young Adulthood 40
Elizabeth K. Reynolds, Jessica F. Magidson, Linda C. Mayes & Carl W. Lejuez
4. Impact of Childhood Mental Health Problems 64
Leslie A. Hulvershorn, Craig A. Erickson & R. Andrew Chambers
5. College and Career 80
Jessica M. Cronce & William R. Corbin
6. Gender Issues: Modern Models of Young Male Resilient Mental Health 96
William S. Pollack
7. Cultural and Ethnic Considerations in Young Adult Mental Health 110
Declan T. Barry & Mark Beitel
8. Body Image 126
Jennifer L. Greenberg, Sherrie S. Delinsky, Hannah E. Reese, Ulrike Buhlmann &
Sabine Wilhelm
9. Coping with Stress and Trauma in Young Adulthood 143
Scott M. Hyman, Steven N. Gold & Rajita Sinha
10. Intimate Romantic Relationships in Young Adulthood: A Biodevelopmental Perspective 158
Beth A. Auslander & Susan L. Rosenthal
11. Marriage in Young Adulthood 169
Hui Liu, Sinikka Elliott & Debra J. Umberson
vi Contents
12. Developmental Pathways to Parenting 181
Thomas J. McMahon
13. Barriers to Mental Health Service Use in Young Adulthood 195
Deborah A. Perlick, Yariv Hofstein & Lesley A. Michael
14. Psychiatric Disorders in Young Adults: Depression Assessment and Treatment 206
Carlos A. Zarate, Jr.
15. Anxiety Disorders 231
Brian L. Odlaug, Waqar Mahmud, Andrew Goddard & Jon E. Grant
16. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder in Young Adults 255
Maria C. Mancebo, Jane Eisen & Steven A. Rasmussen
17. Tobacco Use and Nicotine Dependence 272
Anne E. Smith & Suchitra Krishnan-Sarin
18. Alcohol Use Disorders in Young Adulthood 292
Andrew K. Littlefield & Kenneth J. Sher
19. Drug Use Disorders among Young Adults: Evaluation and Treatment 311
Edward V. Nunes
20. Impulse Control Disorders 335
Jon E. Grant & Marc N. Potenza
21. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Young Adults 352
Joel V. Oberstar & George M. Realmuto
22. Schizophrenia in Adolescents and Young Adults 362
Afshan Anjum, Priyanka Gait, Kathryn R. Cullen & Tonya White
23. Bipolar Disorder in Early Adulthood: Clinical Challenges and Emerging Evidence 379
Alan C. Swann
24. Eating Disorders in Young Adults 397
Scott J. Crow
25. Pervasive Developmental Disorders 406
Noha F. Minshawi, Naomi B. Swiezy, Stacie L. Pozdol, Melissa Stuart &
Christopher J. McDougle
26. Personality Disorders 424
Donald W. Black & Nancee Blum
Index 441
Contributors
Afshan Anjum, M.D. Ulrike Buhlmann, Ph.D.
University of Minnesota Medical School Postdoctoral Research Fellow
Department of Psychiatry Humboldt University Berlin
Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Berlin, Germany
Minneapolis, MN
Keith B. Burt, Ph.D.
Beth A. Auslander, Ph.D. Assistant Professor
Division of Adolescent and Behavioral Health Department of Psychology
Department of Pediatrics University of Vermont
University of Texas Medical Branch Burlington, VT
at Galveston
Galveston, TX R. Andrew Chambers, M.D.
Lab for Translational Neuroscience of Dual
Declan T. Barry, Ph.D. Diagnosis & Development
Associate Research Scientist Department of Psychiatry
Department of Psychiatry Indiana University School of Medicine
Yale University School of Medicine Indianapolis, IN
New Haven, CT
William R. Corbin, Ph.D.
Mark Beitel, Ph.D. Department of Psychology
Assistant Clinical Professor Yale University
Department of Psychiatry New Haven, CT
Yale University School of Medicine
New Haven, CT Jessica M. Cronce, M.S., M.Phil.
Department of Psychology
Donald W. Black, M.D. Yale University
Professor of Psychiatry New Haven, CT
University of Iowa
Roy J. and Lucille A. Carver College Scott J. Crow, M.D.
of Medicine Professor of Psychiatry
Iowa City, IA University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, MN
Nancee Blum, M.S.W.
Clinical Instructor of Psychiatry Kathryn R. Cullen, M.D.
University of Iowa University of Minnesota Medical School
Roy J. and Lucille A. Carver College Department of Psychiatry
of Medicine Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
Iowa City, IA Minneapolis, MN
viii Contributors
Sherrie S. Delinsky, Ph.D. Steven N. Gold, Ph.D.
McLean Hospital Professor, Center for Psychological Studies
Belmont, MA Director, Trauma Resolution & Integration Program
Nova Southeastern University
Jane Eisen, M.D. Fort Lauderdale-Davie, FL
Associate Professor
Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior Jon E. Grant, M.D., J.D., M.P.H.
Warren Alpert Medical School Associate Professor of Psychiatry
Brown University University of Minnesota
Providence, RI Minneapolis, MN
Sinikka Elliott, Ph.D. Jennifer L. Greenberg, Psy.D.
Assistant Professor Clinical & Research Fellow in Psychology
Department of Sociology and Anthropology (Psychiatry)
North Carolina State University Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard
Raleigh, NC Medical School
Boston, MA
Craig A. Erickson, M.D.
Riley Hospital Child & Adolescent Yariv Hofstein, M.S.
Psychiatry Clinic University of Massachusetts
Department of Psychiatry Amherst, MA
Indiana University School of Medicine
Indianapolis, IN Leslie A. Hulvershorn, M.D., M.Sc.
New York University Child Study Center
Monique Ernst, M.D., Ph.D. New York University School of Medicine
Head of Neurodevelopment of New York, NY
Reward Systems
Emotional Development and Affective Scott M. Hyman, Ph.D.
Neuroscience Branch (EDAN) Associate Research Scientist
Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program Yale Stress Center
National Institute of Mental Health Yale University School of Medicine
Bethesda, MD New Haven, CT
Julie L. Fudge, M.D. Suchitra Krishnan-Sarin, Ph.D.
Associate Professor of Psychiatry and Neurobiology Associate Professor of Psychiatry
and Anatomy Yale University School of Medicine
University of Rochester Medical Center New Haven, CT
Rochester, NY
Carl W. Lejuez, Ph.D.
Priyanka Gait, M.D. Associate Professor
Resident Center for Addictions, Personality, and Emotion
Department of Psychiatry Research
University of Minnesota University of Maryland
Minneapolis, MN College Park, MD
Adjunct Professor
Andrew Goddard, M.D. Yale Child Study Center
Professor of Psychiatry & Radiology New Haven, CT
Indiana University School of Medicine
Director, Adult Psychiatry Clinic & Andrew K. Littlefield, M.A.
Study Center University of Missouri-Columbia
Director, Adult Anxiety Program Columbia, MO
University Hospital
Indianapolis, IN
Contributors ix
Hui Liu, Ph.D. Noha F. Minshawi, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor of Clinical Psychology in Clinical
Sociology Department Psychiatry
Michigan State University Indiana University School of Medicine
East Lansing, MI Department of Psychiatry and Christian Sarkine
Autism Treatment Center
Jessica F. Magidson, B.A. James Whitcomb Riley Hospital for Children
Center for Addictions, Personality, and Emotion Indianapolis, IN
Research
University of Maryland Edward V. Nunes, M.D.
College Park, MD Professor of Clinical Psychiatry
Columbia University College of Physicians and
Waqar Mahmud, M.D. Surgeons
Department of Psychiatry. New York, NY
Indiana University School of
Medicine, Joel V. Oberstar, M.D.
Indianapolis, IN Assistant Professor of Psychiatry
Associate Director, Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
Maria C. Mancebo, Ph.D. Fellowship
Assistant Professor (Research) University of Minnesota Medical School
Warren Alpert Medical School of Minneapolis, MN
Brown University
Providence, RI Brian L. Odlaug, B.A.
University of Minnesota
Ann S. Masten, Ph.D. Ambulatory Research Center
Distinguished McKnight Department of Psychiatry
University Professor Minneapolis, MN
Institute of Child Development
University of Minnesota Deborah A. Perlick, Ph.D.
Minneapolis, MN Associate Professor of Psychiatry
Mount Sinai School of Medicine
Linda C. Mayes, M.D. New York, NY
Arnold Gesell Professor
Child Psychiatry, Pediatrics, and William S. Pollack, Ph.D.
Psychology Director, Centers for Men & Young Men
Yale Child Study Center McLean Hospital
New Haven, CT Assistant Clinical Professor of Psychology
Department of Psychiatry
Christopher J. McDougle, M.D. Harvard Medical School
Albert E. Sterne Professor and Chairman Founder/Director, Real Boys Educational Programs
Department of Psychiatry Boston, MA
Indiana University School of Medicine
Indianapolis, IN Marc N. Potenza, M.D., Ph.D.
Associate Professor of Psychiatry and Child Study
Thomas J. McMahon, Ph.D. Yale University School of Medicine
Yale University School of Medicine New Haven, CT
Departments of Psychiatry and
Child Study Stacie L. Pozdol, M.S., L.M.H.C.
New Haven, CT Lead Behavioral Specialist
Christian Sarkine Autism Treatment Center
Lesley A. Michael, B.A. Riley Hospital for Children and IU School of
Mount Sinai School of Medicine Medicine
New York, NY Indianapolis, IN
x Contributors
Steven A. Rasmussen, M.D. Melissa Stuart, M.S.
Associate Professor of Psychiatry Behavioral Research Specialist
Warren Alpert School of Medicine at Brown Department of Psychiatry
University Indiana University School of Medicine
Medical Director, Butler Hospital Indianapolis, IN
Providence RI
Alan C. Swann, M.D.
George M. Realmuto, M.D. Professor and Vice Chair for Research
Professor of Psychiatry Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
University of Minnesota The University of Texas Health Science Center at
Medical Director of State Operated Services for Houston
Child and Adolescent Behavioral Health Services Houston, TX
of the State of Minnesota
Minneapolis, MN Naomi B. Swiezy, Ph.D., H.S.P.P.
Alan H. Cohen Family Scholar of Psychiatry
Associate Professor of Clinical Psychology in
Hannah E. Reese, M.A.
Clinical Psychiatry
Harvard University
Clinical Director, Christian Sarkine Autism
Cambridge, MA
Treatment Center
Program Director, HANDS in Autism
Elizabeth K. Reynolds, M.S. Riley Hospital for Children and IU School of
Center for Addictions, Personality, and Emotion Medicine
Research Indianapolis, IN
University of Maryland
College Park, MD Debra J. Umberson, Ph.D.
Professor
Susan L. Rosenthal, Ph.D. Sociology Department and Population Research
Division of Adolescent and Behavioral Center
Health The University of Texas at Austin
Department of Pediatrics Austin, TX
University of Texas Medical Branch at
Galveston Tonya White, M.D.
Galveston, TX University of Minnesota Medical School
Department of Psychiatry
Kenneth J. Sher, Ph.D. Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
Curators’ Professor of Psychological Sciences Minneapolis, MN
University of Missouri
Columbia, MO Sabine Wilhelm, Ph.D.
Associate Professor, Harvard Medical School
Rajita Sinha, Ph.D. Director, OCD and Related Disorders Program
Professor of Psychiatry Massachusetts General Hospital
Director, Yale Stress Center Boston, MA
Yale University School of Medicine
New Haven, CT Carlos A. Zarate, Jr., M.D.
Chief Experimental Therapeutics
Anne E. Smith, Ph.D. Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program
Yale University School of Medicine National Institute of Mental Health
New Haven, CT Bethesda, MD
Young Adult Mental Health
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Introduction
Jon E. Grant and Marc N. Potenza
Young adults, typically defined as individuals aged defined routines of middle adulthood. Young
18 to 29 years, constitute a unique population with adulthood is a time of decisions regarding one’s
regard to mental health issues and care. Evidence identity—‘‘Who am I? What do I want out of
suggests that not only do many mental health work, school, and intimate relations?’’ With
problems in adolescence persist into young adult- these questions come a range of personal,
hood, but also a wide range of mental health con- social, and cultural pressures. Risk-taking beha-
cerns begin in young adulthood. The severity of viors, including substance use, typically peak
emotional problems for young adults is evidenced during this time period in part due to neurobio-
by the findings that one out of four young adults logical development, identity exploration, and
will experience a depressive episode by age 24 social interactions. Young adult women and
(American Psychiatric Association, 2009), and men face unique challenges that the psychiatric
when left untreated, mortality from suicide is field has largely ignored. Most major psychiatric
almost three times greater among young adults disorders develop during young adulthood and
than among adolescents (National Center for may present differently in young adults. As such,
Injury Prevention and Control, 2008). specific prevention and treatment strategies are
Young adults with mental health problems important for this age group.
encounter multiple barriers to accessing appro- Over the last 5 years, the volume of research
priate medical care. One such barrier is gaps in on young adult mental health has grown signifi-
insurance coverage, given that children once cantly. Although the great body of research in
covered by public health insurance or private mental health has historically been based on
family plans become ineligible as they enter adults or children and adolescents, until recently
young adulthood (Yu, Adams, Burns, Brindis, the research had largely failed to address the
& Irwin, 2008), and almost half of employed important transitional period between adoles-
young adults work in jobs that provide no insur- cence and established adulthood and how that
ance (Callahan & Cooper, 2004). Young adult- transition integrally influences the clinical
hood is a transitional epoch, and the transitional presentation and treatment of various disorders.
nature of this developmental period makes it Clinicians in the United States and elsewhere
difficult to establish appropriate support systems in the world encounter young adults with
that would ensure consistent mental health care. various psychiatric problems but often have no
For mental health needs, there is often little clear understanding of the issues faced by this
support provided to ensure that young adults age cohort, how psychiatric disorders present
will continue to receive health services or seek differently in this age group, or how the available
care from an adult provider (Davis & treatment options differ. This book will provide
Sondheimer, 2005). the latest knowledge about young adult mental
Compared to prior decades, the time from 18 health issues, review the strength of the evidence,
to 29 years of age has become an extended period and provide treatment options for readers in an
of personal exploration bridging the period of easily accessible format. For mental health
adolescence to the acquisition of more stably researchers, knowledge about how disorders
3
4 Young Adult Mental Health
present differently in young adults may provide Access to Mental Health Care). The remainder
insight into possible psychological and neuro- of this section addresses the major mental health
biological processes during development. issues facing young adults as they consider
The 26 chapters of this book are grouped into seeking help for their mental health problems
three sections focusing on developmental issues and what clinicians may do to address these
unique to the transition from adolescence to concerns.
young adulthood, mental health issues of young In summary, young adult mental health
adulthood, and the assessment and treatment of represents an important and yet largely
psychiatric disorders in this age group. neglected area of clinical care. As the chapters
The first section of this text highlights the impor- of this volume eloquently attest, extraordinary
tant aspects of transition from adolescence to progress has been made regarding how young
young adulthood. The first three chapters adults with various psychiatric disorders pre-
(Chapter 1: Individuation and Psychological sent differently and how treatment interven-
Aspects of Becoming and Adult Childhood; tions may need to be modified based on the
Chapter 2: Brain Development and Neuropsycho- unique developmental features of this age
logical Development; and Chapter 3: Risk-Taking group. This volume presents a multidisciplinary
Behaviors) provide comprehensive examinations of perspective on young adult mental health by
the psychological and neurobiological development addressing developmental considerations,
of this age group. Chapter 4 (Impact of Childhood exploring psychosocial topics salient to young
Mental Health Problems) describes the influence of adults, and presenting treatment options for a
childhood mental health problems on this transi- wide array of psychiatric disorders occurring
tional period into adulthood. during young adulthood. We hope that clini-
A primary aim of this book is also to present cians who wish to better understand how they
mental health as well as mental illness concerns of can make informed decisions regarding the
young adults. As such, the second section of this mental health and well-being of young adults
text addresses areas of healthy psychological will find this text valuable.
development unique to this age group. This
section includes developmental topics often para-
mount during this time period (Chapter 5: References
College and Career; Chapter 10: Sexuality,
American Psychiatric Association. (2009). College
Intimacy and Relationships; Chapter 11:
mental health statistics. Retrieved February 16,
Marriage; Chapter 12: Parenting), as well as socio-
2009, from http://www.healthyminds.org/
cultural issues of particular salience to young collegestats.cfm
adulthood (Chapter 6: Gender Differences; Callahan, S. T., & Cooper, W. O. (2004). Gender and
Chapter 7: Cultural and Ethnics Consideration; uninsurance among young adults in the United
Chapter 8: Body Image; Chapter 9: Coping with States. Pediatrics, 113, 291–297.
Stress and Trauma). Davis, M., & Sondheimer, D. L. (2005). State child
When young adults present with psychiatric mental health efforts to support youth in transition
disorders, clinicians often assume that the pre- to adulthood. Journal of Behavioral Health Services
sentation and treatment will be similar to what is Research, 32, 27–42.
seen either with adolescents or older adults. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control.
(2008). Mortality reports database, US Department
Certain psychiatric disorders, however, may not
of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease
begin until young adulthood, may present dif- Control and Prevention. Retrieved February 16,
ferently for this age cohort, and may necessitate 2009, from http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/wisqars
different treatment approaches. Because young Yu, J. W., Adams, S., Burns, J., Brindis, C., & Irwin, C. E.,
adults with psychiatric disorders often go Jr. (2008). Use of mental health counseling as adoles-
untreated, the third section of this text begins cents become young adults. Journal of Adolescent
with the problems of access to care (Chapter 13: Health, 43, 268–276.
Chapter 1
Development in the Transition to Adulthood:
Vulnerabilities and Opportunities
Keith B. Burt and Ann S. Masten
There are many accounts of young people from University of Minnesota, where he became a
risky backgrounds whose lives go astray in ado- highly successful surgeon who now trains sur-
lescence, but some of these adolescents manage gery residents. Although his path was unique,
to turn their lives around during the transition to the life story of Maddaus exemplifies many of
adulthood. The life of Michael Maddaus pro- the risks and protective factors that have been
vides a dramatic example of this ‘‘late bloomer’’ the focus of resilience research. Clearly, his own
pattern of resilience (Masten, Obradović, & Burt, talents, thinking, motivation, planning, and
2006). Maddaus experienced a chaotic early car- actions were pivotal, and it is likely that brain
egiving environment that included a mother maturation played a role in the improvements
with chronic alcohol problems and a physically in his decision making about his life. But
abusive stepfather. By early adolescence, opportunities also mattered, such as the chance
Maddaus was chronically truant from school to join the military, return to school, get funding
and hanging around with delinquent peers. He for community college, and enter medical
reports that he was arrested two dozen times as a school, all despite his juvenile delinquency.
juvenile. Yet, as he approached the age of Moreover, mentors outside Maddaus’s family
majority and evaluated his prospects, Maddaus played a key role in opening doors, encouraging
decided to join the Navy. This was the first step him, and providing support for positive change.
on a road that would eventually lead him to The Maddaus story illustrates how the transition
medical school. But the road was not entirely to adulthood is a time of opportunity and
straight and smooth. Serving in the military change.
during the Vietnam War, Maddaus continued The young adult years offer a unique window
to struggle with substance abuse. Nonetheless, into issues of development and mental health
he managed to complete his service with an that have profound implications for theory,
honorary discharge. He pursued a high school intervention, and policy. Until recently, how-
equivalency degree after his return home and the ever, research informed by a developmental psy-
G.I. Bill made it possible for him to attend com- chopathology orientation, in which normal and
munity college. Still, it was a drunk-driving acci- abnormal functioning are seen as mutually
dent in his early twenties that motivated informative, has centered largely on infancy,
Maddaus to take charge of his life and plan for childhood, and adolescence. This relative neglect
a better future. Soon mentors, including a phy- of the early adult years occurred even though a
sician, took an interest in this bright young man developmental psychopathology perspective has
with the troubled background. Maddaus was clear implications and applications across the
encouraged to pursue his interests in medicine full life span (Cicchetti, 2006; Rutter & Sroufe,
and eventually attended medical school at the 2000). The goal of this chapter is to review the
5
6 Young Adult Mental Health
status of research on young adult development Developmental tasks wax and wane in
from a developmental psychopathology perspec- significance across time as individual develop-
tive, particularly with respect to psychosocial ment, contexts, and expectations change.
competence and problems in adaptive function. In most societies, during the years when children
We begin by discussing developmental task and youth are expected to acquire the education
theory in the young adult years, noting the needed for adult life, young people are expected
importance of integrating behavioral and biolo- to go to school and meet societal expectations for
gical research with the study of developmental academic skills, while at the same time they are
context. Following a general review of research expected to behave appropriately and get along
on competence and resilience in this develop- with peers and teachers. As youth mature, new
mental period, we discuss Arnett’s (2000) con- tasks emerge, often in the form of expectations
cept of emerging adulthood as a distinct for forming romantic relationships, establishing
developmental period and its implications for families, and work, either at home or in gainful
young adult mental health. Finally, we review employment. Adults are also expected to
recent empirical work on competence and resi- contribute to the common good of the commu-
lience through the transition to adulthood, nity through civic engagement (Obradović &
drawing on findings from the Project Masten, 2007). The salience of the work,
Competence studies of adaptation in a norma- romantic, and civic engagement domains in the
tive community cohort as well as related research transition to adulthood is demonstrated in part
from high-risk samples. Our goal is to highlight by their expected, and confirmed, associations
issues and findings that inform emerging science with trajectories of well-being (Schulenberg,
and practice related to successful and unsuc- Bryant, & O’Malley, 2004). Eventually, the
cessful adaptation through the transition to salience of academic achievement as a develop-
adulthood and key categories of psychological mental task fades, as the tasks of work, romantic
disorder. relationships, parenting, and/or community
contributions become more prominent.
Developmental task criteria for successful
Developmental Tasks and the
adaptation also may include psychological
Transition to Adulthood
achievements. During adolescence and early
Developmental task theory has deep historical adulthood, the most common psychological
roots in psychoanalytic stage theories as well as tasks pertain to the concepts of identity and
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development autonomy. In Erikson’s theory of the life cycle,
(Masten, Burt, & Coatsworth, 2006). However, for example, achieving a coherent identity was
contemporary perspectives on developmental the central issue of adolescence (Erikson, 1968).
tasks are most closely aligned with the concepts Identity as a developmental task may not be as
delineated by Havighurst (1972). Working from salient in cultures or subcultural ethnic or com-
an applied educational perspective, Havighurst munity groups that emphasize belonging and
observed that societies create a series of graded collectivism over autonomy and individualism
expectations that vary by age and are used to (Masten & Coatsworth, 1998).
judge whether a given individual is considered Examples of common developmental tasks of
to be successful. Subsequent theorists have noted emerging or early adulthood are presented in
that mastery of age-salient developmental tasks Table 1.1. There are salient tasks originating in
can itself be taken as evidence of self-organizing younger years that remain important for many
systems in human development (Sroufe, 1979; young adults. Academic attainment remains
Waters & Sroufe, 1983). In essence, individuals salient for many young adults in modern socie-
gain particular skills at different ages and these ties, and it also remains important to have
interacting skills are then are put to the test in friends. In both cases, the expectations for the
subsequent developmental challenges. quality or level of achievement would be higher
Lists of salient developmental tasks have been than expected for a much younger person, such
proposed by a variety of scholars for different as a young adolescent. Similarly, behaving
age periods (Masten & Coatsworth, 1998). according to the rules and laws of the
Development in the Transition to Adulthood 7
Table 1-1. Developmental Task Examples from Adolescence to Adulthood
Age Period Task
Adolescence Successful transition to secondary schooling
Academic achievement
Forming close friendships
Forming a cohesive sense of self / identity
Rule-abiding conduct
Emerging adulthood through (Maintaining competence in adolescent tasks)
young adulthood Forming close romantic relationships
Work competence (in jobs or in the home)
Effective parenting (if a parent)
Emerging task example: Civic engagement
community or context continue to play an societies have changed the makeup of what con-
important role in evaluations of competence or stitutes a typical young adult developmental
success in this period. Domains rising in salience pathway in the twenty-first century.
in comparison to young adolescents are the tasks Developmental task expectations likely
of establishing positive intimate relationships reflect accumulated observations and knowl-
and achieving successful employment and edge about human development and path-
engagement in work. Although these domains ways to adult success across generations. At
center on an individual’s engagement with the the same time, these expectations will shape
outside world, they have close connections to individual development in a given culture and
traditional ideas of developing autonomy, inti- context. Stakeholders in human development
macy, and psychological individuation as key notice and respond to success in these tasks,
tasks of young adulthood. Family formation including parents, prospective employers,
and effective parenting are also frequently neighbors, and the person himself or herself.
expected tasks of the early adult years, though Communities also structure opportunities and
in many societies this domain is more varied in contexts to promote achievement in these
expectations and options. Having children may tasks. The contexts of development change
not be necessarily ‘‘expected.’’ Nonetheless, once quite dramatically during the transition to
an adult has a child, typically there are expecta- adulthood. For example, while the majority
tions for responsible parenting. In a sense, then, of American children and adolescents both
parenting is a conditional developmental task, live with their family of origin and participate
triggered by the birth of a child. in formal schooling full time, during the tran-
Developmental tasks reflect both universal sition to adulthood many American youth
features of human development as well as have opportunities to pursue different life-
unique perspectives grounded in particular cul- styles as well as greater geographic and eco-
tures, communities, or historical contexts. nomic mobility.
Learning to talk is an enduring developmental Developmental tasks would be expected to
task of early childhood, reflecting the typical track not only the course of typical individual
development of the human species, while development but also the gradual changes in
learning to hunt bison is an example of a task societies and the nature of human development
more unique to a geographical, cultural, and across generations. For example, the changes of
historical context. Thus, cohort changes and body, behavior, and context associated with ado-
the larger structure of society would be expected lescence clearly play a role in our expectations for
to have effects on which domains are empha- adolescents. Adolescents undergo many dramatic
sized as key developmental tasks. As discussed changes at the levels of biology and brain devel-
below in the section on emerging adulthood, opment, from hormonal activation and pubertal
broad demographic changes in postindustrial changes to continuing development of executive
