Environmental

Science
Experiments
 Facts On File
Science Experiments
Environmental
Science
Experiments

Pamela Walker
Elaine Wood
Environmental Science Experiments

Text and artwork copyright © 2010 by Infobase Publishing

Editor: Frank K. Darmstadt

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Walker, Pam, 1958-
Environmental science experiments / Pamela Walker, Elaine Wood.
p. cm.—(Facts on File science experiments)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8160-7805-9
ISBN 978-1-4381-2910-5
1, Environmental sciences–Experiments–Juvenile literature. 2. Science projects–Juvenile literature.
I. Wood, Elaine, 1950- . Title.
GE77.W35 2010
507.8–dc22.
2008053715

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This book is printed on acid-free paper.

 Contents

Preface.............................................................................................................vii
Acknowledgments..........................................................................................xi
Introduction................................................................................................... xiii
Safety Precautions........................................................................................ xv
1. Testing Water for Coliform Bacteria....................................................................1
2. Effects of Environmental Pollutants on Daphnia..................................................9
3. Density of Invasive Species ...........................................................................15
4. Do Plants Grow As Well in Gray Water As in Tap Water?.....................................21
5. Build and Use a Turbidity Tube........................................................................27
6. What Do People Throw Away?.........................................................................34
7. Solar Energy..................................................................................................41
8. The Safety of Reusing Water Bottles................................................................46
9. Wind Energy..................................................................................................52
10. Test for Ozone...............................................................................................56
11. Biodegradation of Oil......................................................................................62
12. The Taste Test...............................................................................................69
13. Solar Water Heater.........................................................................................75
14. Population Growth in Yeast.............................................................................81
15. How Does Acid Precipitation Affect Coleus?.....................................................88
16. Effects of Nitrates on Duckweed Populations...................................................94
17. Seeds for the Future....................................................................................100
18. Design a Reusable Envelope.........................................................................105
19. Algae As Biofuel..........................................................................................111
20. Energy in Ecosystems..................................................................................118
Scope and Sequence Chart...................................................................... 127
Grade Level.................................................................................................. 129

v
vi ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Setting........................................................................................................... 130
Our Findings................................................................................................. 132
Glossary........................................................................................................ 144
Internet Resources.................................................................................... 147
Periodic Table of Elements....................................................................... 151
Index.............................................................................................................. 152
 Preface

For centuries, humans have studied and explored the natural world around
them. The ever-growing body of knowledge resulting from these efforts is
science. Information gained through science is passed from one generation to
the next through an array of educational programs. One of the primary goals
of every science education program is to help young people develop critical-
thinking and problem-solving skills that they can use throughout their lives.
Science education is unique in academics in that it not only conveys facts and
skills; it also cultivates curiosity and creativity. For this reason, science is an
active process that cannot be fully conveyed by passive teaching techniques.
The question for educators has always been, “What is the best way to teach
science?” There is no simple answer to this question, but studies in education
provide useful insights.
Research indicates that students need to be actively involved in science,
learning it through experience. Science students are encouraged to go far
beyond the textbook and to ask questions, consider novel ideas, form their
own predictions, develop experiments or procedures, collect information, record
results, analyze findings, and use a variety of resources to expand knowledge.
In other words, students cannot just hear science; they must also do science.
“Doing” science means performing experiments. In the science curriculum,
experiments play a number of educational roles. In some cases, hands-on
activities serve as hooks to engage students and introduce new topics. For
example, a discrepant event used as an introductory experiment encourages
questions and inspires students to seek the answers behind their findings.
Classroom investigations can also help expand information that was previously
introduced or cement new knowledge. According to neuroscience, experiments
and other types of hands-on learning help transfer new learning from short-term
into long-term memory.
Facts On File Science Experiments is a six-volume set of experiments that
helps engage students and enable them to “do” science. The high-interest
experiments in these books put students’ minds into gear and give them
opportunities to become involved, to think independently, and to build on their
own base of science knowledge.

vii
viii ENVIRONMENTAL Science experimentS

As a resource, Facts On File Science Experiments provides teachers with new

and innovative classroom investigations that are presented in a clear, easy-
to-understand style. The areas of study in the six-volume set include forensic
science, environmental science, computer research, physical science, weather
and climate, and space and astronomy. Experiments are supported by colorful
figures and line illustrations that help hold students’ attention and explain
information. All of the experiments in these books use multiple science process
skills such as observing, measuring, classifying, analyzing, and predicting. In
addition, some of the experiments require students to practice inquiry science
by setting up and carrying out their own open-ended experiments.
Each volume of the set contains 20 new experiments as well as extensive
safety guidelines, glossary, correlation to the National Science Education
Standards, scope and sequence, and an annotated list of Internet resources.
An introduction that presents background information begins each investigation
to provide an overview of the topic. Every experiment also includes relevant
specific safety tips along with materials list, procedure, analysis questions,
explanation of the experiment, connections to real life, and an annotated further
reading section for extended research.
Pam Walker and Elaine Wood, the authors of Facts On File Science Experiments,
are sensitive to the needs of both science teachers and students. The writing
team has more than 40 years of combined science teaching experience. Both
are actively involved in planning and improving science curricula in their home
state, Georgia, where Pam was the 2007 Teacher of the Year. Walker and
Wood are master teachers who hold specialist degrees in science and science
education. They are the authors of dozens of books for middle and high school
science teachers and students.
Facts On File Science Experiments, by Walker and Wood, facilitates science
instruction by making it easy for teachers to incorporate experimentation.
During experiments, students reap benefits that are not available in other types
of instruction. One of these benefits is the opportunity to take advantage of
the learning provided by social interactions. Experiments are usually carried
out in small groups, enabling students to brainstorm and learn from each
other. The validity of group work as an effective learning tool is supported by
research in neuroscience, which shows that the brain is a social organ and that
communication and collaboration are activities that naturally enhance learning.
Experimentation addresses many different types of learning, including lateral
thinking, multiple intelligences, and constructivism. In lateral thinking,
students solve problems using nontraditional methods. Long-established, rigid
procedures for problem-solving are replaced by original ideas from students.
When encouraged to think laterally, students are more likely to come up with
Preface ix

unique ideas that are not usually found in the traditional classroom. This type
of thinking requires students to construct meaning from an activity and to think
like scientists.
Another benefit of experimentation is that it accommodates students’ multiple
intelligences. According to the theory of multiple intelligences, students
possess many different aptitudes, but in varying degrees. Some of these
forms of intelligence include linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial,
kinesthetic, intrapersonal, and interpersonal. Learning is more likely to be
acquired and retained when more than one sense is involved. During an
experiment, students of all intellectual types find roles in which they can excel.
Students in the science classroom become involved in active learning,
constructing new ideas based on their current knowledge and their experimental
findings. The constructivist theory of learning encourages students to discover
principles for and by themselves. Through problem solving and independent
thinking, students build on what they know, moving forward in a manner that
makes learning real and lasting.
Active, experimental learning makes connections between newly acquired
information and the real world, a world that includes jobs. In the 21st
century, employers expect their employees to identify and solve problems for
themselves. Therefore, today’s students, workers of the near future, will be
required to use higher-level thinking skills. Experience with science experiments
provides potential workers with the ability and confidence to be problem
solvers.
The goal of Walker and Wood in Facts On File Science Experiments is to provide
experiments that hook and hold the interest of students, teach basic concepts
of science, and help students develop their critical-thinking skills. When fully
immersed in an experiment, students can experience those “Aha!” moments,
the special times when new information merges with what is already known and
understanding breaks through. On these occasions, real and lasting learning
takes place. The authors hope that this set of books helps bring more “Aha”
moments into every science class.
 Acknowledgments

This book would not exist were it not for our editor, Frank K. Darmstadt, who
conceived and directed the project. Frank supervised the material closely,
editing and making invaluable comments along the way. Betsy Feist of A Good
Thing, Inc., is responsible for transforming our raw material into a polished and
grammatically correct manuscript that makes us proud.

xi
 Introduction

During the 20th century, the general public was only vaguely aware that
environmental problems were developing on a worldwide basis. Public
sentiment started to turn early in the 21st century as governments
and scientists began spreading the word that issues concerning the
environment are not only real, but are also threatening the sustainability
of Earth. Today, very few citizens of this planet are unacquainted with
the dangers that challenge the quality of our air, water, and soil. With
knowledge comes the responsibility of tackling the predicaments caused
by our ever-growing human population.
In Environmental Science Experiments, we offer students and teachers
some tools to help explore environmental issues. Through 20 new hands-
on activities, students can learn more about environmental problems and
what can be done to solve them. This volume is part of the new Facts On
File Science Experiments set.
For students to become personally involved in issues facing the natural
world, they must recognize and understand the problems. Facts, figures,
charts, and reports efficiently dispense information about the environment
and help raise awareness. However, these delivery systems can make
the problems seem too immense for an individual to make a difference.
Thankfully, teens and preteens are in a stage of life when they embrace
idealistic goals and get involved in causes they feel are important. During
middle and high school, teachers can help students see that the actions
of each person matter. Science teachers have an opportunity to empower
students and put them on the road to making positive changes.
The experiments in this volume examine a variety of environmental
problems. Most of the challenges the environment faces are due to the
fact that the human population is straining Earth’s resources. In the
experiment “Population Growth in Yeast,” the size and growth patterns of
populations are examined to help students understand how the Earth’s
human population has reached an all-time high in such a relatively short
period of time. This experiment also helps students realize the role of
education in slowing the rate of population growth.
Environmentalists point out that many problems could be reduced and
managed if people would set sustainability as a way of life. A sustainable
xiii
xiv ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

lifestyle is one that protects resources so that they will be available for
future generations. Recycling and source reduction are two ways to help
guard resources. Several experiments in this volume address these
mainstays of environmental science. In “Do Plants Grow As Well in Gray
water As in Tap Water?” students are introduced to gray water and they
analyze its usefulness as a recycled item. The experiment “What Do
People Throw Away?” takes a close look at the materials that enter the
waste stream, the volume of garbage we produce, and the ways in which
we dispose of garbage. Two activities, “The Safety of Reusing Water
Bottles” and “The Taste Test” get students thinking about why they use
plastic bottles and the many ways that plastics impact the environment. In
“Design a Reusable Envelope,” paper, the main part of the waste stream,
is reused and the concept of source reduction expanded.
As the human population grows and lifestyles become more dependent
on energy, access to alternative energy is drawing a lot interest. “Solar
Energy” and “Wind Energy” are experiments that help students examine
the factors involved in using these two energy sources to power our lives.
The relatively new field of biofuel is examined in “Algae as Biofuel.”
Environmental degradation is also caused by activities carried out by
the millions of humans on Earth. Pollution affects all parts of the Earth,
including the air, soil, and water. In “Testing Water for Coliform Bacteria,”
“Effects of Environmental Pollutants on Daphnia,” “Build and Use a
Turbidity Tube,” and “Effects of Nitrates on Duckweed Populations,”
students examine some of the many problems in our waterways and
groundwater. “Biodegradation of Oil” helps students see how scientists
can locate and use bacteria to break down oil spilled into water and soil.
In “Density of Invasive Species,” students analyze the effects of
alien species in ecosystems. Air pollution problems are addressed in
“Test for Ozone” and “How Does Acid Precipitation Affect Coleus?”
Other experiments in the volume address some of basic principles of
environmental science including ecosystem structure and energy transfer.
How can educators help students see themselves as part of the solution
to Earth’s ills and encourage them to take on a sustainable lifestyle?
Perhaps the first step is to remember that people and nature have an
innate connection. For some students, this connection is strong and can
be easily nourished. Others need opportunities to learn and do more
that bonds them to their natural roots. The goal of Environmental Science
Experiments is to help develop the ideals in students that lead to good
stewardship of the planet.
 Safety Precautions

Review Before Starting Any Experiment

Each experiment includes special safety precautions that are relevant

to that particular project. These do not include all the basic safety
precautions that are necessary whenever you are working on a scientific
experiment. For this reason, it is absolutely necessary that you read and
remain mindful of the General Safety Precautions that follow. Experimental
science can be dangerous and good laboratory procedure always includes
following basic safety rules. Things can happen quickly while you are
performing an experiment—for example, materials can spill, break, or
even catch on fire. There will not be time after the fact to protect yourself.
Always prepare for unexpected dangers by following the basic safety
guidelines during the entire experiment, whether or not something seems
dangerous to you at a given moment.
We have been quite sparing in prescribing safety precautions for the
individual experiments. For one reason, we want you to take very seriously
the safety precautions that are printed in this book. If you see it written
here, you can be sure that it is here because it is absolutely critical.
Read the safety precautions here and at the beginning of each experiment
before performing each lab activity. It is difficult to remember a long set of
general rules. By rereading these general precautions every time you set
up an experiment, you will be reminding yourself that lab safety is critically
important. In addition, use your good judgment and pay close attention
when performing potentially dangerous procedures. Just because the
book does not say “Be careful with hot liquids” or “Don’t cut yourself
with a knife” does not mean that you can be careless when boiling water
or using a knife to punch holes in plastic bottles. Notes in the text are
special precautions to which you must pay special attention.

GENERAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Accidents can be caused by carelessness, haste, or insufficient knowledge.
By practicing safety procedures and being alert while conducting
experiments, you can avoid taking an unnecessary risk. Be sure to check

xv
xvi ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

the individual experiments in this book for additional safety regulations

and adult supervision requirements. If you will be working in a laboratory,
do not work alone. When you are working off site, keep in groups with a
minimum of three students per group, and follow school rules and state
legal requirements for the number of supervisors required. Ask an adult
supervisor with basic training in first aid to carry a small first-aid kit. Make
sure everyone knows where this person will be during the experiment.

PREPARING
• Clear all surfaces before beginning experiments.
• Read the entire experiment before you start.
• Know the hazards of the experiments and anticipate dangers.

PROTECTING YOURSELF
• Follow the directions step by step.
• Perform only one experiment at a time.
• Locate exits, fire blanket and extinguisher, master gas and electricity
shut-offs, eyewash, and first-aid kit.
• Make sure there is adequate ventilation.
• Do not participate in horseplay.
• Do not wear open-toed shoes.
• Keep floor and workspace neat, clean, and dry.
• Clean up spills immediately.
• If glassware breaks, do not clean it up by yourself; ask for teacher
assistance.
• Tie back long hair.
• Never eat, drink, or smoke in the laboratory or workspace.
• Do not eat or drink any substances tested unless expressly permitted
to do so by a knowledgeable adult.

USING EQUIPMENT WITH CARE

• Set up apparatus far from the edge of the desk.
• Use knives or other sharp, pointed instruments with care.
Safety Precautions xvii

• Pull plugs, not cords, when removing electrical plugs.

• Clean glassware before and after use.
• Check glassware for scratches, cracks, and sharp edges.
• Let your teacher know about broken glassware immediately.
• Do not use reflected sunlight to illuminate your microscope.
• Do not touch metal conductors.
• Take care when working with any form of electricity.
• Use alcohol-filled thermometers, not mercury-filled thermometers.

USING CHEMICALS
• Never taste or inhale chemicals.
• Label all bottles and apparatus containing chemicals.
• Read labels carefully.
• Avoid chemical contact with skin and eyes (wear safety glasses or
goggles, lab apron, and gloves).
• Do not touch chemical solutions.
• Wash hands before and after using solutions.
• Wipe up spills thoroughly.

HEATING SUBSTANCES
• Wear safety glasses or goggles, apron, and gloves when heating
materials.
• Keep your face away from test tubes and beakers.
• When heating substances in a test tube, avoid pointing the top of the
test tube toward other people.
• Use test tubes, beakers, and other glassware made of Pyrex™ glass.
• Never leave apparatus unattended.
• Use safety tongs and heat-resistant gloves.
• If your laboratory does not have heatproof workbenches, put your
Bunsen burner on a heatproof mat before lighting it.
• Take care when lighting your Bunsen burner; light it with the airhole
closed and use a Bunsen burner lighter rather than wooden matches.
xviii ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

• Turn off hot plates, Bunsen burners, and gas when you are done.
• Keep flammable substances away from flames and other sources of
heat.
• Have a fire extinguisher on hand.

FINISHING UP
• Thoroughly clean your work area and any glassware used.
• Wash your hands.
• Be careful not to return chemicals or contaminated reagents to the
wrong containers.
• Do not dispose of materials in the sink unless instructed to do so.
• Clean up all residues and put in proper containers for disposal.
• Dispose of all chemicals according to all local, state, and federal laws.

BE SAFETY CONSCIOUS AT ALL TIMES!

 1. Testing Water for Coliform
Bacteria
Topic
Water can be tested for the presence of fecal coliform bacteria.

Introduction
Many cities get their water from freshwater surface sources such as
lakes, streams, and rivers. These waters naturally contain many types of
bacteria. The normal bacterial flora in freshwater includes photosynthetic
species as well as decomposers that live on dead matter. However,
pathogenic bacteria can also find their way into the waterways. The
primary path of pathogenic species is through the fecal matter of humans
or other animals. Feces contain bacteria that live in the intestinal tracts
of animals. Most of these bacteria are not disease carrying and play roles
in digestion and the recovery of nutrients in their animal hosts. However,
animal feces may contain bacteria that are pathogens.
Local water authorities routinely test water to see if disease-causing
agents may be present. Instead of testing directly for pathogenic bacteria,
which is expensive, authorities test for the presence of other bacteria
carried in feces. Fecal coliform bacteria, a large group of organisms
that are members of the family Enterobacteriaceae, can be detected
through water sampling. Members of this group of organisms are used
as indicators for the presence of feces in water. If coliform bacteria are
discovered, the water authority may carry out more tests for specific fecal
pathogens. In this experiment, you will collect water samples and test
them for the presence of coliform bacteria.

Time Required
30 minutes on part A
30 minutes on part B
30 minutes on part C

1
2 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Materials
2 sterile plastic collection bottle with lid or sterile test tube with
stopper
2 sterile pipette
2 sterile petri dish (large)
2 small beaker
2 Coliscan Easygel™ (individual use bottle)
2 aluminum foil
2 access to hot water
2 write-on overhead transparency film
2 transparency pen
2 small metric ruler
2 bottle of bleach solution
2 science notebook

Safety Note
Wear gloves when working with water samples. Please
review and follow the safety guidelines at the beginning of this volume.

Procedure: Part A
1. Accompany your instructor to the body of water to be tested.
2. Wearing gloves, hold the open collection bottle near its base. Dip
the bottle below the surface of the water, but above the bottom.
3. Move the bottle through the water in a U-shaped pattern then bring
it to the surface.
4. Pour out a little water so that there is air in top of the bottle. Put the
lid on the bottle.
5. Remove your gloves and wash your hands.

Procedure: Part B
1. Wash your hands with soap and clean your work surface.
1. Testing Water for Coliform Bacteria 3

2. Half-fill the beaker with hot tap water. Soften the Coliscan Easygel™
by putting the bottle in a beaker of hot water for a few minutes.
3. Remove the cap from the bottle of Coliscan Easygel™ and use the
sterile pipette to transfer 2.5 milliliters (ml) of your water sample
into the softened bottle of Coliscan Easygel™.
4. Put the cap back on the bottle and gently swirl to mix your water
sample with the Coliscan Easygel™.
5. Open one side of the sterile petri dish (see Figure 1). Pour the
Coliscan Easygel™ into the dish. Replace the top of the petri dish
and gently swirl the dish to distribute the gel evenly. Set aside for
one hour (hr) or until the gel becomes firm.
6. After the gel is firm, wrap the petri dish in aluminum foil. Invert the
petri dish and set it in a warm place.

Coliscan Easygel™

petri dish

Figure 1
Figure 1

Procedure: Part C
Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 1-(2-1-1)
1. After 24 hr (but before 48 hr) unwrap the aluminum foil and examine
the petri dish (without removing the top). Look for bacterial colonies,
which appear as colored dots.
2. If there are only a few colored colonies, you can easily count
them directly. Count and record your findings on Data Table 1 in
section A on the row titled “Counts of bacteria.” The blue to purple
colonies are Escherichia coli (E. coli), one type of coliform bacteria.
The magenta to pink colonies are other varieties of coliforms. The
colorless colonies are other types of bacteria (see Figure 2).
4 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

E. coli other types of bacteria

coliforms

Figure 2
Figure 2
If there are too many colonies to count easily, use the grid method.
3.
To do so:
a. Use a transparency pen to draw a four-box grid on a sheet
of transparency film. Make each box in the grid 1 centimeter
Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 2-(2-1-2)
(cm) (.4 inches [in.]) square (see Figure 3).
b. Place the grid under the petri dish. (Do not remove the lid from
the petri dish).
c. Count the colored colonies in each box of the grid. Record the
counts in section B of the data table in the rows labeled Box
1, Box 2, Box 3, and Box 4. If a colony is growing along the
edge of a box, only count it if more than half of the colony is
inside the box.
d. After you have counted the bacteria in each box, move the
grid to another position and count again. Chose the position
randomly and avoid selecting a section that has a lot of
colonies so that you will not skew your results. Record the
counts on the data table in the rows labeled Box 5, Box 6, Box
7, and Box 8.
e. Find the average counts per box, which is also the average
number of colonies per centimeter. Write the average on the
last row of Data Table 1.
f. There are about 57.4 square cm (8.9 square in.) in a petri dish,
so multiply the average number of colonies by 57.4 to find an
estimate of the number of each type of colony in the petri dish.
4. Since you used 2.5 ml of sample water, multiply the number of
colonies (or the average number of colonies) by 40 to find the
number of colonies in 100 ml of water.
1. Testing Water for Coliform Bacteria 5

transparency film

1 cm

1 cm

Figure 3
Figure 3

Data Table 1
Pink/General No color/Other
Walker/Wood Book
Blue/E. 2 Environmental Figure 3-(2-1-3)
coli
coliform types bacteria

A. Easy method

Counts of
bacteria

B. Grid method

Box 1

Box 2

Box 3

Box 4

Box 5

Box 6

Box 7

Box 8

Average
6 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

5. Following your teacher’s directions, pour a small amount of bleach

solution in each petri dish and dispose of the dishes.

Analysis
1. What volume of water did you test in this experiment?
2. Why do you think the prepared petri dishes were set aside for 24
hours?
3. From your counts, what was your total (or average) number of
colonies of:
a. E. coli per centimeter?
b. general coliforms per centimeters?
c. other bacteria per centimeter?
4. What is the purpose of this test?
5. If you tested water from your faucet, what results would you expect?
Why?
6. If you tested water from a toilet, what results would you expect?
Why?

What’s Going On?

Coliform bacteria get their energy by fermenting lactose, a sugar. During
fermentation, the sugar is converted into energy, a gas, and an acid.
These bacteria are able to carry out fermentation because they have the
enzymes necessary to break down sugar. Many coliform bacteria live in
water and soil. These “general” coliforms break down sugar with the help
of the enzyme galactosidase. One species of coliform, Escherichia coli
(E. coli) is found in the intestines of animals. E. coli produces the enzyme
glucuronidase in addition to galactosidase. Coliscan Easygel™ contains
two different substrates, each of which reacts with one of the enzymes to
produce compounds of different colors
Water authorities check waterways to be sure that total coliform (TC) and
fecal coliform (FC) levels fall within safe exposure levels. Total coliform
bacteria include those found in the environment, so most are not from
the intestinal tracts. In most cases, TC levels are about ten times greater
than FC levels. Data Table 2 shows safe levels of coliforms.
1. Testing Water for Coliform Bacteria 7

Data Table 2

Coliform Standards (colonies per 100 ml of water)

Drinking water 1 TC

Water for swimming 200 FC

Water for boating 1,000 FC

Connections
The primary source of dangerous bacteria in water is human or animal
waste. Wastes can enter the water from sources such as pastures,
seepage from septic tanks, and overflows or leaks from sewage treatment
plants. These pathogens in water can cause serious illness. One of the
strains of E. coli, 0157:H7, is pathogenic. This is the same strain that has
caused illness from eating undercooked ground beef. The first symptoms
of infection are severe diarrhea and abdominal cramps about three days
after exposure. Complications can include destruction of red blood cells
and kidney failure, a condition called hemolytic uremic syndrome. Although
most people recover, this condition can be fatal.

Want to Know More?

See appendix for Our Findings.

Further Reading
Parrott, Kathleen, Blake Ross, and Janice Woodard. “Microorganisms in
Household Water,” Virginia Cooperative Extension, April, 2002. Available
online. URL: http://www.cdc.gov/nasd/docs/d001201-d001300/
d001269/d001269.html. Accessed June 13, 2008. This Web site
describes causes, problems, and testing associated with bacterial
contamination in water.
8 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Vermont Department of Health. “Coliform Bacteria in Water,” 2005.

Available online. URL: http://healthvermont.gov/enviro/water/coliform.
aspx. Accessed June 13, 2008. This Web site explains why some
coliforms can pose a health risk.
Wilkes University. “Water Testing Bacteria, Coliform, Nuisance Bacteria,
Viruses, and Pathogens in Drinking Water.” Available online. URL: http://
www.water-research.net/bacteria.htm. Accessed June 19, 2008. This Web
site explains sources of bacteria in drinking water.
 2. Effects of Environmental
Pollutants on Daphnia
Topic
Daphnia are sensitive to environmental pollutants.

Introduction
Daphnia are small crustaceans that live in both freshwater and seawater.
One species of daphnia is shown in Figure 1. Although these tiny animals
can be seen with the naked eye, they are best viewed under the dissecting
microscope. A daphnia’s body covering is almost transparent, revealing
its internal organs, including the heart, which beats rhythmically. Because
daphnia scoot through their watery environments with jerky motions
similar to those of jumping fleas, they are known as “water fleas.”
However, the two types of animals are not closely related.

Figure 1
Daphnia
Figure 1

In North America, there are about 150 species of daphnia. Most are
herbivores that graze on one-celled algae. Water samples taken from
surface water such as ponds, lakes, or streams may yield as many as
Walker/Wood
twenty different species. Booktiny
These 2 Environmental
animals are Figure 1-(2-2-1) part of food
an important
rev.12/15/08
chain, providing links between photosynthetic organisms and small fish.

9
10 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Biologists consider daphnia to be indicator organisms, animals

whose population size provides information about the condition of the
environment. Because daphnia are sensitive to pollution, the presence
of some pollutants in relatively low concentrations can drastically reduce
their numbers. By counting the number of daphnia in an ecosystem,
scientists can keep track of the level of pollution in a waterway. In this
experiment, you will expose daphnia to varying amounts of a pollutant to
see how they respond.

Time Required
55 minutes on day 1
20 minutes on follow-up days

Materials
2 dissecting microscope
2 5 petri dishes
2 graduated cylinder
2 pipette with 5 millimeter (mm) diameter opening
2 daphnia in culture medium
2 200 milliliters (ml) solution (pollutant) to test
2 100 ml distilled water
2 wax pen
2 stopwatch or clock with a second hand
2 science notebook
2 4 small beakers

Safety Note
Please review and follow the safety guidelines at the
beginning of this volume.

Procedure: Day 1
1. Transfer one daphnia from the culture medium into a petri dish
using a pipette. Place the petri dish on the stage of a dissecting
2. Effects of Environmental Pollutants on Daphnia 11

microscope. Observe the daphnia and notice the following:

a. two long antennae that propel the animal through the water. The
antennae are labeled “1” in Figure 2.
b. compound eye, labeled “2.”
c. legs that collect food, labeled “3.”
d. intestine, where nutrients are absorbed, labeled “4.”
e. brood pouch, a place where eggs are incubated, labeled “5.”
f. outer shell, labeled “6.”
g. heart labeled “7.”
h. anus, through which undigested material is eliminated, labeled “8.”

1 2

Figure2 2
Figure

Daphnia anatomy

Walker/Wood Book
2. Using the stopwatch, count2 Environmental
the numberFigure 2-(2-2-2)
of heartbeats in 1 minute.
rev.10/17/08
Record this number in your science notebook.
3. Return this daphnia to the culture medium.
4. Label the petri dishes with a wax pen as: “10,” “30,” “60,” “90,”
and “control.”
12 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

5. There are several different solutions available that are potential

environmental pollutants. Select one of these solutions to test.
6. Dilute the solution you selected so that you can test its effects on
daphnia at various strengths. Use the following recipes to prepare
your dilutions in small beakers:
a. 10 percent: 10 ml of solution and 90 ml of distilled water
b. 30 percent: 30 ml of solution and 70 ml of distilled water
c. 60 percent: 60 ml of solution and 40 ml of distilled water
d. 90 percent: 90 ml of solution and 10 ml of distilled water
7. Pour about 100 ml of distilled water into the “control” petri dish.
8. Pour about 100 ml of each dilution in the appropriate petri dish.
9. Use the pipette to transfer the same number of organisms into each
petri dish. Eight to twelve organisms per petri dish will be fine. Try to
select young (small) organisms. Record the number of daphnia you
place in each petri dish in the column of data table labeled “Start.”
10. After one hour (or before the class ends) count the number of
surviving daphnia in each petri dish. Remember that daphnia are
crustaceans, and they must molt, or shed their old shells, to grow.
Do not count molted shells as organisms. Molted shells resemble
living daphnia, but they are empty.
11. Remove any dead daphnia or molted shells with the pipette.
12. Place the petri dishes in a quiet place until you can check them
again at the next class period.

Procedure: Follow-up Days

1. Continue checking the daphnia daily for 2 days more, for a total of 3
days, or until all of them are dead. When you observe the daphnia,
record the number of living organisms on the data table. Extend the
data table if you want to continue the experiment for more than 3
days. Do not feed the daphnia during the experimental period.
2. Discard any surviving daphnia according to your teacher’s
instructions.

Analysis
1. What was the heart rate of the daphnia you observed in procedure
step 1?
2. Effects of Environmental Pollutants on Daphnia 13

2. What solution did you test during this experiment?

3. How did the strength of the solution you tested affect daphnia
survival?
4. What do you think might happen to a pond’s food chain if all of the
daphnia disappeared? Explain your answer.
5. How do daphnia serve as indicator species in the environment?

Data Table
Number of Living Organisms

Start After 1 hour Day 2 Day 3

10% solution

30% solution

60% solution

90% solution

Control

What’s Going On?

Daphnia are very sensitive to changes in their environments. A drop
in population size of daphnia suggests that a waterway may contain
pollutants. Changes in population sizes can serve as early warnings
to scientists that other organisms in the ecosystem may be in danger.
Pollutants such as nitrogen and phosphorus-containing compounds
may cause an increase in daphnia populations. Nitrogen and phosphorus
are two of the nutrients needed for growth of algae. Daphnia feed on
algae, so the nutrients could be good in low levels. Higher levels might
be problematic.

Connections
Two types of pollution affect organisms in ecosystems: point source
and nonpoint source pollution. Point source pollution comes from one
particular place and includes discharges of wastewater into rivers and
14 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

streams. Point source pollution most often occurs in urban areas.

Nonpoint source pollutants are those that wash into waterways from a
variety of sources. In rural areas, nonpoint source pollutants are most
likely to reach toxic levels in fall or winter when rain is abundant and river
flow rates are high.
Some of the chemicals used to protect the environment have unintended
negative effects on the organisms. Wildfires can be a serious
environmental problem in some areas. One way that firefighters slow
wildfires is by spraying them with fire-retardant formulations. Low levels
of these fire retardants are generally considered safe for ecosystems, but
populations of daphnia and other organisms in the soil of wetlands are
drastically reduced when the fall and winter rains wash fire retardants into
waterways.

Want to Know More?

See appendix for Our Findings.

Further Reading
Angeler, David, Silvia Martin, and Jose M. Moreno. “Daphnia emergence:
a sensitive indicator of fire-retardant stress in temporary wetlands,”
Environment International, Volume 31, Number 4, 2005. Available online.
URL: http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=16668515. Accessed
June 10, 2008. This research study indicates that even chemicals that
are designed to help save the environment, such as fire retardants, can
be dangerous to organisms in the ecosystem.
BioMedia Associates. “Swimming, Feeding, and Eating,” 2006. Available
online. URL: http://ebiomedia.com/gall/classics/Daphnia/daphnia_
behave.html. Accessed June 7, 2008. This Web site features a movie of a
daphnia showing its heart beating.
Environmental Network News. “Daphnia evolve into pollution eaters,”
ENN, October 1, 1999. Available online. URL: http://www.cnn.com/
NATURE/9910/01/pollution.eaters.enn/index.html. Accessed June 10,
2008. Through natural selection, some species of daphnia have adapted
to problems caused by pollutants in their environments.
 3. Density of Invasive Species

Topic
Monitoring the density of invasive species is one way to keep track of
progress in eradicating plants that damage ecosystems.

Introduction
Invasive species are nonnative organisms that have been moved into
ecosystems. Other names for invasive species are exotics, aliens, and
nonindigenous organisms. Invasive species can be microbes, fungi,
plants, or animals. Although some invasive species cause little damage,
others lead to big changes in ecosystems by displacing organisms and
changing natural habitats.
To monitor the rate at which an invasive species of plant is spreading
through an area, scientists routinely measure the density, or the number
of plants in a specific area. To find density, scientists could count the
plants in an entire study area, but this technique is difficult and time
consuming. An easier way is to count the plants in a quadrant, a small
region that represents the entire study area. A typical study area measures
100 meters square (m2). Quadrants within a study area might be 1 m2.
If plants are very dense, smaller quadrants can be used. Likewise, in
regions where plants are sparse, larger quadrants are more appropriate.
Thousands of invasive plants have found their way into new ecosystems.
Garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata), shown in Figure 1, is a short,
herbaceous plant found in most of the United States. This is one of the
few plants that can invade and thrive on the floor of deciduous forests.
Tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima) can be found in every state and thrives
in sunny places, even in the cracks of concrete and mortar. In the eastern
United States and the Midwest, the vine Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera
japonica) is a serious problem. In this experiment, you will determine the
density of one or more invasive species of plants that live in your area.

15
16 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Figure 1
Figure
Garlic 1
mustard

TimeWalker/Wood
Required Book 2 Environmental Figure 1-(2-3-1)

90 minutes

Materials
2 2 metersticks
2 2 pieces of string that are a little more than 1 meter (m)
(39.37 inches [in.]) long
2 access to plant identification books
2 access to an outdoor area
2 science notebook
3. Density of Invasive Species 17

Safety Note Please review and follow the safety guidelines at the
beginning of this volume.

Procedure
1. Working with a partner, tie one piece of string between the ends of
two metersticks. Tie the second piece of string between the other
ends of the two metersticks to create a square. You will use this
square to measure one quadrant in the study area (see Figure 2).

string

meterstick

Figure 2
Figure 2
Square used to measure a quadrant

Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 2-(2-3-2)

2. Follow your teacher to a predetermined sampling area.
3. To find the quadrant that you will sample, select a random number
between 0 and 99. Walk this many steps along the long side of the
sampling area. Select another random number between 0 and 99.
Walk this many steps into the sampling area. The place where you
are standing represents the center of the first quadrant that you will
examine. Note the center, then place your square on the ground.
18 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

4. Examine the plant species in your quadrant. Write the names of

these plants in the first column of the data table. If you do not know
the name of a species, collect a stem and take it back to class.
Find the name in a plant identification book or from your teacher.
5. Count the number of stems of each species of plant in your
quadrant to find the density of each species in quadrant 1. Record
your findings on the data table in the column titled “Quadrant 1.”
Extend the data table as needed.

Data Table
Names of
Quadrant 1 Quadrant 2 Quadrant 3
species

6. Repeat procedure steps 3 through 5 in a second quadrant and label

these results as species in quadrant 2.
7. Repeat procedures steps 3 through 5 in a third quadrant and label
these results as species in quadrant 3.
8. Determine the density of each species in the entire sampling area.
To do so, use the formula:
[(density in quadrant 1) + (density in quadrant 2) + (density in quadrant 3)]
average species density =
total number of quadrants

Analysis
1. What is an invasive species?
2. Why do you think that invasive species of plants damage ecosystems?
3. Density of Invasive Species 19

3. Why might a scientist need to know the average density of invasive

species in an ecosystem each year?
4. Based on your experimental findings, do you think the average
density that you determined for each species in this large plot is
fairly accurate? Why or why not?
5. What could you do to get a more accurate average species density?
6. Based on your experimental findings, how did the densities of the
invasive species compare to the densities of the native species?

What’s Going On?

Invasive species do both economic and ecological damage. Plants that
are brought into an ecosystem did not evolve there, so they may not have
natural predators or parasites that help keep their numbers in check. As a
result, the populations of these plants spread quickly. In a short time, the
plants dominate the habitat and replace natural species. Such changes
can reduce the biodiversity of ecosystems and in some cases lead to the
extinction of plants.

Connections
Invasive species of plants are appearing all over the world. Some plants
are purposely carried into new habitats and others are transported
accidentally during trade. Alligator weed (Altemanthera philoxeroides),
a South American plant shown in Figure 3, made its way to the United
States in the ballast waters of ships. Since its arrival, the plant has
reproduced quickly and become a serious problem in southeastern
waterways. Alligator weed forms roots easily, then it grows to the surface
of the water where it forms a thick, floating mat. Mats prevent drainage
of ditches, canals, and other waterways. When mats break lose from their
roots, they pile up in the bends of rivers and against bridges, obstructing
navigations. Mats also interfere with fishing and swimming and provide
breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Alligator weed easily displaces native
species along banks. It also blocks needed sunlight from plants that grow
in deeper water, causing them to die. Dying mats sink to bottom where
they are consumed by oxygen-using bacteria. In a short time, a waterway
becomes oxygen depleted. Animals that are mobile leave the area. Slow-
moving or immobile animals die.
20 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Figure 3
Alligator weed

Figure 3
Want to Know More?
See appendix for Our Findings.
Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 3-(2-3-3)

Further Reading
The Nature Conservancy. “Invasive Species: What You Can Do, Bad Plants
in Your Backyard,” 2008. Available online. URL: http://www.nature.org/
initiatives/invasivespecies/features/. Accessed June 10, 2008. The
extensive Web site shows pictures of many invasive species, explains why
they are problems, and details some plans to eradicate them.
The United States National Arboretum. “Invasive Plants,” 2007. Available
online. URL: http://www.usna.usda.gov/Gardens/invasives.html.
Accessed June 13, 2008. This Web site includes pictures of invasive
plants, explanations of the problems they cause, and suggestions for
getting rid of them.
USDA National Agricultural Library. “Plants.” Available online. URL:
http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/plants/main.shtml. Accessed June
10, 2008. By clicking on the names of invasive plants, you can access
pictures and information.
 4. D
 o Plants Grow As Well in
Gray Water As in Tap Water?
Topic
Gray water can be recycled and used to water plants.

Introduction
Water conservation is becoming increasingly important. All the water
that is used in the home, except water from toilets and dish washing,
is called gray water. Toilet and dish water, which can contain dangerous
levels of nitrogen and bacteria, is known as black water. Gray water
includes shower, sink, and laundry water. Although gray water may contain
small amounts of hair, oils, particles of food, and other matter, it is not
considered to be a health hazard. Gray water and black water usually
becomes part of the sewage, the wastewater and water-carried solid waste
produced by homes and residences. Sewage travels either to the septic
tank or to a sewage treatment plant for remediation. At the plant, it is
treated to remove solid matter and pollutants and to kill bacteria. Treated
sewage is returned to waterways or to the ocean. Some homeowners
are reusing their gray water to irrigate plants (see Figure 1). In this
experiment, you will design a procedure to compare the growth of plants
in gray water and in tap water.

Time Required
55 minutes on day 1
20 minutes on follow-up days

Materials
2 tap water (about 1 gallon [g]) (3.8 liters [l]) per group
2 gray water (about 1 g [3.8 l] per group)
2 20 seeds (of any type)
21
22 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

sink
bathtub

irrigation pipe

wastewater
pipes

enlarged
irrigation pipe

Figure 1
Figure 1
2 20 small pots
2 potting soil
2 ruler
Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 1-(2-4-1)
2 triple-beam balance or electronic scale
2 science notebook

Safety Note
Wash your hands with antibacterial soap after working
with gray water. Please review and follow the safety guidelines at the
beginning of this volume.

Procedure
1. Your job is to design and perform an experiment to compare how
well plants grow in gray water and in tap water.
2. You can use any of the supplies provided by your teacher, but you
will not need to use all of them.
3. Before you conduct your experiment, decide exactly what you are
going to do. Write the steps you plan to take (your experimental
4. Do Plants Grow As Well in Gray Water As in Tap Water? 23

procedure) and the materials you plan to use (materials list) on the
data table. Show your procedure and materials list to the teacher.
If you get teacher approval, proceed with your experiment. If not,
modify your work and show it to your teacher again.
4. Keep these points in mind:
a. Only test one variable, not several. In this experiment, the
variable is type of water used on the plants. Keep all other
factors the same. These include, but are not limited to,
temperature, size of containers, and amount of sunlight.
b. Decide how you want to measure and quantify plant growth.
You could measure plant height, plant stem diameter, or
plant mass.
5. Once you have teacher approval for your experiment, assemble the
materials you need and begin your procedure.
6. Collect your results on a data table of your own design.

Analysis
1. What is gray water?
2. What is the purpose of this experiment?
3. Why must all variables (except the one being tested) be controlled
during an experiment?
4. Explain how you controlled the variable of temperature.
5. According to your results, which plants grew better: the ones in tap
water or the ones in gray water?

What’s Going On?

Gray water is an excellent source of water for indoor and outdoor plants.
Plants irrigated with gray water grow as well as those irrigated with water
from other sources. Use of gray water has benefits for the environment as
well as financial benefits for the community and homeowner. By reusing
this water, demand on local water resources such as surface water or
underground aquifers is reduced. Homeowners do not have to pay for
additional water to irrigate shrubbery or lawns. Gray water should not
be used on edible plants such as lettuce and carrots, but is ideal for
ornamental plants.
24 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Data Table

Your
experimental
procedure

Your materials
list

Teacher’s
approval

Gray water can be piped directly onto outdoor plants or it can be diverted
through a filtration system made of sand, gravel, and other materials (see
Figure 2). In more complex systems, gray water drains into a collection
tank, where it is stored for later use. In the storage tank, the water can
be cleaned by passing it through a screen and treating it with chlorine to
kill any bacteria. Once the gray water is applied to plants, some is used
by the plants for metabolic purposes, some evaporates into the air, and
the excess percolates through the soil to recharge underground water
resource.
4. Do Plants Grow As Well in Gray Water As in Tap Water? 25

vent

top
gray water
inflow pipe

wood chips

medium-size
stones

coarse sand

fine sand

pea gravel
stone
concrete
discharge
pipe contains purified water

Figure 2
Figure 2

Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental

Connections Figure 2-(2-4-2)

A family considering a gray water irrigation system can estimate the

amount of gray water they will produce by following these steps:
a. Calculate the number of occupants in the home. The first
bedroom in the home counts as two occupants and each
additional bedroom count as one.
b. Estimate that 40 gallons (gal) (151.42 liters [L]) of gray water will
be produced by each occupant.
c. Multiply the number of occupants by the estimated gray water
flow per occupant.
The amount of landscape that the family can irrigate with gray water can
then be estimated with the following formula:
26 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

LA = GW
where LA equals the landscaped area in square feet and GW equals
estimated gray water produced in gallons per week.
Other factors that affect the amount of landscape that can be irrigated
include evapotranspiration, the amount of water lost through evaporation
from soil and plants, the plant types, and the season.

Want to Know More?

See appendix for Our Findings.

Further Reading
Coder, Kim D. “Using Gray Water on the Landscape,” Drought in Georgia.
Available online. URL: http://interests.caes.uga.edu/drought/articles/
gwlands.htm. Accessed June 13, 2008. Sponsored by the University of
Georgia, this Web site explains the advantages and disadvantages of gray
water for ornamental plants.
Colorado State University Extension. “Gray Water Reuse and Rainwater
Harvesting,” March 2008. Available online. URL: http://www.ext.
colostate.edu/pubs/natres/06702.html. Accessed June 13, 2008. This
Web site explains uses and benefits of gray water.
SAHRA, Arizona Board of Regents. “Residential Water Conservation,”
2001. Available online. URL: http://www.sahra.arizona.edu/programs/
water_cons/tips/re-use/gray.htm. Accessed June 13, 2008. This Web site
defines gray water and discusses its uses.
 5. Build and Use a Turbidity Tube

Topic
A turbidity tube can be constructed out of simple materials and used to
measure turbidity in local waterways.

Introduction
The clarity of a body of water is one indicator of water quality. Surface
waters can become cloudy, or turbid, because of runoff from nearby fields
or construction sites, erosion of stream banks, industrial discharge, or
excessive growth of unicellular algae. All waterways have normal levels of
turbidity and the organisms in those water have evolved to live there. But
when turbidity levels increase, organisms may not be able to survive.
Turbidity, which can be measured with several different devices, is
expressed in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTUs). NTUs reflect the
amount of light that is scattered by suspended particles in a sample of
water. For example, water with a turbidity reading of 10 NTUs is fairly clear
and has relatively good visibility, up to 21.5 inches (in.) (54.6 centimeters
[cm]). Very turbid water might have a reading of 240 NTUs and a visibility
of only 2.5 in. (6.35 cm). Figure 1 shows the visibilities of water at less
than 10 NTUs, 200 NTUs, and 1,500 NTUs. Water with high turbidity
values can cause stress to inhabitants. Fish reduce their feeding rates
and eggs hatch at a slower-than-usual rate. Extended periods of turbidity
can lead to fish dying off.

< 10 NTUs 200 NTUs 1,500 NTUs

Figure
Figure 1
1
27
28 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Aquatic plants and animals depend on dissolved oxygen (DO) to survive.

The concentration of DO in a waterway depends on several factors:
temperature, rate of photosynthesis, wave action, amount of oxygen
used by bacteria that are breaking down dead organic matter, and
turbidity. Turbidity reduces the degree of light penetration, which affects
photosynthesis. In addition, suspended particles in turbid water absorb
heat from sunlight, causing DO levels to fall. (Warm water holds less
oxygen than cool water.) In this experiment, you will make a turbidity tube
(see Figure 2) and use it to measure turbidity of water.

clear plastic tube

metric tape measure

plastic disc

stopper

Figure 2 Figure 2

Time Required
Walker/Wood Book 2 Environment Figure 2-(2-5-2)
rev.12/15/08
55 minutes for part A
55 minutes for part B

Materials
2 clear plastic tube or fluorescent light sleeve (about 4 feet [ft]
[122 centimeters (cm)] long and 1.8 inches [in.][4.5 cm] in
diameter)
5. Build and Use a Turbidity Tube 29

2 2 rubber bands
2 rubber stopper (that will fit into the clear tube)
2 white plastic milk jug
2 permanent black pen
2 scissors
2 metric tape measure
2 superglue
2 collection bottle (about 1.1 quarts [1 liter])
2 access to a waterway or a bucket of cloudy water
2 science notebook

Safety Note
Please review and follow the safety guidelines at the
beginning of this volume.

Procedure: Part A
1. Working with a partner, cut out one side of the milk jug so that you
have a piece of flat plastic.
2. Stand the clear tube on the piece of plastic. Trace around the clear
tube with the black pen.
3. Use scissors to cut the circle of white plastic. Cut around the plastic
again to reduce its diameter. Your goal is to create a plastic circle
that will fit inside the clear tube.
4. Divide the plastic circle into four equal parts. Color two opposing
parts black (see Figure 3).

circle cut from

plastic milk jug

Figure 3
Figure 3
30 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

5. Use superglue to stick the back of the plastic circle to the rubber
stopper.
6. Press the rubber stopper into one end of the clear tube.
7. Use two rubber bands to attach the tape measure to the outside of
the clear tube. Align the tape measure so that the “0” is even with
the black-and-white plastic disc.
8. Put a mark on the clear tube 2.6 in. (6.7 cm) from the black-and-
white plastic disk. Label this point at 240 NTU with the permanent
black pen.
9. The data table shows the conversion of length to turbidity in NTU.
Use the tape measure and the values on the data table to continue
marking the tube.

Data Table
Centimeters NTU
6.7 240
7.3 200
8.9 150
11.5 100
17.9 50
20.4 40
25.5 30
33.1 21
35.6 19
38.2 17
40.7 15
43.4 14
45.8 13
48.3 12
50.9 11
53.4 10
85.4 5
5. Build and Use a Turbidity Tube 31

10. Trim the top of the clear tube to just a few centimeters above the
last reading.

Procedure: Part B
1. Dip the collection bottle into the waterway. Be careful not to stir the
water or to dip up any of the sediment.
2. Stand the turbidity tube upright. Position yourself so that you are
between the tube and the Sun, causing a shadow on the tube.
3. Hold your head directly over the tube and look straight down into it
(see Figure 4).

collection
bottle

turbidity
tube

Figure 4

4. Ask you partner to pour water Figure

very4 carefully from the collection
bottle into the turbidity tube, working slowly to avoid creating
bubbles. If bubbles begin to form, pause until they disappear.
5. Stop pouring water into the tube as soon as the disk at the bottom
Walker/Wood
of the turbidity tube isBook
no 2longer
Environmental
visible.Figure 4-(2-5-4)
6. Read the value on the side of the turbidity tube and record it in your
science notebook.
7. Empty the tube. Repeat steps 1 through 6, swapping jobs with your
partner.
8. Record the values found by your classmates.
32 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Analysis
1. What is turbidity?
2. What is the function of the black-and-white disk at the bottom of the
turbidity tube?
3. Why do you think the turbidity tube must be completely transparent?
4. Why might a scientist want to measure the turbidity of a stream over
time?
5. Did you and your partner get exactly the same values when you read
the turbidity of the water sample? Explain why or why not.

What’s Going On?

A turbidity tube is a device that shows the correlation between visual
cloudiness of water and turbidity. To use the tube, an observer views a
marker through a water sample until the marker can no longer be seen.
The height of the column of water that obscures the marker is correlated
to a turbidity value. Turbidity tubes are excellent and inexpensive tools
for field work. Other measurement devices, such as turbidity meters, are
also available but are more expensive. Turbidity tubes provide the most
accurate data when they are read by three or more individuals. No two
individuals have exactly the same vision, so only one person’s reading
should not be considered sufficient.

Connections
Because many streams and rivers become turbid after a rain, native
species of fish are adapted to short-term changes in water. However,
in recent years, waterways are remaining turbid for longer periods of
time. This difference is due to changes in land use. More soil particles,
especially silts, are eroding in waterways because of the removal of
vegetation along banks. High water turbidity causes problems. Drinking
water must have turbidity below 5 NTU. Water turbidity above 10 NTU
reduces oxygen levels in waterways and makes it more difficult for
organisms to survive. Some types of fish, such as trout, require clear,
highly oxygenated water.
To prevent problems due to water turbidity, some communities are limiting
the amount of construction that can be done adjacent waterways. By
leaving riparian regions in their natural states, soil erosion into streams
5. Build and Use a Turbidity Tube 33

is reduced. Natural riparian ecosystems have other advantages. Regions

that border waterways support biologically distinctive communities. In
addition, the zones act as natural biofilters that protect waterways from
pollution as well as silt.

Want to Know More?

See appendix for Our Findings.

Further Reading
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “Importance of Turbidity,” EPA
Guidance Manual, April 1999. Available online. URL: http://www.epa.gov/
ogwdw/mdbp/pdf/turbidity/chap_07.pdf. Accessed June 13, 2008. This
Web page explains the causes and problems due to turbidity.
Water on the Web. “Turbidity,” January 17, 2008. Available online. URL:
http://waterontheweb.org/under/waterquality/turbidity.html. Accessed
June 13, 2008. The natural occurrence of turbidity and changes due to
pollutants are discussed.
Waterwatcher. “What Do Waterwatchers Monitor?” February 8, 2006.
Available online. URL: http://www.sa.waterwatch.org.au/monitor.htm.
Accessed June 13, 2008. This Web site explains several tests done on
waterways to monitor water quality and shows how to use a turbidity tube.
 6. What Do People Throw Away?

Topic
Analysis of household waste can be used to help plan new and better
recycling programs.

Introduction
Whether you call it trash, garbage, or municipal solid waste (MSW), people
throw away tons of it each year. Americans dispose of most of their trash
in receptacles for removal to solid waste landfills. The function of a landfill
is not to get rid of trash; materials in a landfill decompose at an extremely
slow rate. Instead, landfills are places where trash is removed from sight.
About 80 percent of the trash in this country goes to a landfill like the one
in Figure 1. Many landfills are running out of space.

Figure 1
Figure 1
Landfill

A better way to manage resources might be a low-waste tactic. This

approach has two major benefits: It reduces waste because materials are
Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 1-(2-6-1)
reused rather than discarded, and it saves the energy that would have

34
6. What Do People Throw Away? 35

been used to generate new items. Recycling is the keystone behind low-
waste management. Currently, only about 13 percent of MSW is recycled.
What can be done to improve this statistic?
Before recycling habits can be improved, we first need to know what’s
in our trash. Analysis of garbage will help establish new and better
recycling plans as well as programs to educate people on the importance
of recycling. In this experiment, you will analyze the trash produced by
several families over a 24-hour period.

Time Required
24 hours for day 1
40 minutes for day 2

Materials
2 access to a white board or overhead projector
2 calculator (optional)
2 science notebook

Safety Note
Please review and follow the safety guidelines at the
beginning of this volume.

Procedure: Day 1
1. Ask everyone in your household to participate in a survey of the
material that goes into the trash over a 24-hour period.
2. Have each person to enter a tally mark on Data Table 1 for each
type of trash he or she throws away. Notice that the plastic items
in the data table have three categories: PET, HDPE, and Other. PET
and HDPE are recycling codes found on the bottoms of plastic
items. Plastic items with any other type of code should be classified
as Other.
36 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Data Table 1

Types of waste Number of items

Paper/cardboard/
newspapers

Plastic, PET

Plastic, HDPE

Plastic, other

Aluminum

Tin-plated steel cans

Other metals

Glass, clear

Glass, green

Glass, amber

Food

Wood

Procedures: Day 2
1. Post your family’s results with your classmates’ on a class data
table (like Data Table 1) on the board or overhead projector.
2. Tally the class results. Use your family’s data and the class results
to help you answer the Analysis questions.
6. What Do People Throw Away? 37

Analysis
1.For your household, calculate:
a. total plastics
b. total glass
c. total metal
2. List the items that your household threw away that are recyclable.
(Remember that paper, glass, metal, PET plastic, and HDPE plastic
can be recycled.)
3. Examine the class results. Calculate the percentage of the following
types of garbage for the entire class:
a. all types of paper
b. all types of plastics
c. all types of glass
d. all types of metal (includes aluminum, steel cans, and other
metals)
e. all types of food
f. all types of wood
To calculate the percentage of each type of garbage, determine
the total number of items listed on the data table. Then use the
following formula:
no. of one type garbage
percentage of one type garbage = × 100
total no. of items
For example, assume that you, your classmates, and their families
threw away a total of 1,000 items and 100 of those items were
paper products. To find the percentage of paper items in the trash,
your calculations would look like the following:
100
percentage of paper =
1,000
percentage of paper = 0.01 percent
4. Calculate the total number of items on the class data table that are
recyclable. Use this number to find the percentage of items that are
recyclable.
5. If a person produces 4 pounds (lb.) (1.81 kilograms [kg]) of solid
waste each day, how much waste do they produce in 4 weeks? In
a year?
38 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

What’s Going On?

What do people throw away? The national average of the types of
materials that people throw Material
away isthown
shown in Figure 2.
away

other
25%
all paper
37%
wood
7%
food
7%
clear plastics
glass metal 9%
7% 8%

Figure 2
Material thrown
Figure 2 away

According to Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. citizens average four

pounds of solid waste per person per day.
One of the best ways to reduce the amount of waste we produce is to
Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 2-(2-6-2)
recycle. Recycling is good for the environment on several levels. When a
material is recycled, we save the energy that would have been used to
extract the raw materials, transport those raw materials, and produce more
of those products. Recycling also reduces greenhouse gases, saves space
in landfills, and cuts back on the amount of raw resources that are mined.

Connections
Paper is the primary type of trash in MSW. For every 100 lb (45 kg) of trash,
37 lb (16.7 kg) is paper. Some of the types of paper that are discarded
include newsprint, cardboard, and the stuffing in diapers. Paper is made from
trees that are cut, transported, chopped into small pieces, and pulped in a
chemical process that removes everything but the wood fibers. The product is
bleached and coated with finishers like clay and adhesive to produce a glossy
finish. All of these processes involve energy and fossil fuels. On the other
hand, the manufacture of paper products from recycled materials uses 40
percent less energy than paper made from trees.
6. What Do People Throw Away? 39

Glass is more difficult than paper to recycle because it must be separated

by colors. Of the materials recycled, glass makes up less than 10 percent.
However, efforts to recycle glass are well worth the trouble. Recycling
two glass bottles saves enough energy to boil five cups of water. After
discarded glass is separated by color, it is broken into small pieces
called cullet, which is heated with silica, sand, soda ash, and limestone.
The product is molded into new containers, cooled, and shipped to
manufacturers (see Figure 3).

glass
containers

New glass containers MSW trucks

are shipped to collect trash.
manufacturers.

Glass is sorted
New glass by color.
products are
packaged.

Glass is broken
New glass into cullet.
containers
are produced.

Silica, sand, soda ash, and

limestone are added to cullet.
The mixture is heated.

Figure 3
Figure 3
The life of a glass container

Plastics must be recycled according to their types. The two most common
types of plastics are polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and high density
polyethylene (HDPE). Soft Book
Walker/Wood drink2 Environmental
bottles, water bottles,
Figure and many food
3-(2-6-3)
containers are made of PET. HDPE is most commonly used to make
containers for milk, juice, cosmetics, and cleaners.
Metals are the most commonly recycled items because they bring the
greatest cash rewards. Every day, American use 200 million aluminum
cans. Like many other natural resources, aluminum does not exist in the
pure form. In nature, it is found as an ore called alumina that contains
40 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

oxygen. To free aluminum from the ore, it must be heated in a smelter

then separated with a powerful electric current. These processes require a
lot of energy, so recycling aluminum is a big energy savings. Making cans
from recycled aluminum uses only 4 percent of the energy of making cans
from ore. By recycling one aluminum can, you save as much energy as is
contained in one cup of gasoline.

Want to Know More?

See appendix for Our Findings.

Further Reading
How Stuff Works. “How Landfills Work.” Available online. URL: http://
www.howstuffworks.com/landfill.htm. Accessed June 19, 2008. This Web
site provides an easy-to-read explanation of the structure and function of
landfills.
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. “Reduce, Reuse, and
Recycle,” January 22, 2008. Available online. URL: http://kids.niehs.nih.
gov/recycle.htm. Accessed June 19, 2008. Commonsense suggestions
for recycling are provided along with tips for dealing with toxic materials
such as batteries and paints.
Waste Online. “Paper Recycling,” January 6, 2008. Available online. URL:
http://www.wasteonline.org.uk/resources/InformationSheets/paper.
htm. Accessed June 19, 2008. This Web site provides details on paper
recycling and links to other resources on recycling.
 7. Solar Energy

Topic
Solar energy can be measured with a voltmeter and milliammeter.

Introduction
What would your life be like without electricity? Today’s society depends
on electrical power to keep our homes warm, provide light, power
computers, run refrigerators, and heat ovens. Most electricity comes from
burning fossil fuels such as coal and oil, two nonrenewable resources. The
production of electricity from these fossil fuels gives off dangerous air
pollutants including carbon dioxide, which is linked to global warming, and
oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, two components of acid rain.
A cleaner, more efficient source of energy is readily available: the Sun.
Located about 93 million miles (about 149 million kilometers) away, the
Sun is able to meet all of our power needs. In fact, the amount of energy
that Earth receives from the Sun each minute could power every home
and business for a year. All we need to do is develop an efficient and
affordable method of harnessing this energy.
One way to capture energy from the Sun is to convert it into electricity with
a solar cell (see Figure 1). When light hits compounds within a solar cell,
some energy is absorbed, some is reflected, and some passes through.
The energy that is absorbed can free electrons in those compounds
from their chemical bonds. Freed electrons create vacancies into which
other electrons can move. This movement of electrons is electricity. Solar
cells produce direct current (DC), electrical energy that flows in only one
direction, like a current from a battery. The amount of electrical power
that solar cells yield depends on the size and number of cells and the
brightness of the Sun’s light. Electrical power can be calculated with the
following formula:
P = V × I
where P represents power in watts, V stands for voltage, and I
represents the amount of current of amps. In this experiment, you will
build an electrical circuit that contains a solar cell, a DC solar motor, a

41
42 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

milliammeter, which measures current in milliamps (mA) and a voltmeter,

a device that measures voltage.

Figure 1
Figurecell
Solar 1

Time Required
55 minutes
Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 1-(2-7-1)

Materials
2 solar cell (1.5 volt [V] or greater)
2 DC solar motor
2 milliammeter
2 voltmeter
2 6 lead wires with alligator clips on both ends
2 small piece of masking tape
2 index card
2 science notebook

Safety Note
Take care when working with electrical circuits. Please
review and follow the safety guidelines at the beginning of this volume.
7. Solar Energy 43

Procedure
1. Set up the circuit shown in Figure 2.

alligator clips

_
solar cell +

alligator
clips

alligator
clips shaft
voltmeter
solar masking
motor tape

milliammeter

Figure 2
Figure 2

2. Place aWalker/Wood
small pieceBook
of masking tape on the shaft of the DC solar
2 Environmental Figure 2-(2-7-2)
motor so that you can easily observe rotations of the shaft.
rev.12/15/08
3. Expose the solar cell to direct sunlight. Observe the voltmeter
and record the voltage passing through the circuit in your science
notebook.
4. Observe the milliammeter and record the current (I) in milliamps.
Convert milliamps to amps and record the result in your science
notebook. Remember that 1 amp is the same as 1,000 milliamps.
5. Count the number of times the DC solar motor shaft turns in 15
seconds and record the number in your science notebook.
6. Cover half of the solar cell with an index card.
7. Repeat steps 3 through 5.
44 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Analysis
1. Calculate the power output of the solar cell using the formula:
P = V × I
In this calculation, use the voltage and amperage you recorded
during the first part of the experiment.
2. Use the same formula to calculate the power output of half the cell.
3. Explain how the number of rotations of the DC solar motor changed
when half of the solar cell was covered. What caused this change?
4. How could you create a circuit that would produce more electricity?
5. Suggest some uses for solar cells.
6. What are the benefits of solar energy?
7. Suggest some drawbacks or problems using solar energy.

What’s Going On?

In this experiment, the solar cell is the source of electrical power and
the part of the circuit that uses electricity is the DC solar motor. The
milliammeter measures the current flowing through circuit and the
voltmeter measures voltage across the solar cell. These measurements
make it possible for you to calculate the power output of the solar cell.
Solar cells produce maximum output when bright sunlight strikes them
directly. Maximum solar output extends from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. Anything that
reduces solar energy reduces the output of the circuit. Cloud cover, smog,
fog, and other weather conditions as well as shade trees and tall buildings
can interfere with the efficiency of solar cells. To increase electrical
output, dozens of solar cells are packaged together in glass housings to
form solar modules.

Connections
The French scientist Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel (1820–91) made a
remarkable discovery in 1839—he found that some materials give off
electricity when sunlight strikes them. This photo (light) voltaic (electric)
effect led to the idea of using these materials as generators of electricity.
In the 1950s, scientists working in Bell Laboratories used silicon
compounds to create solar cells that changed 4 percent of energy striking
the device into electricity. Since that time, scientists have been working to
make solar cells more efficient and cost effective.
7. Solar Energy 45

Solar cells produce direct current, so they require a device to change the
electricity to alternating current (AC). In an AC circuit, electricity reverses
its direction of flow about 50 or 60 times each second. Your home and
the school are powered with alternating current. Solar cells are currently
used to provide power in remote areas where connection to a power grid
is not possible. They also run orbiting satellites, emergency telephones,
navigational buoys, billboards, and street lights. Scientists hope to
develop solar cells that can power homes, cars, and industries.

Want to Know More?

See appendix for Our Findings.

Further Reading
Florida Solar Energy Center. “Does the ‘Sunshine’ State Have a
Sufficient Solar Resource to Support Solar Energy Applications?” March
27, 2007. Available online. URL: http://www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/media/
enews/2007/2007-04_Sunshine_state.htm. Accessed June 15, 2008. A
map of the United States shows the relative amounts of solar energy each
state receives.
Hiebert, Ron. “Investing in Solar,” Edmonton Sun, June 15, 2008.
Available online. URL: http://www.edmontonsun.com/Business/
News/2008/06/15/5882351-sun.html. Accessed June 15, 2008.
Heibert discusses recent advances in solar energy technology.
ScienceDaily. “Solar Energy News” Available online. URL: http://www.
sciencedaily.com/news/matter_energy/solar_energy/. Accessed June 15,
2008. This Web site is collection of news articles on solar energy.
 8. The Safety of Reusing
Water Bottles
Topic
Water bottles that are reused may harbor bacteria.

Introduction
Humans, like all living things, must have water to survive. Water is the
medium in which biochemical reactions take place. This compound is so
important that it makes up about 60 percent of the human body. Water
lost through metabolic processes must be replaced. So how much water
should you drink daily? There is no simple answer to this question, but
some experts recommend 13 cups (about 3 liters [L]) for men and 9 cups
(2.2 L) for women.

One convenient way to have access to water all day is to carry a water
bottle. These easy-to-carry containers can be packed in backpacks,
briefcases, and purses. Since most people drink more than one bottle of
water each day, many folks refill their empty bottles at water fountains and
taps. Some people refill bottles to save money and others do so to reduce
the amount of plastic entering landfills. Whatever the reason, reuse of
water bottles is a common practice. All of this refilling of bottles without
washing leads to the question: Is it safe to drink water from a refilled
bottle? To find out, you will take swabs from new and used water bottles.
Each swab will be spread across a sterile agar plate, a gelatinlike material
that contains nutrient growth medium to detect bacteria.

Time Required
20 minutes for Part A
30 minutes for Part B
30 minutes for Part C

46
8. The Safety of Reusing Water Bottles 47

Materials
2 4 petri dishes with prepared agar plates
2 4 sterile swabs
2 4 bottles of water (same brand)
2 incubator
2 3 volunteers
2 rubbing alcohol in a spray bottle
2 small beaker of diluted bleach
2 paper towels
2 antibacterial soap
2 permanent marker
2 bleach solution
2 science notebook

Safety Note Wash your hands with antibacterial soap after working
with swabs and petri dishes. Take care when working with bleach
solution to keep if off of your skin. Wear gloves and goggles or safety
glasses. Please review and follow the safety guidelines at the beginning
of this volume.

Procedure: Part A
1. Four days before the experiment, find three volunteers (from your
school, neighborhood, or home) who are willing to use a water bottle
for three days without washing the bottle between refills. Record the
names of the volunteers in your science notebook.
2. Write each volunteer’s name on a water bottle. Tell each volunteer to:
a. drink the water in the bottle.
b. refill the bottle at least three times a day for the next three days
(without washing) and drink the water.
c. return the bottle to you on the fourth day.
48 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Procedure: Part B
1. Wash a lab table or other work surface with antibacterial soap or
cleanser and wipe dry with paper towels.
2. Lightly mist the work surface with alcohol and let dry.
3. Wash and dry your hands, then mist them with alcohol.
4. Place the three water bottles from your volunteers on the work
surface. Place a new, unopened bottle of the same type of water on
the work surface.
5. Place four petri dishes on the work surface.
6. Open one of the used water bottles and place the cap on the work
surface. Open the plastic wrap on a sterile swab. Remove the swab
(without touching the cotton tip). Run the cotton tip of the swab
around the mouth of the water bottle.
7. Open the lid to one of the petri dishes. Holding the lid in one hand,
gently rub the swab across the agar in a zigzag pattern (see Figure
1). Replace the lid.
8. Dip the cotton swab in the diluted bleach solution, then dispose of it
according to your teacher’s directions.
9. Label the petri dish with the name on the water bottle.
10. Repeat steps 5 through 9 with the other bottles.
11. Turn the petri dishes upside down and incubate at about 100
degrees Fahrenheit (°F) (37 degrees Celsius [°C]) for 24 to 48 hours.

agar swab

Figure 1
Figure 1

Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 1-(2-8-1)

8. The Safety of Reusing Water Bottles 49

Procedure: Part C
1. Remove the petri dishes from the incubator. Bacterial colonies
appear as spots on the agar (see Figure 2). Without opening the
petri dish, count the number of colonies on each plate. Record the
number in your science notebook.

agar

close-up
of colonies

colonies

Figure 2
Figure 2
2. When you are finished with an agar plate, destroy the bacterial
colonies by pouring a small amount of diluted bleach solution
over the agar. Dispose of agar plates according to your teacher’s
directions.Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 2-(2-8-2)

Analysis
1. Which petri dish(es) showed the most bacterial growth?
2. What conclusions can you draw about the safety of reusing water
bottles?
3. Suggest a follow-up experiment that would give you more
information about bacterial growth on water bottles.
4. Why do you think bleach is used on the cotton swabs and the petri
dishes?
5. Suggest some safe ways to carry water to school.
50 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

What’s Going On?

An agar plate is a petri dish that contains nutrient agar, a gelatinlike
medium that will support the growth of bacteria. Nutrient growth media
vary in color, depending on their ingredients, from tan to deep red. One or
two days after swabbing, bacteria picked up on the swabs start forming
small colonies on the agar plates. Hundreds of types of bacteria will grow
on nutrient agar. Most of these bacteria are harmless, but pathogens,
disease-causing organisms, can grow there also. For this reason, surfaces
that contain bacteria must be disinfected with a bleach solution.
In some cases, different types of bacteria growing on agar can be
distinguished by visual examination of the colonies. To further differentiate
bacterial types, more studies are required. Samples of the bacteria can be
transferred to other petri dishes containing different types of specialized
media. Not all bacteria will grow on the same specialized media.
Bacterial colonies can be further examined under the microscope after
staining. One of the most common staining techniques is gram staining.
Microorganisms that turn blue when stained with crystal violet are
classified as gram positive. These microbes include some staphylococci
and streptococci. Gram negative bacteria are those that do not take up
the gram stain and they include Escherichia coli and Vibrio cholerae.

Connections
Plastic water bottles are designed for one-time use. Bacteria enter the
bottles when the drinker’s lips or hands touch the necks. Washing bottles
with soap and water removes some, but not all, bacteria. Most of the
bacteria growing at the mouth of the bottles are harmless, but pathogens,
may be present. In some cases, bottles show high counts of bacteria,
including fecal coliform bacteria such as E. coli. These bacteria are found
in the intestines of mammals. Most likely, the bacteria entered the water
bottles from the hands and mouths of students.
Should plastic water bottles be reused? The answer to this question
is complex, involving health and environmental issues. Public health
officials do not recommend washing and reusing bottles. Washing is rarely
thorough, so some bacteria persist. Repeated washing can damage the
plastic. From the environmental point of view, the bottles themselves are
problematic because there are so many of them. Sales of bottled water
have quadrupled in the last 20 years. Bottles are made from petroleum,
a nonrenewable resource, and more petroleum products are used to ship
8. The Safety of Reusing Water Bottles 51

them to their destinations. One brand of bottled water taken from a spring
on an island in the Pacific is shipped worldwide. The processes required
to make each one-liter bottle of water produce about one-half pound of
greenhouse gases.

Want to Know More?

See appendix for Our Findings.

Further Reading
Gashler, Krisy. “Thirst for Bottled Water Unleashes Flood of Environmental
Concerns,” The Ithaca (N.Y.) Journal, USA Today, June 7, 2008. Available
online. URL: http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/environment/2008-
06-07-bottled-water_N.htm. Accessed June 11, 2008. Gashler examines
the environmental impact of bottled water.
kitv. “Refilling Your Water Bottle Turns It Into a Bottle of Bacteria,” May
19, 2003. Available online. URL: http://www.kltv.com/global/story.
asp?s=8945. Accessed June 10, 2008. In this interesting article, the
author discusses water bottles that were used a week by volunteers then
cultured for bacteria.
Tugend, Alina. “The (Possible) Perils of Being Thirsty While Being Green,”
New York Times, January 5, 2008. Available online. URL: http://www.
nytimes.com/2008/01/05/business/smallbusiness/05shortcuts.
html?pagewanted=2&sq=plastic%20water%20bottles&st=cse&scp=1.
Accessed July 28, 2008. Tugend examines some of the varying opinions
about water bottle contaminates.
 9. Wind Energy

Topic
Wind is an alternative energy source that can be used to generate
electricity.

Introduction
The Sun is the source of energy for Earth. Sunlight is not evenly
distributed, so some areas receive more solar energy than others. In
regions that are heated by intense Sun rays, air rises. Areas of cooler air
rush in to take the place of the rising, warm air. This moving air is wind.
The kinetic energy of wind can be used to generate electricity using a
windmill. Wind turns the blades of a windmill, which are connected to a
shaft. As the shaft rotates, it powers an electrical generator, a device that
produces electricity by moving a magnet through a coil of wire. Electricity
travels to transformers that convert the electricity into a form that can
travel along transmission lines (see Figure 1). In this experiment, you will
design blades for a windmill then test the blades to see how they affect
the voltage produced by that windmill.

Time Required
45 minutes

Materials
2 small fan or hair dryer
2 small DC motor (1.5 to 15 volts [V])
2 cork (at least 0.8 inches [in.] [2 centimeters (cm) in diameter])
2 voltmeter (or multimeter)
2 2 lead wires with alligator clips on both ends
2 4 paper clips

52
9. Wind Energy 53

2 index card
2 tape
2 scissors
2 science notebook

transmission lines

turbines
transformers

kinetic mechanical electrical

energy energy energy

Figure
Figure 11

Safety Note
Take care when working with electrical currents. Please
Walker/Wood
review and follow Book
the safety 2 Environmental
guidelines at theFigure 1-(2-9-1) of this volume.
beginning

Procedure
1. Set up the circuit shown in Figure 2.
2. Push the cork onto the shaft of the DC motor so that it turns when
the motor is running.
3. Use paper clips, index card, scissors, and tape to construct windmill
blades to attach to the cork. Your blades should be able to capture
wind (from the fan or hair dryer) to turn the shaft. When your blades
are complete, attach them to the cork. You have a simple windmill.
4. Turn on the fan or hair dryer and point it toward the windmill. As
the blades turn, observe the voltmeter. Record the voltage passing
through the circuit in your science notebook.
5. Change the shape of the windmill blades and repeat step 4.
6. Change the size of the windmill blades and repeat step 4.
7. Change the angle of the windmill blades and repeat step 4.
54 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

alligator
clips

cork DC motor

fan
lead wires
alligator clips

voltmeter

Figure 2
Figure 2
Analysis
1. What is the function of the voltmeter in this experiment?
2. DescribeWalker/Wood
the shape,Book 2 Environmental
size, Figure 2-(2-9-2)
and angle of blades that produced the
most electricity. rev.12/15/08

3. In this experiment, you only produced a very small amount of

electricity. Suggest some ways to produce more electricity in the
laboratory.
4. What are some advantages of wind-generated electricity? What are
some disadvantages?
5. Suggest some uses for wind-generated electricity.

What’s Going On?

In this experiment, the moving air from the fan or hair dryer turns the
blades of the simple windmill, causing the shaft to turn and generate
a small amount of electricity. The basic unit for measuring electrical
strength is a volt, the force needed to send a certain amount of electrical
energy through a circuit. Voltage is measured by the voltmeter. The
amount of voltage produced by the spinning windmill blades depends on
several factors, including the speed of the blades. The speed of blades
depends on the speed of wind and the design and arrangement of the
blades. Blade length is an important factor because length is directly
proportional to the swept area, the space covered by the blades. The
greater the swept area, the more wind caught with each revolution. Blades
must be set at an angle that allows them to capture the wind.
9. Wind Energy 55

Connections
Windmills, also known as wind turbines, are sometimes clustered in large
areas called wind farms. In the United States, wind farms supply about
10,000 megawatts (MW) of electricity, enough to power 2.5 million homes,
or less than 1 percent of the energy produced. The largest of these
farms is Horse Hollow, a 100-acre (40.5-hectare) development in Texas
that houses 421 wind turbines. Texas is number one in wind-generated
electricity, followed by California, Iowa, Minnesota, and Oklahoma. Most
energy-producing plants are owned by public utility companies. Wind farms
are different; they are usually run by businesses that sell the electricity
they produce to public utilities.
Generation of electricity using the wind offers many advantages over
traditional, coal-powered power plants. Wind, a renewable resource, is
clean and does not produce carbon dioxide, a culprit in global warming, or
oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, which contribute to acid rain. Compared to
other electricity-producing technologies, wind power is economical. As a
result, development of wind farms reduces the number of fossil fuel plants
needed. Despite these pluses, wind farms are not a perfect solution to
our growing energy demands. Winds must be blowing at a minimum of
15 miles per hour (mph) (24.14 kilometers per hour [kph]) to produce
electricity, so not all locations can support turbines. Wind turbines are
tall and obvious, and many people think they are unattractive. In addition,
some migrating birds collide with wind turbines. As with all technologies,
citizens must weigh the advantages and disadvantages of wind farms.

Further Reading
American Wind Energy Association. Available online. URL: http://www.
awea.org/. Accessed June 20, 2008. This Web site offers information on
legislation, policies, resources, and educational “web tutorials” pertaining
to wind-powered generators.
Energy Kids Page. “Wind Energy—Energy From Moving Air,” November
2007. Available online. URL: http://www.wired.com/science/planetearth/
news/2005/10/69177. Accessed June 20, 2008. A simple explanation
of technology used to harness wind energy is offered on this Web site.
Wade, Will. “Unexpected Downside of Wind Energy,” Science: Planet Earth,
October 14, 2005. Available online. URL: http://www.wired.com/science/
planetearth/news/2005/10/69177. Accessed June 20, 2008. Wade
reports on the problems that wind farms pose to birds.
 10. Test for Ozone

Topic
Levels of ozone in an area can be measured with Schonbein test paper.

Introduction
Oxygen(O2), is the life-supporting gas we breathe. However, ozone (O3),
is a chemically reactive and corrosive gas made of three chemically
bonded oxygen atoms. Because of its high reactivity, ozone irritates
delicate tissues in the eyes, throat, and lungs. Ozone also damages some
synthetic materials like rubber, electrical wire coatings, fabrics, and paint.
Ozone is found in two parts of the atmosphere. In the stratosphere, an
upper layer, it protects the Earth from damaging ultraviolet radiation. In
the troposphere, the layer closest to Earth, ozone naturally occurs at low
levels. However, at high concentrations, the chemical is a pollutant. High
levels of ground-level ozone are produced in a series of complex chemical
reactions caused by sunlight and the unburned hydrocarbons. These
compounds result from combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles, industries,
and power plants. As the size of the human population increases, ground-
level ozone is likely to increase with it. In this experiment, you will prepare
a test that indicates the presence of ozone then use it to check several
locations in your area for ground-level ozone.

Time Required
45 minutes on part A
15 minutes on part B
45 minutes on part C

Materials
2 beaker (200 to 300 milliliters [ml])
2 5 grams (g) of cornstarch
2 1 g of potassium iodide
56
10. Test for Ozone 57

2 100 ml water
2 hot plate
2 hot mitts
2 glass stirring rod
2 filter paper (1 sheet)
2 small brush
2 drying oven or microwave oven (optional)
2 scissors
2 6 Ziploc™ bags
2 spray bottle of distilled water
2 6 clothespins
2 bulb psychrometer or access to local weather information
2 science notebook

Safety Note Wear gloves and goggles or safety glasses when working
with potassium iodide. Take care when using the hot plate. Please
review and follow the safety guidelines at the beginning of this volume.

Procedure: Part A
1. Place 100 ml of water and 5 g of cornstarch in the beaker. Put
the beaker on the hot plate and heat, stirring to mix the contents.
Continue heating and stirring until the mixture gels.
2. Wear hot mitts to remove the beaker from the hot plate. Add 1 g
potassium iodide and stir well. Let the beaker and its contents cool.
3. Place a piece of filter paper on the table. Use the brush to evenly
spread the contents of the beaker on one side of the filter paper.
Turn the paper over and coat the other side as well.
4. The paper can be used to test for ozone at this point, or it can
be dried and store for later use. To dry, place the paper in a low-
temperature drying oven or in a microwave for about 40 seconds.
Alternately, use a clothespin to hang the paper out of the Sun’s
direct rays until it dries.
5. When the paper is dry, cut it into strips that are about 1 inch (in.)
(2.5 centimeters [cm.]) wide. Store the strips in a Ziploc™ bag.
58 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Procedure: Part B
1. Take a few strips of ozone-testing paper home with you and use
clothespins to secure them in outdoor areas. Make sure that they
are not in direct sunlight. Spray the strips with distilled water. Leave
the strips for at least 8 hours.

Procedure: Part C
1. The next day, collect the strips, label them with date and location,
and place them in the Ziploc™ bags.
2. Spray the papers with distilled water, examine them, and compare
their colors to the Schonbein color scale, which translates color to
levels of ozone (see Figure 1). Record your findings in your science
notebook.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Schonbein number
(after 8 hours exposure)

Figure 1
Figure 1
3. Find the relative humidity in your area in one of two ways. If you
have a bulb psychrometer, use it to record relative humidity at each
of the locations where you hung a strip. Record the relative humidity
from each Walker/Wood
location inBook
your2science notebook.
Environmental If you do not have a
Figure 1-(2-10-4)
bulb psychrometer, consult your local weather information. Round off
the relative humidity to the nearly 10 percent.
4. Relative humidity affects the accuracy of the ozone test paper. High
humidity makes the paper more sensitive to ozone. To accommodate
this, relative humidity must be taken into account when determining
levels of ozone. On the relative humidity–ozone chart (Figure 2), find
the Schonbein ozone number of one of the pieces of ozone paper
on the scale along the bottom of the chart. Draw a line up from
this number, until it meets the humidity curve that corresponds to
the humidity at your test location. Read the ozone concentration (in
parts per billion) on the left-hand-side of the chart.
10. Test for Ozone 59

5. Repeat step 4, using the Schonbein ozone numbers from each

location.

10% 20%
180 30%
40%
160 50%
60%
ozone level (in parts per billion) 140
70%
120 relative
100 humidity
80%
80
60
90%
40
100%
20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Schonbein number

Figure
Figure 2
2

6. Share your findings with those of your classmates. Compare the

amount of ozone in different parts of your community.

Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 2-(2-10-2)

Analysis
1. Explain the difference in stratospheric and trophospheric ozone.
2. Why is ground-level ozone dangerous?
3. How much ozone did you find in areas that you tested?
4. Were your findings the same as those of your classmates? Explain
why or why not.
5. Why do you need to know the relative humidity to calculate ozone
levels?

What’s Going On?

The German-Swiss scientist Christian Freidrich Schönbein (1799–1868)
discovered ozone in 1840. Schönbein developed a test paper to indicate
the presence, and relative amount, of ozone. The paper changed color
60 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

because ozone oxidizes potassium iodide into iodine. The reaction is:
2 KI + O3 + H2O  2KOH + O2 + 2 I
The iodine reacts with starch in the paper and gives it a purple color.
The exact shade of purple depends on how much ozone is present. The
Schönbein color scale can be used to translate color to levels of ozone.
Ozone levels in a community can vary from one location to another as well
as by time of day. Although one might expect ozone levels to be highest
in areas of heavy traffic, ozone is carried by wind from its source to other
locations. For this reason, people living in rural areas may experience as
much ozone as those living in cities.

Connections
Ozone is measured in parts per billion (ppb). Air that is not polluted
contains 10 to 15 ppb ozone. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
has determined that 80 ppb of ozone over a period of 8 hours can be
dangerous to one’s health. In heavily populated regions, levels may reach
125 ppb when the weather is hot and stagnant.
The EPA has established the Air Quality Index (AQI), a color-coded tool that
reflects the quality of air (see the data table on page 61). According to the
index, ozone levels above 75 ppb are considered unhealthy for sensitive
groups. This level of ozone is factored in with other major air pollutants
to reflect air quality labeled as “code orange.” Sensitive groups include
children, people who have asthma and other lung diseases, and older
adults. The four other major air pollutants are particulate matter, carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide. Individuals can reduce
their exposure to ozone and other air pollutants by reducing the amount
of time they spend outdoors or adjusting the time of day when they are
active outdoors. Ozone levels are higher in the afternoons, so mornings
are better times for walking or jogging than midday.

Want to Know More?

See appendix for Our Findings.

Further Reading
California Environmental Protection Agency. “The Physics and Chemistry of
Ozone.” Available online. URL: http://www.fraqmd.org/OzoneChemistry.
10. Test for Ozone 61

Data Table
Air quality Index (AQI)
Levels of health concern colors
values

When the AQI is in this ...air quality conditions ... as symbolized by this
range: are: color:

0 to 50 good green

51 to100 moderate yellow

unhealthy for sensitive

101 to 150 orange
groups

151 to 200 unhealthy red

201 to 300 very unhealthy purple

301 to 500 hazardous maroon

htm. Accessed June 19, 2008. The formation of ozone and the roles it
plays in the atmosphere are explained in easy-to-read language on this
Web site.
Environmental Education for Kids. “Good Ozone, Bad Ozone,” Wisconsin
Department of Natural Resources, June 2008. Available online. URL:
http://www.dnr.state.wi.us/Org/caer/ce/eek/earth/air/badozone.htm.
Accessed June 19, 2008. This Web page explains the differences in
trophospheric and stratospheric ozone.
Rubin, Mordecai B. “The History of Ozone, The Schönbein Period, 1839 to
1868,” 2006. Available online. URL: http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/
HIST/awards/OPA%20Papers/2001-Rubin.pdf. Accessed June 19, 2008.
This is an excellent article on the discovery of, and early work with, ozone.
 11. Biodegradation of Oil

Topic
Some bacteria found in the soil have the ability to break down oil.

Introduction
The term oil spill brings to mind visions of oil-soaked birds and slick
seashores. Oil spills are the accidental releases of large amounts of
petroleum. The wreck of the oil tanker the Exxon Valdez in Prince William
Sound, Alaska, in 1989, released 10.9 million gallons (gal) (41.2 liters
[L]) of oil that eventually covered 1,100 miles (1,770 kilometers [km]) of
coastline (see Figure 1). Since that time, oil spills have been given much
more attention at the national and international levels. Despite legislation
to reduce the potential for spills, they can still occur. As the number of off-
shore oil wells increases, the likelihood of new spills increases.

Valdez
Anchorage
Whittier
Seaward
t

Kennai
le
In

Peninsula
k

Homer
o
Co

Alaska oil spill

Peninsula

Gulf of Alaska
Kodiak N
Kodiak
Island 0 50 100
miles
0 50 100
kilometers

Figure 1
Region of theFigure
Exxon1Valdez oil spill
62
11. Biodegradation of Oil 63

Scientists are working hard to find ways to contain and clean up future
spills. One of the most promising solutions is a simple one: oil-eating
bacteria. Some species of aerobic, or oxygen-using, bacteria consume oil
because it contains carbon, an element that is also found in foods like
sugar and starch. Oil-eating bacteria break down carbon compounds to get
the energy they need for their metabolic processes. Waste products of oil
digestion are carbon dioxide and water (see Figure 2).

bacteria CO2 + H2O CO2 + H2O CO2 + H2O

oil
oil

bacteria eat oil bacteria digest oil and bacteria give off CO2
convert it to carbon dioxide and H2O
(CO2) and water (H2O)

Figure 2
Figure 2
Oil-eating bacteria can naturally be found in soils, especially those where
oil is present. In this experiment, you will test soil from three different
sources to find out which one contains the most oil-eating microbes.
Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 2-(2-11-2)

Time Required
55 minutes on day 1
15 minutes on follow-up days

Materials
2 4 quart jars or 500-milliliter (ml) beakers
2 graduated cylinder
2 lightweight machine oil (small can)
2 4 aquarium pumps
2 aquarium tubing (about 1 foot [ft] [30.5 centimeters(cm)]) for
each aquarium pump)
2 4 graduated pipettes
64 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

2 4 squares of aluminum foil (large enough to cover jars loosely)

2 0.3 grams (g) of ammonium phosphate
2 0.1 g of magnesium sulfate
2 0.3 g of potassium phosphate
2 1.5 g noniodinated sodium chloride
2 1,200 ml of distilled water
2 soil samples from 3 different locations (5 g per sample)
2 20 pieces brown paper, each 4 inches (in.) (10 cm) square
2 labels or masking tape
2 permanent pen or marker
2 ruler
2 science notebook

Safety Note
Wear gloves and safety glasses or goggles when working
with chemicals and bacteria. Please review and follow the safety
guidelines at the beginning of this volume.

Procedure: Day 1
1. Place 300 ml of water and 10 ml of oil in each beaker (or jar).
2. To each beaker, add the following inorganic nutrients: 1.5 g
noniodinated sodium chloride, 0.3 g ammonium phosphate, 0.3 g
potassium phosphate, 0.1 magnesium sulfate.
3. Label the beakers as A, B, C, and D. Beaker A will serve as the
control.
4. Place 5 g of soil from one location in beaker B. Describe the source
of this soil sample in the second column of the data table.
5. Repeat step 4 for beakers C and D.
6. Set up the air pumps and tubing so that each beaker contains a
tube that bubbles air into the bottom of the container. This will
ensure that the mixtures are supplied with air.
7. Estimate the amount of oil in each beaker with an oil spot test. To
perform the test:
11. Biodegradation of Oil 65

a. Use the permanent black pen and ruler to divide 4 pieces of

brown paper into grids of 16 squares.
b. In the upper left-hand corner, label the papers as “A,” “B,” “C,”
and “D.”
c. Label the pipettes as “A,” “B,” “C,” and “D.”
d. With pipette A, collect 1 ml of water from jar or beaker A. Take
the water sample from just below the surface.
e. Place the water in the center of the paper labeled A.
f. Repeat steps D and E for the other 3 jars (beakers).
g. Set the papers aside for a few hours. As the water dries, a spot
of oil will be left on the paper.
h. Measure the size of each oil spot according to how many grids
it covers. For example, the oil spot shown in Figure 3 covers two
complete squares on the grid and one-half of four more squares
for a total of six squares.
i. Record the size of the oil spot in the column headed “start” on
the data table.
8. Loosely cover the beakers with aluminum foil to prevent evaporation
and set the beakers aside for one week.

oil spot

grid

Figure 3
Figure 3

Procedure: Follow-up Days

1. Once a week for 4 weeks, repeat the oil spot test for each jar
Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 3-(2-11-3)
(beaker). Record the size of the spots on the data table.
66 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Data Table

Size of oil spot

Source of
Start Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4
soil

A N/A

Analysis
1. Explain the oil spot test.
2. Why do some bacteria break down oil?
3. Why do you think the inorganic nutrients were added to each
beaker?
4. Which soil sample contained the most oil-eating bacteria? How do
you know?
5. Why is it important to have a control in this experiment?
6. Suggest some everyday uses of oil-eating bacteria.

What’s Going On?

Bacteria have been on Earth for about 3 billion years, a much longer time
than humans, who have existed for a million years. Over that long span of
time, bacteria have evolved to live in every niche and corner of the planet.
Millions of years ago, some of the bacteria located in oil-saturated soils
underwent mutations that produced enzymes capable of breaking down,
or digesting, oil. As a result, these bacteria could use oil as a source of
food. Oil-digesting bacteria are relatively rare in most soils, but are much
more abundant in soils that are contaminated with oil products. Soil
from garages, roadways, and old dumping grounds have relatively large
populations of oil-eating bacteria.
11. Biodegradation of Oil 67

Scientists have been trying to identify all of the species of bacteria that
can break down oil. One species, Alcanivorax borkumensis, is a rod-shaped
microbe. In unpolluted portions of the ocean, A. borkumensis are present,
but populations are very small. However, when an oil-spill occurs, these
microbes multiply quickly and in a short time dominate the bacterial flora.

Connections
The procedures employed in cleaning oil spills involve several
technologies. One simple, but very useful, strategy is spraying the oil spill
with dispersants, detergent-like agents that break large volumes of oil
into smaller globules. When oil is separated into droplets, bacteria can
surround and digest it.
In discussions of oil-eating bacteria, two terms are commonly confused:
biodegradation and bioremediation. Biodegradation is the natural process
in which bacteria break down oil into energy and simpler compounds. If oil
is spilled on the ground or in the ocean, it will eventually be biodegraded
by bacteria in the environment. Bioremediation refers to the products and
processes that people employ to speed up biodegradation. One method of
bioremediation is to spray an oil spill with cultures of oil-eating bacteria.
Bioremediation can also include adding nutrients to bacterial colonies and
improving the oxygen supply to bacteria.
Some scientists who work in bioremediation hope to develop bacteria that
are super oil-eaters. Through genetic engineering, these scientists have
developed bacteria that yield unusually high levels of the enzymes needed
to digest oil. These bacteria are described as transgenic organisms
because their DNA has been modified. By applying super oil-eating
bacteria to spills, scientists expect to speed the breakdown of oil so that
less environmental damage takes place.

Want to Know More?

See appendix for Our Findings.

Further Reading
Chong, Wu. “Strain of oil-eating bacteria isolated,” China Daily, March
20, 2007. Available online. URL: http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/
china/2007-03/20/content_832106.htm. Accessed June 21, 2008.
68 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Chong explains how a new oil-eating microbe was found and how it might
be used to help clean oil spills.
Shah, Archit Sheth. “Marine Biotechnology,” 2007. Available online. URL:
http://74.125.47.132/search?q=cache:K5vPQPXRDJkJ:cosmos.ucdavis.
edu/Archive/2007/FinalProjects/Cluster%25201/Sheth-Shah_Archit_
MarineBiotechnology.ppt256,1,Marine%20Biotechnology. Accessed June
24, 2008. Shah describes bacteria that can help break down the oil.
Valdez Convention and Visitors Bureau. “Exxon Valdez Oil Spill,” 2007.
Available online. URL: http://www.valdezalaska.org/history/oilSpill.html.
Accessed June 24, 2008. This Web site provides a review of the events of
the Exxon Valdez oil spill.
 12. The Taste Test

Topic
A survey can help clarify the reasons that people select bottled water over
tap water.

Introduction
Bottled water is one of the most popular beverages on the market, and
its popularity is on the increase. Why do people select bottled water over
tap water? Convenience is definitely one reason. Consumers find it much
easier to buy water from a vending machine than to carry a reusable
container to and from work or school. The other primary concern is taste.
Water’s taste is due primarily to three factors: source, mineral content,
and treatment. The sources of water include surface water, such as lakes
and rivers, and groundwater, which includes wells, and aquifers (see
Figure 1). Water’s mineral content depends on its source; some areas are
naturally higher in calcium and magnesium. These minerals give water a
flavor that some people prefer.

deep
well shallow
well

lake

water table

aquifer

Figure 1
Figure 1

69
70 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Treatment includes all the processes used to kill microbes and remove
contaminants from water. Chlorine is the least expensive and easiest way
to kill germs, but it has the disadvantage of leaving an aftertaste. Other
methods include treatment with ozone, a highly reactive form of oxygen, or
ultraviolet (UV) light. Reverse osmosis forces water through a membrane
that filters out contaminants (see Figure 2). Distillation is a process in
which water is heated to evaporate the pure water, leaving behind its
impurities.
Despite all of the variables that can affect water’s taste, many contend
that individuals cannot really distinguish tap water from bottled water in a
taste test. In this experiment, you will conduct a blind taste test find out
peoples’ preference for water.

Reverse osmosis

tap water
membrane

untreated water pure water

contaminants

Figure 2
Figure 2

Time Required
Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 2-(2-12-2)
55 minutes

Materials
2 2 brands of bottled water
2 tap water
2 6 plastic cups
12. The Taste Test 71

2 labels
2 waterproof pen or marker
2 science notebook

Safety Note
Please review and follow the safety guidelines at the
beginning of this volume.

Procedure
1. Using the waterproof pen or pencil, label the bottoms of the three
plastic cups as “A,” “B,” and “C.”
2. Pour a little tap water into one of the cups and different brands
of bottled water into the other two cups. Make sure that all three
water samples are at about the same temperature (about room
temperature or chilled in the refrigerator).
3. Ask a volunteer to test all three samples of water for taste. Do
not let the volunteer look at the labels on the bottom of the cups.
Have him or her rank taste preferences as “1,” “2,” and “3,” where
1 represents their favorite taste and 3 their least favorite taste.
Record the responses on the data table.
4. Rearrange the cups and wait a few minutes, then test the volunteer
again. Record the responses on the data table.
5. Repeat steps 1 through 4 with nine other volunteers.
6. When the data table is complete, add the numbers in each column
to produce totals in the last row of the data table.

Analysis
1. Which of the three types of water did most people prefer?
2. Was the winning sample bottled water or tap water?
3. Based on your experimental results, do you think that people select
bottled water over tap water because of the taste?
4. What are some advantages of using bottled water?
5. What are some of the disadvantages of using bottled water?
72 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Data Table
Volunteer’s Name A B C

1.

1.

2.

2.

3.

3.

4.

4.

5.

5.

6.

6.

7.

7.

8.

8.

9.

9.

10.

10.

Totals
12. The Taste Test 73

What’s Going On?

In a survey carried out by the National Resource Defense Council (NRDC)
over a 4-year period, researchers found that up to 40 percent of bottled
waters are repackaged municipal water. With this finding, it is not
surprising that many people cannot distinguish tap from bottled water in
a taste test. In a taste test conducted by the World Wildlife Fund in 2001,
most consumers could not distinguish between bottled and tap water.
However, many stated that they believed bottled water to have a better
taste and to be a healthier choice.
The bottled water industry is huge, estimated at $15 billion in the United
States each year, and is growing about 7 percent per year. Several types
of water are offered, including spring, purified, mineral, flavored, and
vitamin enriched. It is hard for the consumer to interpret all these labels.
Spring water, also called artesian, ground, and well water, comes from
an underground source. Spring water is collected at the point where it
flows out of the ground. Water that is labeled as “purified” can come
from any source, but it has been treated so that it is free of chemicals
and microbes. Mineral water contains 250 or more parts per million
of dissolved solids, usually calcium and magnesium. Flavored water is
prepared by adding either natural or artificial flavors such as strawberry
and lime. They may be either sweetened or unsweetened. Vitamin waters
are similar, but have vitamins added including vitamins C, A, B3, B6, and
B12.

Connections
Consumers expect their drinking water to be healthy and to taste good.
The safety of water is the concern of two agencies, the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) and U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The
EPA regulates municipal (tap) water. The FDA regulates bottled water that
is prepared in one state and shipped to another. Water that is bottled and
sold in the same state does not have to meet either agency’s standards.
Most bottled water comes from ground water sources. These reservoirs
experience little variation from day to day, so their taste is fairly consistent.
Tap water is usually supplied from surface waters, which are influenced by
rain and runoff from surrounding land. In addition, tap water is delivered to
consumers through pipes, which can affect the taste.
Most tap water is disinfected with chlorine because the chemical is
relatively inexpensive and has the advantage of continuing to disinfect
74 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

even as water travels through pipes. On the down side, chlorine can
leave a taste. A few municipalities have upgraded their water purification
systems to ozone or UV light, the two processes preferred by bottled
water manufacturers. Neither of these techniques leave a taste in water.
Two other tasteless processes are reverse osmosis and distillation.

Want to Know More?

See appendix for Our Findings.

Further Reading
Environmental Protection Agency. “Ground Water and Drinking Water,”
September 20, 2007. Available online. URL: http://www.epa.gov/ogwdw/
faq/faq.html. Accessed June 21, 2008. The EPA explains how tap water
and bottled water are prepared.
Natural Resources Defense Council. “Bottled Water: Pure Drink or Pure
Hype?” April 29, 1999. Available online. URL: http://www.nrdc.org/water/
drinking/nbw.asp. Accessed June 21, 2008. This Web site explains the
findings of the NRDC research comparing the safety of bottled and tap
water.
Peek, Liz. “Bottled Water Industry at a Tipping Point,” New York Sun,
July 24, 2007. Available online. URL: http://www.nysun.com/business/
bottled-water-industry-at-a-tipping-point/59028/. Accessed June 21,
2008. Peek explains how people’s opinions about bottled and tap water
are beginning to change due to environmental concerns.
 13. Solar Water Heater

Topic
A passive solar water heater is an environmentally friendly way to warm
water.

Introduction
The Sun’s energy is generated by nuclear reactions. This energy travels
through space as electromagnetic radiation. Earth retains about 51
percent of the solar energy that strikes it. The rest of the energy is
reflected back into space, absorbed, or carried back to the upper
atmosphere by conduction. Figure 1 shows the details of the Earth’s
energy budget. Solar energy is changed to heat when it strikes objects on
Earth. You have probably experienced the conversion of sunlight into heat
if you’ve ever stood in a sunny spot on a cold winter day.
Earth's energy budget

reflected by reflected reflected Earth's

atmosphere by clouds surface clouds
6% 20% 4%
64% 6%
radiated to space
incoming from clouds and
solar energy atmosphere
100%
absorbed by radiated
atmosphere 16% directly
to space
from Earth
absorbed by
clouds 3% radiation
absorbed by
conduction and atmoshere
raising air 7% 15%

carried to clouds
and atmoshere by
absorbed by land latent heat in
and oceans 51% water vapor 23%

Figure 1
Earth’s energy
Figure 1 budget

75
76 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Because solar energy is free and plentiful, it is a logical source of energy

to meet the needs of our daily life. There are three basic methods of
collecting solar energy: passive solar heating, active solar heating, and
photovoltaic cells. Passive solar heating is the simplest; it does not
require any mechanical or electrical parts. In this type of system, sunlight
strikes and warms air or water. In active solar devices, sunlight is focused
on heat collectors using mirrors or lenses. Photovoltaic cells contain
materials that release electrons when struck by sunlight. These devices
are capable of producing electrical current.
Of the three techniques, passive solar heating of air and water is the
oldest and most frequently used. The amount of heat that a passive solar
device can collect depends on its design. In this experiment, you will
design a passive solar water heater and monitor the temperature of water.

Time Required
55 minutes

Materials
2 heavy-gauge black plastic (about 2 feet [ft] [61 centimeters
(cm)] square)
2 heavy-gauge transparent plastic (about 2 ft [61 cm] square)
2 heavy-gauge opaque plastic (about 2ft [61 cm] square)
2 1-gallon Ziploc™ bag (freezer)
2 empty 2-liter (L) plastic bottle
2 empty 1-L plastic bottle
2 plastic tubing (several feet long)
2 rubber or cork stoppers
2 modeling clay
2 soil (about 1 L)
2 insulating material (such as fabric)
2 scissors
2 labels
13. Solar Water Heater 77

2 glue
2 duct tape
2 permanent black pen or marker
2 thermometers
2 science notebook

Safety Note
Please review and follow the safety guidelines at the
beginning of this volume.

Procedure
1. Your job is to design and construct a passive solar water heater.
2. You can use any of the supplies provided by your teacher, but you
will not need to use all of them.
3. Before you conduct your experiment, decide exactly what you are
going to do. Write the steps you plan to take (your experimental
procedure) and the materials you plan to use (materials list) on
Data Table 1. Show your procedure and materials list to the teacher.
If you get teacher approval, proceed with your experiment. If not,
modify your work and show it to your teacher again.
4. Once you have teacher approval, assemble the materials you need
and begin your procedure.
5. Collect data that indicates how well your design warms water over a
20-minute period. Record your results on Data Table 2.

Analysis
1. Explain the difference between passive and active solar water
heaters. What are some advantages of each?
2. Most electric and gas hot water heaters keep water warm once it
reaches the desired temperature. Suggest some ways to modify
your design to keep water warm.
3. Suggest two improvements you could make to your water heater.
4. Suggest three ways to use water that is heated by solar energy.
78 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

5. What are some limitations of a solar water heater?

Data Table 1

Your
experimental
procedure

Your materials
list

Teacher’s
approval

Data Table 2

Time in minutes Temperature

0 (Start)

10

15

20
13. Solar Water Heater 79

What’s Going On?

Passive solar water heaters are useful because they make it possible to
convert some of the Sun’s electromagnetic energy into heat. This heat
warms a volume of water, which can be used for anything from bathing
to washing dishes. Commercial passive solar hot water heaters fill large
containers or tubes with water. These containers are generally made of a
black, nonreflective material that absorbs plenty of energy. As the water
heats, it can then be routed into a storage tank from which consumers
can draw out the water as they need it. Storage tanks are more apt to
maintain the heat in the water if they are well insulated.
Water is an ideal choice for a passive solar collector because it has a
high specific heat. The amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of one gram (g) of a material by 1 degree Celsius (°C) is its specific
heat. The specific heat of water is 1 calorie/g°C. This is much higher
than other liquids. For example, ethyl alcohol has a specific heat of 0.6
calorie/g°C. Because of this characteristic, water’s temperature changes
slowly as it absorbs or loses heat. In other words, water resists changing
temperature. Therefore, once it is heated, it holds on to that heat much
longer than other materials.

Connections
A personal solar shower is a simple passive solar water heater. A solar
shower is basically a large plastic bag, one side of which is black and the
other side transparent. The bottom of the bag is fitted with a hose and
a nozzle. The top of the bag has a hanging loop (see Figure 2). During
daylight hours, the bag is filled with water and laid on a sunny patch of
ground. The water will continue to heat up as long as it is in the Sun.
Once the water heats up, it can be used for a shower. Because of water’s
high specific heat, it will stay warm for a long time even after the Sun goes
down.

Want to Know More?

See appendix for Our Findings.
80 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

water bag
sunlight

heat

shower head

Figure 2
Figure 2

Further Reading
DiscoverSolarEnergy.com. Available online. URL: http://www.
discoversolarenergy.com/index.htm. Accessed
Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental June
Figure 22, 2008. This Web
2-(2-13-2)
site offers hundreds of links to resources on renewable energy.
Jones, Larry. “Specific Heat,” Journey Into Science, March 7, 2007.
Available online. URL: http://www.sciencebyjones.com/specific_heat1.
htm. Accessed June 22, 2008. Jones explains the chemistry behind
water’s high specific heat.
North Carolina Solar Center. “Do It Yourself Solar Applications: For Water
and Space Heating,” June 2000. Available online. URL: http://www.ncsc.
ncsu.edu/information_resources/factsheets/23lowcst.pdf . Accessed
June 22, 2008. This Web page describes some simple projects for using
solar energy in homes
 14. Population Growth in Yeast

Topic
Yeast populations with plenty of resources show uncontrolled growth.

Introduction
Yeasts are a large group of one-celled fungi that live in air, soil, and water.
Most people are familiar with baker’s yeast, Saccharomyces cereviae,
which is used to make bread. Under the microscope, a yeast cell is
relatively large, about 1/100 of a millimeter in width. Like cells of all
eukaryotes, the outer border of the cell is a membrane that regulates what
enters and leaves the cell. Inside the plasma membrane is cytoplasm
which contains organelles and the nucleus. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
within the nucleus contains the cell’s genetic information and controls
its functions. Organelles include ribosomes, which manufacture proteins,
lysosomes, which contain digestive enzymes, and endoplasmic reticulum,
a system of tubes where several processes occur.
S. cereviae breaks down sugars and converts them into energy to carry
out its metabolic processes. Under aerobic conditions, when oxygen is
present, yeast changes sugar into carbon dioxide, water, and a lot of
energy. This process, known as cellular respiration, occurs in another
organelle, the mitochondria. The equation for cellular respiration is:

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

When oxygen is no longer available, yeasts use an anaerobic process

called fermentation, during which carbon dioxide, ethyl alcohol, and
a small amount of energy are produced. Fermentation occurs in the
cytoplasm. This chemical reaction is shown in the following equation:

C6H12O6  2C2H6O + 2CO2 + energy

The carbon dioxide that is produced makes yeast valuable as an

ingredient in bread because the bubbles of the gas lift the dough, causing
it to rise.

81
82 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Yeasts multiply by budding, a process in which a daughter cell grows on

the side of the parent cell. Under optimal conditions, budding takes about
20 minutes. When the daughter cell is complete, a neck forms between
the original and the new cell and they separate. In this experiment, you will
count the number of yeast cells viewed in pictures of a microscope’s field of
view over a period of 12 days. The yeast cells were grown in a beaker with
sugar and warm water.

Time Required
55 minutes

Materials
2 graph paper
2 science notebook

Safety Note
Please review and follow the safety guidelines at the
beginning of this volume.

Procedure
1. Examine Figure 1, which shows the number of yeast cells seen in a
microscope’s field of view over a period of 12 days. Day 1 is the day
when a yeast culture was started in a beaker with warm water and
sugar. Day 12 is the last day of the experiment.
2. Create a data table in your science notebook in which you can
record the number of cells in the field of view over a period of 12
days.
3. Look at Day 1 of Figure 1. Notice that the field of view has been
divided into four quadrants. These quadrants were created to make
it easier to count cells on a microscope slide. When populations of
cells are low, you can easily count every cell on the slide. But when
populations are dense, you may find it easier to count the cells in
only one quadrant, then multiply the count by four.
4. Count the yeast cells on day 1 of Figure 1 (see pages 83 and 84).
Record the number of cells on day 1 in your data table. Keep these
things in mind:
14. Population Growth in Yeast 83

a. If one-half or more of a cell falls in the field of view, count it as

a cell. If less than half of the cell falls in the field of view, do not
count it.
b. If a cell is producing a daughter cell by budding, only count it as
one cell.
5. Count the cells for days 2 through 12, recording the counts in the
data table.
6. Create a graph that shows the size of this yeast population over a
period of 12 days.

Day 1 Day 2

Day 3 Day 4

Day 5 Day 6

Figure 1
84 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Day 7 Day 8

Day 9 Day 10

Day 11 Day 12

Figure 1 (continued)

Figure 1 continued
Analysis
1. How do yeast cells produce energy under aerobic conditions? Under
anaerobic conditions?
2. What substance serves
Walker/Wood as2 Environmental
Book food for yeast?
Figure 1-(2-14-1)c
3. Why is the field of view divided into four quadrants?
4. When populations grow rapidly, they produce an exponential graph
that has a J-shape. Slower growing populations produce a logistic
or S-shaped graph (see Figure 2). In logistic growth, populations
accelerate until they reach their carrying capacity, then they slow.
14. Population Growth in Yeast 85

Carrying capacity is the maximum number of organisms that an

environment can support. Was the growth of the yeast population
from days 1 to 10 exponential or logistic?
5. Based on your graph, on what day do you think that the yeast
reached carrying capacity? Explain your answer.

carrying capacity
of environment
population size

population size
the growth rate the rate
accelerates slows
down

the rate point of

acceler- maximum
ates growth

0 time 0 time
(a) exponential (unrestricted) (b) logistic (restricted)
growth growth

Figure 2 2
Figure

What’s GoingWalker/Wood
On? Book 2 Environmental Figure 2-(2-14-2)

In this experiment, Figure 1 shows the growth of yeast cells over a period
of 12 days. From day 1 to day 10, cells grew rapidly in an exponential
pattern, increasing the population size at a constant rate. The graph
showed this growth in a typical J-shaped curve. After day 10, all of the
yeast’s food supply had been used up and the population had exceeded
its carrying capacity.
All populations behave very much like the yeast cells in this experiment.
When resources are abundant, populations can grow without restraint at
an exponential rate. Species that grow exponentially eventually use up all
of the resources that are supporting them. When this happens, population
size drops dramatically.

Connections
Figure 3 shows the growth of the human population from 8000 b.c.e.
through the year 2000. The overall growth pattern of the human
86 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

population over this period of time produces a J-curve, typical of

exponential growth. Since 1950, the human population has increased in
size more than it did in the preceding four million years. No one knows
when humans will exceed their resources. However, experiences with
other populations who grow exponentially have scientists worrying.

World population growth

Agricultural Industrial
Revolution Revolution
old bronze iron middle modern
stone age new stone age ages ages ages times
6
5

population in billions
4

3
the
plague
2
1
0
8000 4000 3000 2000 1000 B.C.E./C.E. 1000 2000
B.C.E. B.C.E. B.C.E. B.C.E. B.C.E. C.E. C.E.

Figure 3
Figure 3

The fast growth of the human population has had a tremendous impact on
the environment.Walker/Wood Book resources
The planet’s 2 Environmental
areFigure
being3-(2-14-3)
stretched to the limit
as humans expand their domain. Eighty percent of the Earth’s original
rain forests have been damaged or cleared. Every 20 minutes, one or
more species of plants become extinct. More than 40 percent of the
groundwater is contaminated by pollution. The United States is one of the
biggest offenders in these environmental abuses. Although Americans
make up only 5 percent of the world’s population, we use more than
25 percent of the resources. One American consumes about 30 times
more resources than an average citizen in India. As Americans are using
resources, we are causing a lot of pollution. Citizens of the United States
contribute 25 percent of the greenhouse gases globally. Awareness of the
problems of fast-growing populations is the first step in finding solutions.
Everyone needs to be aware of the state of the planet so that we can all
contribute to the solution.
14. Population Growth in Yeast 87

Want to Know More?

See appendix for Our Findings.

Further Reading
Global Change. “Population Growth Over Human History,” January
4, 2006. University of Michigan. Available online. URL: http://www.
globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/lectures/human_pop/
human_pop.html. Accessed June 22, 2008. This lecture reviews the
growth pattern of the human population.
Population Connection. “Population Connection Fact Sheets.”
Available online. URL: http://www.populationconnection.org/index.
php?option=com_content&task=view&id=396&Itemid=18. Accessed June
22, 2008. This Web site provides links to resources discussing the effect
of human population growth on the environment.
Volk, Tom, and Anne Galbraith. “This month’s fungus is Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, the bakers’ and brewers’ yeast,” Tom Volk Fungi, 2002.
Available online. URL: http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/dec2002.
html. Accessed June 22, 2008. Volk is a professor at the University of
Wisconsin who provides information on all types of fungi.
 15. H
 ow Does Acid Precipitation
Affect Coleus?
Topic
Acid rain damages plants in many ways, slowing their growth.

Introduction
As air pollution increases, so do levels of acid rain. Acid rain forms when
sulfur and nitrogen oxides, gases produced by burning fossil fuels, mix
with water in the air then fall to Earth as precipitation. Normal rain, which
is slightly acidic, has a pH of 5.6. Precipitation with a pH below 5.6 is
considered to be acid rain.
Several metabolic processes in plants are compromised by acid rain,
including reproduction. Plants reproduce in two ways, sexually and
asexually. Sexually, plants produce eggs and sperm. These cells unite
to form ova that develop into new plants. Asexually, plants propagation
methods include layering, division, and cuttings. In layering, part of the
plant is covered in soil and begins to root while it is still attached to
the parent. Later the new plant may separate and become a separate
individual. In division, part of the parent plant root is broken off and forms
a new plant. A cutting is a leaf or stem that forms it own roots and starts
a new plant. The offspring produced in all of these asexual methods are
clones of the parent. In this experiment, you will design and carry out a
procedure to find out how the development of cuttings of coleus (see
Figure 1) is affected by various concentrations of acidity.

Time Required
one to two weeks

Materials
2 knife
2 coleus plant
2 plastic cups
88
15. How Does Acid Precipitation Affect Coleus? 89

2 aluminum foil
2 pH paper
2 vinegar
2 baking soda
2 straws
2 tape
2 string or twine
2 scissors
2 tape measure or ruler
2 electronic scale or triple-beam balance
2 access to water
2 science notebook

Figure1 1
Figure

Coleus plant

Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 1-(2-15-1)

90 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Safety Note Take care when working with knives. Wear gloves and
protective glasses or goggles when working with chemicals. Please
review and follow the safety instructions at the beginning of this volume.

Procedure
1. Your job is to design and perform an experiment to find out how
different levels of acidity affect the ability of coleus stem cuttings
to produce roots. In this experiment, you will need to create several
stem cuttings. For each cutting:
a. Remove a section of coleus stem from the parent plant. To do
so, cut the stem just below a leaf node using a clean, sharp knife
(see Figure 2). A leaf node is place where a leaf grows from a
stem.
b. Remove the lower leaves from the stem and discard.
c. Place some water in a plastic cup.
d. Cover the cup with a piece of aluminum foil. Pierce a hole in the
aluminum foil.
e. Insert the coleus stem into the water through the hole in the
aluminum foil.

upper
leaves

leaf node lower leaves

(to be removed)

Figure 2

2. In your experiment, you canFigure 2

use any of the supplies provided by your
teacher, but you will not need to use all of them.
3. Before youWalker/Wood
conduct your
Book experiment,
2 Environmentaldecide exactly what you are
Figure 2-(2-15-2)
going to do. Keep these facts in mind:
15. How Does Acid Precipitation Affect Coleus? 91

a. A good experiment has a control. Since normal rain has a pH of

5.6, you will need to raise one coleus cutting in a cup of water
whose pH is 5.6.
b. You are asked to test more than one concentration of acid on
coleus growth. Test the pH of vinegar. If you want to decrease the
pH of the vinegar solution, you can either add water or partially
neutralize it with a mild base such as a baking soda solution.
c. Coleus stems will produce roots when placed in water. It takes a
few days for roots to appear.
d. Healthy coleus stems and leaves maintain their color, shape, and
turgor, the internal pressure due to water.
4. Write the steps you plan to take (your experimental procedure) and
the materials you plan to use (materials list) on the data table.
Show your procedure and materials list to the teacher. If you get
teacher approval, proceed with your experiment. If not, modify your
work and show it to your teacher again.
5. Once you have teacher approval, assemble the materials you need
and begin your procedure.
6. Collect your results on a data table of your own design.

Analysis
1. Why does this experiment need a control?
2. What levels of acidity did you use in your experiment?
3. In which cup(s) did coleus stems produce the most roots? Explain
why.
4. What does this experiment tell you about the affect of acid rain on
plants?
5. Acid rain might damage the plants in an ecosystem without killing
them. How might this damage affect the entire ecosystem?

What’s Going On?

Both living and nonliving parts of the environment are damaged by acid
rain. Plant leaves and roots are injured and growth is slowed. Acid rain
can lower or even destroy valuable soil nutrients. Microorganisms that live
in soil and help recycle organic matter are also vulnerable to high levels of
acidity. Extremely acidic rain may lead to plant death in a relatively short
time. Even if a plant is not killed, its growth and development are impaired
92 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Data Table

Your
experimental
procedure

Your materials
list

Teacher’s
approval

by the effects of acid rain, making it more likely to suffer disease. A plant
whose root system is weakened can lose its grip on the soil and be blown
or washed away during severe weather. Acid rain also slows a plant’s
ability to reproduce. The cumulative effects of acid rain can damage all of
the plants in an ecosystem.

Connections
The Clean Air Act of 1970, amended in 1990, was designed to curb the
environmental problems caused by air pollution. Environmentalists hoped
15. How Does Acid Precipitation Affect Coleus? 93

that the legislation could restrict production of acid rain. Unfortunately,

levels of acid rain have not been reduced and new solutions are needed.
Visually inspecting a forest or field may not yield clear evidence of damage
from acid rain. Many areas appear to be green and healthy. Closer
analysis shows that plants in many ecosystems, especially those in the
northeast United States, are severely stressed by the long-term effects
of acid rain. Over years, acid build-up in soil has leached nutrients and
weakened plants. The damage to soil lasts for years, and will persist for
some time even if the problem of acid rain is solved. Leaching causes
loss of nutrients. Recovery is slow because nutrients are added to
soils by two processes: weathering and decay of dead organic matter.
Weathering, the erosion of rock into minerals, is a gradual process.
Decay of organic matter occurs faster, but still takes decades. Scientists
are hoping to find ways to support the plants in damaged ecosystems
until they have time to repair themselves. The first step in ecosystem
remediation must be a reduction in acid rain.

Want to Know More?

See appendix for Our Findings.

Further Reading
Environmental Protection Agency. “Acid Rain,” April 4, 2008. Available
online. URL: http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/index.html. Accessed October
4, 2008. This Web site explains the pH scale, the formation of acid rain,
and acid rain’s affects on living things.
Environment Canada. “Acid Rain,” December 19, 2002, The Green Lane.
Available online. URL: http://www.ec.gc.ca/acidrain/. Accessed October
4, 2008. This Web site provides comprehensive information on the
formation of acid rain, problems due to the precipitation, and solutions.
Smith, Ronald C. “Home Propagation Techniques,” North Dakota State
University, February, 2004. Available online. URL: http://www.ag.ndsu.
edu/pubs/plantsci/landscap/h1257w.htm. Accessed October 4, 2008.
Smith explains a number of techniques for propagating plants.
 16. Effects of Nitrates on
Duckweed Populations
Topic
The size of a duckweed population is affected by levels of nitrates in
water.

Introduction
Grassy parks, green lawns, and neatly clipped golf courses owe their vigor
and rich color to fertilizers, nutrients that help plants grow. Most fertilizers
contain three primary nutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
After a rain, fertilizer that has not been taken up by plants washes into
nearby streams, rivers, lakes, and ponds. In these waterways, fertilizer
has the same effects on water plants as it did on those terrestrial plants
for which it was designed. However, fertilizer levels can accumulate in
waterways and cause plant growth to become excessive.
One water plant that responds well to fertilizer is duckweed, or Lemna
minor, one of the smallest flowering plants. These plants live in still
or slow-moving warm water across the globe. A duckweed plant does
not look much like a typical plant. It is a single lobe or frond (a leaf-like
structure). Fronds often grow in clumps with roots hanging below (see
Figure 1). In this experiment, you will raise duckweed in the laboratory and
find out how different levels of nitrogen affect its growth.

Time Required
2 weeks

Materials
2 80 duckweed fronds
2 4 petri dishes
2 25 milliliters (ml) of nitrogen solution B

94
16. Effects of Nitrates on Duckweed Populations 95

2 25 ml of nitrogen solution C
2 25 ml of nitrogen solution D
2 25 ml of tap water
2 inoculating loop
2 magnifying glass or stereomicroscope
2 permanent marker or pen
2 colored pencils
2 graph paper
2 grow lights or access to a sunny window
2 science notebook

lobe or frond

root

Figure 1
Figure 1
Duckweed plants

Safety Note
Please review and follow the safety guidelines at the
beginning of this volume.
Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 1-(2-16-1)
96 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Procedure
1. Label the four petri dishes as “A,” “B,” “C,” and “D.”
2. To dish A, add 25 ml of tap water. This will serve as the control in
your experiment.
3. To dish B, add 25 ml of nitrogen solution B, which contains nitrogen
at the recommend concentration for lawns and gardens.
4. To dish C, add 25 ml of nitrogen solution C, which contains nitrogen
at half the recommended rate for lawns and gardens.
5. To dish D, add 25 ml of nitrogen solution D, which contains nitrogen
at twice the recommended rate for lawns and gardens.
6. Use an inoculating loop to transfer 20 lobes or fronds of duckweed
to each petri dish. A lobe is one plant, although lobes may be
growing in clumps.
7. Place the tops on the petri dishes and set the dishes under grow
lights or in a window where they receive plenty of light.
8. Each day for two weeks count the number of duckweed lobes in
each dish. Record your counts on the data table. To count lobes:
a. Use a magnifying glass or a stereomicroscope to view the plants.
b. Count every visible lobe, even the tiny ones that are just
beginning to grow from another lobe. The clump of plants that is
made up of four lobes, shown in Figure 2, will give you some idea
of how to count plants.
c. If plant populations are extremely high, draw a four-quadrant grid
on a piece of paper and place the grid under the petri dish (see
Figure 3). Count the lobes in only one grid, then multiply your
count by four.

1 4

grid
Figure 2 Figure 3
Figure 2
How to count duckweed lobes To be placed under
Figure 3 petri dish

Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 3-(2-16-3)

16. Effects of Nitrates on Duckweed Populations 97

9. Graph your experimental findings. Place time (number of days) on

the X-axis and number of lobes on the Y-axis. Use a different color
pencil for each petri dish.

Data Table
Number of Plants in Each Petri Dish

A B C D

Day 1 20 20 20 20

Day 2

Day 3

Day 4

Day 5

Day 6

Day 7

Day 8

Day 9

Day 10

Day 11

Day 12

Day 13

Day 14
98 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Analysis
1. What nutrients are found in most fertilizers?
2. How do fertilizers enter waterways?
3. Describe the structure of one duckweed plant.
4. In this experiment, in which petri dish was duckweed growth the
greatest?
5. How do you think that fertilizer runoff into waterways affects
duckweed populations? Explain your answer.
6. Suggest some ways to reduce the problem of fertilizer runoff.

What’s Going On?

Addition of nitrogen compounds to waterways increases the rate of plant
growth. Duckweed is an invasive species, one that is not native to the
United States and therefore has few natural consumers and diseases.
Consequently, duckweed populations grow more aggressively than
the native species. When nutrients and sunlight are available and the
temperatures are warm, duckweed doubles its mass every two days.
The plants quickly spread over the tops of ponds and streams, blocking
the light and preventing it from reaching native species below. Such
rapid overgrowth of any type of plant or alga in a waterway is known as
eutrophication.
Even in locales that do not support duckweed, nitrogen in waterways
causes problem. Since nitrogen increases the rate of plant growth, it
causes water plants to grow rapidly until they form thick mats at the
water’s surface. When mats become too dense for sunlight and oxygen to
penetrate, the plants die and sink to the bottom where they are broken
down by oxygen-consuming bacteria. Fast-growing bacterial populations
can quickly use up all the available oxygen in the water, depriving other
living things of the oxygen they need to survive.

Connections
Natural eutrophication is a gradual process that occurs over decades
as waterways age. However, problematic eutrophication occurs because
of human activities that create runoff containing nutrients like nitrogen
and phosphorus. Some of the primary sources of nutrients in waterways
include farmland, sewage treatment plants, and erosion from farmlands
16. Effects of Nitrates on Duckweed Populations 99

and building sites. In a short time, nutrients accumulating in a body of

water can destroy the ecosystem within it.
A classic case of eutrophication occurred in Lake Erie in the 1960s,
when homes, shopping centers, and expanding farms developed quickly
on the land surrounding the lake. With this development came increased
runoff, which carried a heavy load of nutrients, especially nitrogen and
phosphorus. In a short time, thick layers of water plants and algae
developed in the lake then died and sank to the bottom, leading to the
depletion of the oxygen in the water. Without this vital gas, animals and
plants died. When putrid masses of dead organisms washed onto the
shore, communities around the lake decided to make a change. Public
concern led to the passage of the 1972 Great Lakes Water Quality
Agreement between Canada and the United States. Controls on land use
reduced the amount of nutrients reaching the lake, and the lake began
to recover. Today, Lake Erie still has problems, but it is in much better
condition.

Want to Know More?

See appendix for Our Findings.

Further Reading
Great Lakes Information Network (GLIN). “Lake Erie,” November 1, 2006.
Available online. URL: http://www.great-lakes.net/lakes/erie.html.
Accessed June 27, 2008. GLIN provides current and historical information
on all of the great lakes, including Lake Erie.
Science Daily. “Fertilizer Run-off from Agricultural Activities Blamed for
Gulf Dead Zone in Gulf Of Mexico,” April 24, 2008. Available online. URL:
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/04/080421143836.htm.
Accessed June 27, 2008. A large oxygen-depleted (or “dead”) zone has
developed in the Gulf of Mexico due to fertilizer runoff.
Skillicorn, Paul, William Spira, and William Journey. “Duckweed
Aquaculture,” Agriculture Division, Technical Department of the Europe,
Middle East, and North Africa Regional Office of the World Bank. Available
online. URL: http://www.p2pays.org/ref/09/08875.htm. Accessed June
27, 2008. In this article, the authors evaluate duckweed as a potential
food source for fish raised in aquaculture.
 17. Seeds for the Future

Topic
Scientists are always searching for seeds that demonstrate new, useful
adaptations.

Introduction
A seed is a small, embryonic plant and its food supply, both of which are
covered with a protective seed coat (see Figure 1). The food within a seed
varies, depending on seed type, but can be starch, oil, or protein. Seeds
are dormant, or in an inactive state, until conditions for growth are just
right. When temperature and light are appropriate, seeds begin to take in
oxygen and water, which leads to germination, the development of a plant
(see Figure 2).
Scientists are actively looking for new seeds that may have undergone
natural mutations, or changes in DNA, that improve their ability to
survive. Any trait that helps an organism survive is an adaptation. In this
experiment, you will expose seeds to ultraviolet (UV) radiation to see if the
resulting plants show any new characteristics.

developing
plant

food supply

seed coat

Figure 1
Figure 1
Seed

100

Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 1-(2-17-1)

17. Seeds for the Future 101

Germination of a bean
first leaves

young stem

seed coat
seed coat

developing secondary
root roots

Figure 2
Figure 2
Germination of a bean

Time Required
Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 2-(2-17-2)
2 weeks

Materials
2 20 radish seeds
2 UV light
2 UV light safety goggles
2 potting soil
2 2 medium-size pots
2 ruler
2 permanent pen or marker
2 paper towels
2 access to water
2 grow lights or access to sunny window
2 science notebook

Safety Note
Do not look directly into the UV light. Wear UV protective
safety goggles when working with a UV light. Please review and follow
the safety guidelines at the beginning of this volume.
102 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Procedure: Day 1
1. Place 10 seeds on a paper towel.
2. Wearing UV light goggles, position the seeds about 6 inches (in.)
(15.2 centimeters [cm]) under the UV light. Leave the seeds in the
UV light overnight.

Procedure: Day 2
1. Label one pot as “UV” and the other as “control.”
2. Place soil in each pot.
3. Plant the 10 seeds exposed to UV radiation in the “UV” pot. Place
the 10 seeds that were not exposed to UV radiation in the “control”
pot. To plant radish seedlings, gently push them into the soil to a
depth of about 0.5 in. (1.3 cm).
4. Water each pot with the same amount of water so that the soil in
the pots is damp but not soaked.
5. Place the pots in the sunlight or under grow lights.

Procedure: Follow-up Days

1. Each day, check on the condition of the plants in the pots. Notice
whether or not the seeds have germinated. As the stems form and
the leaves appear, notice the color, shape, size, and condition of the
leaves. Record these observations in your science notebook.

Procedure: Final Day

1. Remove the plants from the “UV” pot, brush the soil from the roots,
and lay the plants side by side on paper towels.
2. Remove the plants from the “control” pot, brush the soil from the
roots, and lay the plants side by side on paper towels.
3. Use the ruler to compare the overall size of the plants and the
length of the roots. Record your observations in your science
notebook.

Analysis
1. What is a plant adaptation?
2. Why are scientists looking for new seeds?
17. Seeds for the Future 103

3. Which group of plants showed more growth, the controls or those

exposed to UV radiation? Explain your answer.
4. Which group of plants had the healthier looking leaves, the controls
or those exposed to UV radiation? Consider a healthy looking leaf
to have deep green color and normal shape. Compare the leaves of
your radish seedlings to those in Figure 3.

healthy
radish leaf

Figure 3

5. Which group of plants had the Figure 3

larger roots, the controls or those
exposed to UV radiation? Explain your answer.
6. If you wanted to develop some corn seeds that survive well in areas
that are highly polluted
Walker/Wood with
Book acids, whatFigure
2 Environmental kind3-(2-17-3)
of experiments might
you perform?

What’s Going On?

Future climatic conditions on Earth may be slightly different than those
today. New plant diseases are emerging that may threaten current crops.
Insects are constantly evolving, becoming better able to live on existing
plants. Because of these constant changes, plants will evolve to be more
resistant to disease and insects. The more genetic diversity there is
among plants, the better chance they have of producing offspring that can
survive.
In nature, plants and seeds are exposed to mutation-causing agents such
as chemicals and radiation from space and the Sun. The natural mutation
rate is slow, but it does produce some new species. Mutation breeding
is a technique that speeds up the rate of evolution. A few of the mutated
offspring may possess traits that help them resist pests, severe climatic
changes, and chemicals in pesticides.
104 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Connections
The concept of mutation breeding began with an experiment by Lewis
J. Stadler (1896–1964) in 1928. Working at the University of Missouri,
Stadler exposed barley seeds to X-rays and UV radiation to see how the
seeds would be affected. The plants that grew from these seeds were
very different from their parents. Although the plants did not display any
useful traits, the experimental results inspired Stadler to continue his
working on exposing seeds to radiation. Eventually, he developed a type of
barley that produced greater yields than existing species.
Interest in Stadler’s work spread and lead to the successful production
of many healthier, disease resistant plants. For example, scientists in
California bombarded rice with radiation. As a result, they developed a
shorter, sturdier plant that produced more rice than the parent plants. In
Ghana, millions of cocoa trees, the source of chocolate, have died from
the cocoa swollen shoot virus over the last 50 years. Scientists exposed
the buds of cocoa trees to radiation until they found a mutant that is
resistant to the virus.

Want to Know More?

See appendix for Our Findings.

Further Reading
Broad, William J. “Useful Mutants, Bred with Radiation,” New York
Times, September 1, 2007. Available online. URL: http://www.nytimes.
com/2007/08/28/science/28crop.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1. Accessed
July 1, 2008. In this article, Broad describes some of the success stories
in mutation breeding.
International Atomic Energy Commission. “Saving the Source of
Chocolate; Ghana Targets Killer Virus,” March 24, 2006. Available online.
URL: http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Features/2006/Ghana/cocoa.
html. Accessed June 29, 2008. This article explain how a virus-resistant
form of cocoa plant was produced from existing, diseased plants.
Leubner, Gerhart. “Seed Structure and Anatomy,” The Seed Biology Place,
2000. Available online. URL: http://www.seedbiology.de/structure.
asp#structure1. Accessed July 1, 2008. Leubner offers extensive
information on seed structure and function.
 18. Design a Reusable Envelope

Topic
Reusable envelopes save energy and reduce pollution.

Introduction
The waste stream is made up of all the things we throw away. A large
portion of the waste stream, about 35 percent according to the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), is made up of paper (see Figure
1). Paper and paper products are components of many items we use daily,
including food packaging, paper for printers and copiers, toilet tissue,
cardboard boxes, and newspaper. In 2006, about 85 million tons of paper
products entered the waste stream, three times as much as 1960.

paper 35%

glass
6%
yard
metals
waste
6%
14%
plastics
12%
food
other 8%
19%

Figure
Figure 11

Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 1-(2-18-1)

105
106 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

The production of paper requires a lot of energy. Only a few types of

industry, notably chemical, petroleum and coal, and metal industries,
exceed paper production in energy use. To reduce paper production and
save energy, the EPA encourages paper recycling. This technique requires
that paper be collected, processed, and added as an ingredient in the
production of new paper. Although recycling is a good practice, other
energy-conserving approaches are also needed. Creating reusable rather
than disposable paper products is one approach. In this experiment, you
are going to design an envelope that can be reused.

Time Required
55 minutes

Materials
2 copy or construction paper
2 glue
2 scissors
2 tape
2 rulers
2 transparent fabric (about 2 inches [in.] (5 centimeters [cm]
square)
2 needle
2 thread
2 lightweight, waterproof fabric (about 8 in. [20 cm] by 11 in. [28
cm])
2 electronic or postal scale
2 science notebook

Safety Note
Please review and follow the safety guidelines at the
beginning of this volume.
18. Design a Reusable Envelope 107

Procedure
1. Work with your lab group to brainstorm a design for a mailing
envelope that can be reused at least one time. You can use any
of the materials provided by your teacher, but you do not have to
use all of them. Keep these things in mind. The finished envelope
must be:
a. able to hold a folded piece of notebook paper.
b. designed so that a consumer can easily reuse it at least once.
c. lightweight so that it does not require additional postage. The
weight of a first class letter cannot exceed 13 ounces [oz]
(368.5 grams [g]), so your envelope should weigh 10 oz (283.5 g)
or less.
2. Draw a picture of your envelope design in your science notebook.
Show this picture to your teacher for approval before you begin your
project.
3. Collect the materials that your group will need to make the
envelope.
4. Assemble your envelope.
5. As a group, present your envelope to the class and explain how it
works. As you demonstrate your design, your classmates will grade
you using the rubric on the data table.

Analysis
1. What are some of the advantages of a reusable envelope?
2. What are some disadvantages of a reusable envelope?
3. Suggest some other ways to reduce the production of paper.
4. Make a list of all the paper products with which you come in
contact.
5. Design an ad for a newspaper that promotes the use of reusable
envelopes. In your ad, be sure to state all the reasons that reusable
envelopes are better for the consumer and the environment than
traditional envelopes.
108 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Data Table
Characteristics of the Envelope
Assign a numeric grade in each category. Use
the scale 3, 2, 1 in which 3 represents an
excellent job, 2 represents pretty good work,
and 1 represents fair work. Assign a grade of
0 if the work in one category was not done.

Names of students in each Will hold Can be Weighs Is attractive

group a folded reused at less than
piece of least one 10 ounces
paper time

What’s Going On?

Businesses that send out monthly statements usually include reply
envelopes. Each year in the United States, more than 80 billion reply
envelopes are included in the mail. Reusable envelopes eliminate the
need for separate reply envelopes, reducing the use of paper and saving
energy. For every one million reusable envelopes, 250 million BTUs of
energy are saved. A BTU, or British Thermal Unit, is a measurement
of heat energy. One BTU is the amount of energy needed to raise the
18. Design a Reusable Envelope 109

temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit. To put this in

perspective, more than 71 trillion BTUs of energy are needed to make 80
billion reply envelopes.
The other plus that comes from reusable envelopes is a significant
reduction in pollution. All paper products, including reusable envelopes,
are made using fossil fuels. In the paper industry, fossil fuels create more
than one billion pounds of greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide, water vapor,
and methane, the primary greenhouse gases, collect in the atmosphere
and trap heat near the Earth. Greenhouse gases have been linked to
global warming, an overall increase in temperatures worldwide.

Connections
Reusing mailing envelopes is one example of source reduction, a way of
preventing waste. In source reduction, fewer products are produced in the
first place, therefore creating less trash and conserving energy. One form
of source reduction is the manufacture of lightweight products. The paper
food service industry was one of the first to use this technique when they
started making paper plates thinner and lighter weight. To add strength,
the new streamlined plates were coated with wax or plastic.
Source reduction can be a personal commitment as well as a business
approach. Purchasing items that are designed for reuse instead of
disposal is a great way to get started. Instead of using paper cups and
plates, use dishes. Avoid buying single-serve food items, which come with
a lot of packaging. Use the front and back of every piece of paper. Instead
of printing items, work electronically and send messages by email instead
of through the postal system. Take cloth bags when you go shopping so
that you do not need a paper or plastic bag from the store. The actions
of individuals have a cumulative effect that makes a difference in the
condition of the Earth.

Want to Know More?

See appendix for Our Findings.

Further Reading
DeRosa, James. “The Green PDF: Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
One Ream at a Time,” Global Warming Initiatives, May 3, 2007. Available
online. URL: http://www.greenpdf.com/graphics/TheGreenPDFRevolution.
110 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

pdf. Accessed June 30, 2008. DeRosa explains the impact of the loss of
trees and the production of paper on accumulation of greenhouse gases.
Keep Columbus Beautiful. “Source Reduction.” Available online.
URL: http://refuse.ci.columbus.oh.us/kcb/brochures/Source%20
Reduction%20II.pdf. Accessed June 30, 2008. Columbus, Ohio, has
prepared an educational and entertaining brochure to help people reduce
the amount of waste they produce.
Story, Louise. “The Hidden Life of Paper and Its Impact on the
Environment,” New York Times, October 26, 2006. Available online. URL:
http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/25/business/media/25adco.html.
Accessed June 30, 2008. This article explains how much paper is used in
the production of Time magazine.
 19. Algae As Biofuel

Topic
Some species of algae are good sources of oil that can be used as fuel.

Introduction
The United States runs on oil that is used to make electricity and to power
vehicles. Most of the oil in the United States comes from limited reserves
deep in the Earth. For decades, scientists have been searching for a
renewable, nonpolluting way to provide energy on a large scale.
One result of this work has been the use of plant oil as fuels. Soybeans
contain oil that can be pressed from the beans and used to make diesel
fuel. Since the fuel comes from a living thing instead of from the ground,
it is called biofuel. However, there are some problems associated with this
technique. Soybeans require a lot of farmland, space on which food crops
would generally be grown. In addition, the yield of oil is only moderate, so
huge crops would be required to power the nation’s cars.
To overcome these drawbacks, scientists have turned to algae, simple,
plantlike organisms. Algae offer many advantages over soybeans and other
more traditional crops. Algae can be cultivated on land that is not suitable
for other crops as well as in brackish, or slightly salty, water. In addition,
algae yield more oil per pound than soybeans. Recent studies show that
algae could produce enough oil to meet all of the transportation needs
in the United States on only 0.3 percent of this country’s land. Much of
the current research has been done with diatoms and green algae, two
groups of algae. Figure 1 shows some common diatoms and several types
of green algae are in Figure 2. On algal farms, these organisms could be
cultured in shallow ponds or tanks. In this experiment, you will test one of
the factors that algae grown in cultures require for growth.

Time Required
55 minutes on day 1
30 minutes on each follow up day over a period of two weeks
55 minutes on the final day of the experiment

111
112 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Figure 1
Diatoms
Figure 1
Green algae

Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 1-(2-19-1)

Figure 2
Green
Figurealgae
2

Materials
Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 2-(2-19-2)
2 3 large petri dishes with lids
2 graduated cylinder
2 pipettes
2 mixed algal culture (about 20 milliliters [ml])
2 liquid fertilizer (about 20 ml)
2 NaCl (about 10 grams)
19. Algae As Biofuel 113

2 electronic scale or triple-beam balance

2 permanent black pen or marker
2 black construction paper
2 waxed paper
2 grow lights or access to a sunny window
2 dechlorinated water (about 100 ml)
2 science notebook

Safety Note
Please review and follow the safety guidelines at the
beginning of this volume.

Procedure
1. Your job is to design and perform an experiment to help find the
conditions needed for optimal growth of algae. You will grow algae in
petri dishes.
2. You can use any of the supplies provided by your teacher, but you
will not need to use all of them.
3. Before you conduct your experiment, decide exactly what you are
going to do. Write the steps you plan to take (your experimental
procedure) and the materials you plan to use (materials list) on
the data table. You may test one of the following factors that affect
algae’s growth: light, temperature, salinity, or availability of nutrients.
Keep these points in mind:
a. A good experiment has a control.
b. You need some method of measuring algae’s growth. In this
experiment, use the color of the culture in each petri dish as a
measure of growth. As the algae reproduce, the water in which
they are growing will become greener and cloudier. Put a piece of
white paper under each petri dish to help you judge changes in
the algal populations.
c. Set up your experiment to run for about two weeks.
4. Once your procedure is written, show it to the teacher. If you get
teacher approval, assemble your materials and proceed with your
experiment. If not, modify your work and show it to your teacher again.
5. Collect your results on a data table of your own design.
114 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

6. On the last day of the experiment, finalize your data, draw

conclusions, and answer the Analysis questions. Dispose of the
algal cultures according to your teacher’s instructions.

Analysis
1. Why does the United States need a new source of oil?
2. Define “biofuel.”
3. What are some advantages of algae over soybeans as a source of
oil?
4. Which algal growth factor did you test in your experiment?
5. What conclusions can you draw from your experiment?
6. Why is the color of an algal culture a good way to measure growth?
7. Suggest a follow-up experiment to the one you just performed.

Data Table

Your
experimental
procedure

Your materials
list

Teacher’s
approval
19. Algae As Biofuel 115

What’s Going On?

In this experiment, you raised cultures of mixed algae, an assortment
of different kinds of algae. Like plants, algae need light, nutrients, and
carbon dioxide to grow. When conditions are ideal, algae can double their
population size in two days. Algae require light to carry out photosynthesis,
a process in which carbon dioxide and water molecules use light
energy and chemicals to produce glucose and oxygen. The process of
photosynthesis occurs within the pigment chlorophyll, which is contained
in chloroplasts. Algae break down glucose for energy or use it to make
other compounds such as complex carbohydrates or oils. Without the right
balance of light, carbon dioxide, and nutrients, algae cannot flourish.
Scientists conducting biofuel research favor some species of algae over
others. Botryococcus is a type of green alga that makes lipids and stores
them as globules in the algal colony. Figure 3 shows several colonies of
Botryococcus. In current experiments, Botryococcus and other species
are rarely grown in open tanks or ponds. Sunlight only penetrates a few
inches, so deep tanks are not useful. Instead, scientists are raising the
algae in photobioreactors, containers that let researchers control the
environment and prevent other species of organisms from invading the
environment. Some photobioreactors are long plastic tubes and others
are plastic bags (see Figure 4).

Botryococcus

Figure3 3
Figure

Botryococcus

Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 3-(2-19-3)

116 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

tubes of algae

Figure 44
Figure
Photobioreactor

Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 4-(2-19-4)

Connections
Harvesting oil from algae is not the only reason algal cultivation is gaining
popularity. Carbohydrates can also be harvested from algae grown in
photobioreactors and used to produce ethanol, an alcohol that can be
burned as fuel. Currently, the United States is focusing on corn as a
source of ethanol. Unlike corn, algae require very little space and will not
contribute pollutants such as nitrates and pesticides to local waterways.
In addition, the protein left over after carbohydrate extraction can be used
for animal food. Another exciting factor in growing algae is that scientists
are connecting photobioreactors to the smokestacks of power plants,
some of the biggest producers of carbon dioxide. Algae use the carbon
dioxide in the process of photosynthesis, preventing the gas from entering
the atmosphere. Excess carbon dioxide is an air pollutant that is linked to
global warming.

Want to Know More?

See appendix for Our Findings.
19. Algae As Biofuel 117

Further Reading
Metabolomic Fiehn Lab. “Fuel, Biofuel and the Microalgae,” March 11,
2008. Available online. URL: http://fiehnlab.ucdavis.edu/staff/kumar/
Botryococcus/. Accessed June 30, 2008. On this Web site are several
great links to pages on biofuel.
MSNBC Interactive. “Biocrude? Algae-to-oil project aims to deliver,”
October 27, 2006. Available online. URL: http://www.msnbc.msn.
com/id/15250836. Accessed June 30, 2008. This article looks at the
advantages of algae over other crops as sources of oil for manufacturing
biodiesel fuel.
Roidroid. ”MIT Algae Photobioreactor.” Available online. URL: http://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=EnOSnJJSP5c. Accessed August 15, 2008. In this
video, Alan Alda takes a tour of a algae photobioreactor that was located
on a roof at MIT (it has since been moved to South Africa), and viewers
get a clear and entertaining explanation of the entire process of making
biofuel from algae.
Sheehan, John, Terri Dunahay, John Benemann, and Paul Roessler.
“A Look Back at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Aquatic Species
Program—Biodiesel From Algae,” U.S. Department of Energy, July 1998.
Available online. URL: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pdfs/
biodiesel_from_algae.pdf. Accessed July 5, 2008. This Web site explains
how energy can be extracted from algae.
 20. Energy in Ecosystems

Topic
Only 10 percent of the energy from one trophic level is passed on to the
next level.

Introduction
Life depends on energy. Most of the living things on Earth get their energy
from the Sun. However, only plants and some algae can use the Sun’s
radiant energy directly. One group of animals, the primary consumers,
obtain their energy by eating plants. Another type, the secondary
consumers, feed on plant-eating animals. In a similar way, tertiary
consumers are those that eat secondary consumers (see Figure 1).
The flow of energy from one trophic, or feeding level, to the next is not
efficient. Only 10 percent of the energy contained in plants is transferred

tertiary consumers

secondary consumers

primary consumers

producers

Figure 1
118
Figure 1
20. Energy in Ecosystems 119

to primary consumers. Secondary consumers get only 10 percent of the

energy of the primary consumers. The further the food chain extends,
the less energy there is to pass along. This explains why an ecosystem
has lots of plants, a fairly large number of primary consumers, a few
secondary consumers, and a very small number of tertiary consumers.
The movement of energy from one feeding level to the next is represented
in an energy pyramid (see Figure 2). In this experiment, you will
demonstrate the transfer of energy from one trophic level to another, then
draw an energy pyramid representing organisms in a nearby ecosystem.

0.1% energy energy of tertiary consumers

1% energy energy of secondary
consumers
10% energy energy of primary
consumers

100% energy energy

of producers

Figure22
Figure
Energy pyramid

Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental

Time Required Figure 2-(2-20-2)

45 minutes for part A

45 minutes for part B

Materials
2 100-milliliter (ml) graduated cylinder
2 10 ml graduated cylinder
120 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

2 dropper or pipette
2 1 large paper cup
2 4 small paper cups
2 permanent black pens or markers
2 access to water
2 access to an outdoor area
2 science notebook

Safety Note
Please review and follow the safety guidelines at the
beginning of this volume.

Procedure: Part A
1. Work with your lab group to brainstorm a demonstration that shows
how much energy is passed from one trophic level to another. You
can use any of the materials provided by your teacher, but you do
not have to use all of them. Keep these things in mind:
a. In your demonstration, let water represent energy.
b. One milliliter of water equals 20 drops.
2. Sketch or briefly describe your plans in your science notebook. Show
your plans to your teacher for approval before you begin your project.
3. Collect the materials that your group will need to set up the
demonstration.
4. Prepare your demonstration.
5. As a group, present your demonstration to the class and explain
how it works.

Procedure: Part B
1. With the members of your group, follow your teacher to a designated
area outdoors. Sit quietly for about 15 minutes observing organisms
in the ecosystem around you.
2. In your science notebook, write the names of all the organisms you
see. If you do not know the name of an organism, talk quietly to your
lab partners to assign it a “nickname” or number for the duration
20. Energy in Ecosystems 121

of the experiment. For example, if you see three different kinds of

butterflies, you could call them “yellow butterfly,” “blue butterfly,”
and “green butterfly,” or “butterfly 1,” “butterfly 2,” and “butterfly 3.”
3. Beside the name of each organism in your science notebook, record
the number of organisms you see (see the samples in the data
table).
4. Label the organisms as producers, primary consumers, or
secondary consumers. If you do not know how to classify some
organisms, discuss them with the members of your group. If you still
need help, check with your teacher.

Sample Data Table

Kinds of organisms Number of organisms Type of organism

Tall tree with flat leaves 2 Producer

Shrub 1 34 Producer

Shrub 2 6 Producer

Grass 241 Producer

Wildflower 1 3 Producer

Wildflower 2 2 Producer

Yellow butterfly 1 Primary consumer

Blue butterfly 2 Primary consumer

Green butterfly 1 Primary consumer

Caterpillars 13 Primary consumer

Spiders 3 Secondary consumer

Blue bird 1 Secondary consumer

Brown bird 2 Primary consumer

122 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

Analysis
1. Where do most living things get their energy?
2. Which is the most common group of organisms in an ecosystem;
producers, primary consumers, or secondary consumers? Why.
3. What happens to energy as it moves from one trophic level to the
next?
4. In your demonstration, what did you use to represent energy? What
did you use to represent organisms?
5. Draw an energy pyramid that includes all of the organisms on the
sample data table.
6. Draw an energy pyramid that includes all of the organisms you
observed outdoors.

What’s Going On?

The living and nonliving things in a particular area make up an ecosystem.
The sizes of ecosystems vary dramatically from hundreds of square miles
of desert to a few pints of water in a puddle. A food chain represents a
series of feeding relationships in the ecosystem. A food web (see Figure
3) shows how various food chains in an ecosystem interconnect.
Energy passes through trophic levels of a food chain. Along the way,
useful energy is lost as heat at each level. This loss of energy is due to
two factors: energy is used by the organisms on each level to maintain
life, and the transfer process is not 100 percent efficient. Because the
amount of energy available to support life decreases, the numbers and
mass of organisms decrease as you move from one trophic level to
another.
The number of trophic levels in ecosystems varies. Generally, terrestrial
ecosystems have three trophic levels and aquatic ecosystems have four
or five. This discrepancy is due to a basic difference in the producers
of each system. Terrestrial producers capture the Sun’s energy and
use it to make glucose and other carbohydrates, complex molecules
made from glucose. Aquatic producers make glucose and use it to form
carbohydrates and lipids, molecules that store much more energy than
carbohydrates. As a result, the transfer of energy between trophic levels
in an aquatic system is more efficient. In addition, the primary producers
in aquatic systems are phytoplankton, tiny organisms that are completely
consumed by very small animals. Every part of a phytoplanktonic
20. Energy in Ecosystems 123

organism is used by primary consumers. On land, producers like grasses,

shrubs, trees, and other plants have roots, stems, and other parts that
cannot be used by primary consumers. As a result, less of the energy
captured by producers is passed up the food chain.

Figure 3
Figure 3
Food web

Connections Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 3-(2-20-3)

One of the fundamental organelles in plant cells and some algae is the
chloroplast, a structure that contains chlorophyll. Chlorophyll can capture
energy in the process of photosynthesis, converting the radiant energy of
the Sun into chemical energy in the bonds of glucose molecules. Carbon
dioxide in the air is the source of the carbon needed to make glucose. The
equation for photosynthesis is:
124 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

carbon dioxide + water + Sun’s energy  glucose + oxygen

6CO2 + 6H2O + Sun’s energy  C6H12O6 + 6O2
Animals and decomposers, organisms that cannot carry out
photosynthesis, get the energy they need to survive by consuming the
glucose made by producers. Glucose is used by all organisms as the
primary source of fuel to supply the energy needed for life. In cellular
respiration, a process that occurs in mitochondria of cells, the chemical
bonds of glucose molecules are broken and the energy released. The
equation for cellular respiration is:
glucose + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water + energy
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
These two chemical reactions, photosynthesis and cellular respiration, are
dependent on each other. The products of one form the reactants of the
other (see Figure 4).

photosynthesis:
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy = C6H12O6 + 6O2

O2

CO2 + H2O chloroplast sugars

mitochondrion

O2
respiration:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

Figure44
Figure

Want to Know More?

Walker/Wood Book 2 Environmental Figure 4-(2-20-4)
See appendix for Our Findings.
20. Energy in Ecosystems 125

Further Reading
College of Dupree. “Energy in an Ecosystem,” September 25, 2004.
Available online. URL: http://www.cod.edu/people/faculty/fancher/
Energy.htm. Accessed July 5, 2008. This Web site offers an excellent
explanation of the movement of energy through ecosystems.
Pidwirny, Michael, “Introduction to the Ecosystem Concept,”
PhysicalGeorgraphy.net, 2008. Available online. URL: http://www.
physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/9j.html. Accessed February 6, 2009.
In this online book, Pidwirny supplies information about the biotic and
abiotic aspects of ecosystems.
University of Michigan. “The Concept of the Ecosystem,” November
16, 2006. Available online. URL: http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/
globalchange1/current/lectures/kling/ecosystem/ecosystem.html.
Accessed July 5, 2008. Energy transformations and biogeochemical
cycles are discussed in this article on ecosystems.
 Scope and Sequence Chart

This chart aligns the experiments in this book with some of the National Science
Content Standards. (These experiments do not address every national science
standard.) Please refer to your local and state content standards for additional
information. As always, adult supervision is recommended and discretion should be
used in selecting an experiment appropriate to each age group or to individual students.

Standard Grades 5–8 Grades 9–12

Physical Science
Properties and
changes of properties
in matter

Chemical reactions

Motions and forces 7, 9 7, 9

Transfer of energy and

interactions of energy 6, 7, 9, 13, 19 6, 7, 9, 13, 19
and matter
Conservation of
energy and increase in
disorder
Life Science
Cells and structure
and function in living 14 14
systems

Reproduction and
17 17
heredity

Regulation and
12 12
behavior

127
128 Environmental Science experiments

Populations and
2, 3, 5, 8, 14, 20 2, 3, 5, 8, 14, 20
ecosystems

Diversity and
adaptations of 2, 3, 4, 8, 11, 17 2, 3, 4, 8, 11, 17
organisms

Interdependence of
1, 3, 8, 15 1, 3, 8, 15
organisms

Matter, energy, and

1, 7, 11, 14, 16, 18, 1, 7, 11, 14, 16, 18,
organization in living
19, 20 19, 20
systems

Biological evolution

Earth Science

Structure and energy

7, 9, 10, 13 7, 9, 10, 13
in the Earth system

2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 15, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 15,

Geochemical cycles
16 16

Origin and evolution of

the Earth system

Origin and evolution of

the universe

Earth in the solar

system

Nature of Science

Science in history 10, 17 10, 17

Science as an
all all
endeavor
 Grade Level

Title of Experiment Grade Level

1. Testing Water for Coliform Bacteria 6–12
2. Effects of Environmental Pollutants on Daphnia 6–12
3. Density of Invasive Species 6–12
4. Do Plants Grow As Well in Gray Water As in Tap Water? 6–12
5. Build and Use a Turbidity Tube 6–12
6. What Do People Throw Away? 6–12
7. Solar Energy 6–12
8. The Safety of Reusing Water Bottles 9–12
9. Wind Energy 9–12
10. Test for Ozone 6–12
11. Biodegradation of Oil 6–12
12. The Taste Test 6–12
13. Solar Water Heater 6–12
14. Population Growth in Yeast 6–12
15. How Does Acid Precipitation Affect Coleus? 6–12
16. Effects of Nitrates on Duckweed Populations 6–12
17. Seeds for the Future 6–12
18. Design a Reusable Envelope 6–12
19. Algae As Biofuel 6–12
20. Energy in Ecosystems 6–12

129
 Setting

The experiments are classified by materials and equipment use as follows:

• Those under SCHOOL LABORATORY involve materials and equipment found only
in science laboratories. Those under SCHOOL LABORATORY must be carried out
there.
• Those under HOME involve household or everyday materials. Some of these can
be done at home, but call for supervision.
• The experiments classified under OUTDOORS may be done at the school or at the
home, but call for supervision.

School Laboratory
1. Testing Water for Coliform Bacteria
2. Effects of Environmental Pollutants on Daphnia
7. Solar Energy
8. The Safety of Reusing Water Bottles
9. Wind Energy
10. Test for Ozone
11. Biodegradation of Oil
16. Effects of Nitrates on Duckweed Populations
19. Algae As Biofuel
20. Energy in Ecosystems

Home
4. Do Plants Grow As Well in Gray Water As in Tap Water?
6. What Do People Throw Away?
12. The Taste Test

130
Setting 131

13. Solar Water Heater

14. Population Growth in Yeast
15. How Does Acid Precipitation Affect Coleus?
17. Seeds for the Future
18. Design a Reusable Envelope

Outdoors
3. Density of Invasive Species
5. Build and Use a Turbidity Tube
 Our Findings

1. Testing Water for Coliform Bacteria

Idea for class discussion: Ask students to explain why water
must be purified.
Notes to the teacher: You can add two steps to this
experiment by permitting students to test water from a faucet, which
should not contain any coliforms, and water from a toilet, which may
contain coliforms. In addition, you can permit students to prepare more
than one petri dish of their water sample. Prepare a solution of 50
percent bleach for students to pour on their bacterial plates after the
experiment.

Analysis
1. 100 ml
2. Answers will vary. The petri dishes were set aside to give bacterial
colonies time to develop.
3. Answers will vary depending on water samples tested.
4. The purpose of this test is to determine whether water contains
unsafe levels of dangerous bacteria.
5. Answers will vary. Water from the faucet should not contain coliform
bacteria.
6. Answers will vary. Water from the toilet will most likely contain
coliform bacteria.

2. Effects of Environmental Pollutants on

Daphnia

Idea for class discussion: Ask students to list some early

warning signs of damage in an ecosystem due to pollution. Lead them
to understand that by the time we can see ecosystem damage, many
populations of the microscopic organisms have been fatally injured.

132
Our Findings 133

Notes to the teacher: Solutions (pollutants) to test could

include, but are not limited to, salt water, acids, bases, oil, and antifreeze.

Analysis
1. Answers will vary.
2. Answers will vary, depending on students’ experiments.
3. Answers will vary, but high concentrations of pollutants most likely
caused death of daphnia.
4. The loss of any link in a food chain changes the entire ecosystem.
Most daphnia species consume one-cell algae. They provide an
important link between photosynthesizers and other small animals.
5. Changes in population sizes of daphnia may indicate that pollutants
entering the ecosystems.

3. Density of Invasive Species

Idea for class discussion: Show students samples of two
or three plants found in your locale and ask the question: “Where do you
think these plants came from?” Lead students to understand that some
species are native while others came from other ecosystems.
Notes to the teacher: Designate a large outdoor sampling
area that is about 100 square meters. Determine the boundaries of
this sampling area so that students can walk along them to find their
quadrants for sampling. This experiment has students count species in
three quadrants but if time allows, permit them to count five quadrants.
After students have calculated their individual group results, pool the
class data for a more accurate picture of species density. Before class,
determine the invasive species that live in your locale and show students
some samples of these plants. Resources that list invasive species can
be found in the Further Reading section.

Analysis
1. An invasive species is one that moves into an ecosystem from
elsewhere.
2. Answers will vary. Invasive species of plants have no natural
enemies, so they spread quickly and use up resources needed by
native species.
134 Environmental Science experiments

3. Scientists maintain counts of plant density to see how populations

are changing.
4. Answers will vary.
5. Students could count more plots to get more accurate findings.
6. Answers will vary.

4. Do Plants Grow As Well in Gray Water As

in Tap Water?

Idea for class discussion: Ask students to define the term

drought. Have them suggest some ways to conserve water during a
drought. Lead them to understand that some of the water that ordinarily
goes into the sewer system could be reused.

Analysis
1. Gray water is water from showers, laundry, and other household
sources except toilets and washing dishes.
2. The purpose of this experiment is to find out if plants grow as well in
gray water as in tap water.
3. Unless all variables are controlled, the experimenter cannot explain
his or her results.
4. Answers will vary. Students might have kept all of their plants in
the same general area where they were all exposed to the same
temperature.
5. Answers will vary.

5. Build and Use a Turbidity Tube

Idea for class discussion: Show students samples of clear
water and muddy water. Ask them to explain the differences in the two
samples and the reasons for these differences.

Analysis
1. Turbidity is the degree of cloudiness in water.
2. The disk serves as a marker at the bottom of the tube that the viewer
watches as the height of a water column increases.
Our Findings 135

3. Answers will vary. The tube must be transparent so that light can filter
into it.
4. A scientist may monitor several factors that influence the health of
the stream
5. Answers will vary, but students will probably get different values. The
ability of individuals to perceive the colored disk of plastic through
turbid water will vary.

6. What Do People Throw Away?

Idea for class discussion: Ask students this question: What
is the most common material thrown into the trash. After this experiment,
revisit the question.
Notes to the teacher: This is a class project, so provide a
place (white board, chalk board, overhead project) for students to compile
their data.

Analysis
1. Answers will vary by household.
2. Answers will vary by household.
3. Answers will vary by class.
4. Answers will vary by class.
5. 15 pounds; 208 pounds

7. Solar Energy
Idea for class discussion: Ask students to suggest some
renewable sources of energy. Discuss the differences in renewable and
nonrenewable resources.

Notes to the teacher: If a sunlit window is not available, use a

high-wattage lamp.

Analysis
1. Answers will vary according to experimental data.
2. Answers will vary according to experimental data.
136 Environmental Science experiments

3. The number of rotations dropped when half the cell was covered. This
drop was due to loss of half of the energy-producing surface of the
solar cell.
4. Answers will vary. Students might suggest using more solar cells or
improving the position of the solar cell in the sunlight.
5. Answers will vary but could include street lights, providing energy in
remote areas, or solar calculators.
6. Answers will vary, but students might state that solar energy is
nonpolluting and readily available.
7. Answers will vary, but students might state that solar cells are
expensive and it takes a large number of them to capture enough
energy to light a home or power a business.

8. The Safety of Reusing Water Bottles

Idea for class discussion: Ask students how many of them
use water bottles? Find how many students refill the bottles. Pose this
question: Could refilling water bottles pose any dangers?
Notes to the teacher: Prepared agar plates should be stored
in the refrigerator. Stack them upside down so that condensation
does not drop onto the agar. Before use, remove the plates from the
refrigerator for a couple of hours so they can come to room temperature.
You might want to perform this experiment in conjunction with experiment
12, The Taste Test.

Analysis
1. Answers will vary depending on experimental results, but the petri
dish from one of the reused bottles will most likely show the most
bacterial growth.
2. Answers will vary depending on experimental results
3. Answers will vary but could include taking swabs on day 1, day 2, and
day 3.
4. Answers will vary. Bleach kills the bacteria.
5. Answers will vary. Students might suggest using wide-mouth, reusable
bottles that can be thoroughly cleaned.
Our Findings 137

9. Wind Energy
Idea for class discussion: Ask students to describe some
problems caused by power plants that rely on the combustion of fossil
fuels. Have students suggest some alternatives to fossil fuels. Point out
the advantages to these alternatives.

Analysis
1. The voltmeter measures the volts, or electrical potential, produced by
the windmill.
2. Answers will vary depending on experimental results.
3. Answers will vary but could include a larger windmill or several
windmills working together.
4. Wind-generated electricity does not cause pollution, is inexpensive, and
is renewable. Some people do not want windmills in their communities,
windmills are noisy, and windmills can be dangerous for birds.
5. Answers will vary but could include using wind to provide power in
remote areas where electricity is not available.

10. Test for Ozone

Idea for class discussion: Ask students if they are familiar
with the smell of ozone. Explain that they may have smelled it after a
lightening storm or when they walk near a copy machine.

Analysis
1. Stratospheric or “good” ozone protects Earth from strong ultraviolet
radiation. Tropospheric ozone, or “bad” ozone (in high concentrations)
is a pollutant.
2. Ground-level ozone damages delicate tissues in airways.
3. Answers will vary depending on experimental results.
4. Answers will vary. Findings were probably not the same since different
individuals perceive color differently.
5. The oxidation of potassium iodide by ozone occurs more quickly and
to a greater extent when the relative humidity (which reflects moisture
in the air) is high.
138 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

11. Biodegradation of Oil

Idea for class discussion: Ask students to explain why an oil
spill is dangerous to ecosystems on shore and in the ocean.
Notes to the teacher: If possible, take soil samples from areas
already contaminated by oil. These soils may contain some species that
are using the oil for energy. If you do not have access to oily soil, select
soil that is rich in organic matter.

Analysis
1. The oil spot test requires that a drop of oil-containing material be
placed on brown paper. The oil will give brown paper a translucent
appearance.
2. Some bacteria break down oil to use as food.
3. Answers will vary. Living things require both organic and inorganic
nutrients.
4. Answers will vary. The soil sample with the most oil-eating bacteria
will produce the smallest spot on the oil spot test.
5. A control gives you something to which you can compare your results.
6. Answers will vary. Students might suggest using the bacteria to break
down oil in water around docks or to break down oil that washes off
of roadways.

12. The Taste Test

Idea for class discussion: Ask how many students think that
bottled water tastes better than tap water. Revisit this informal survey
after the experiment.
Notes to the teacher: You might want to perform this
experiment in conjunction with experiment 8, The Safety of Reusing
Water Bottles.

Analysis
1. Answers will vary based on experimental results.
2. Answers will vary based on experimental results.
3. Answers will vary based on experimental results.
4. Answers will vary but could include convenience.
Our Findings 139

5. Answers will vary but could include the environmental problems

created by billions of plastic bottles or the safety of reusing water
bottles.

13. Solar Water Heater

Idea for class discussion: Ask students how many enjoy
a hot shower. Have one or two explain how the water in their shower is
heated. Briefly discuss the environmental impact of heating water with
fossil fuels.
Notes to the teacher: A variety of materials can be made
available for this experiment. You can add, remove, or substitute items on
the materials list.

Analysis
1. Passive solar water heaters lie in the Sun and collect the sun’s
energy. They are simple to build and inexpensive, but may not
consistently produce plenty of hot water. Active solar water heaters
can produce hotter water because they focus the Sun’s rays on a
collector, then store the warm water to prevent heat loss.
2. Answers will vary. Students might suggest funneling the warm water
into an insulated holding tank.
3. Answers will vary.
4. Answers will vary but could include bathing, washing dishes, or
heating a room.
5. Answers will vary. If the Sun does not shine for several days, hot
water cannot be generated and the system might require a back-up
heater.

14. Population Growth in Yeast

Idea for class discussion: Find out how many students like
yeast bread. Have students discuss the role of yeast in bread making.

Analysis
1. Yeasts use oxygen to break down glucose, water, and carbon dioxidein
the process of cellular respiration. When oxygen is not availalbe,
yeasts convert glucose to alcohol and carbon dioxide in the process
of fermentation.
140 Environmental Science experiments

2. sugar
3. If there are too many cells to count on the entire slide, one can count
the cells in one quadrant and multiply their findings by four.
4. exponential
5. Day 10: the population size stopped increasing.

15. How Does Acid Precipitation Affect

Coleus?
Idea for class discussion: Show students a picture of a
forest that has been damaged by acid rain. (You can find many such
pictures on the Internet. One striking example is found at http://science.
nationalgeographic.com/science/enlarge/acidspruce.html) Without
disclosing the cause of the damage, ask them to explain what might
have happened. Lead them to realize that acid rain damages forests for
decades, and the damage is cumulative.
Notes to the teacher: Depending on students’ skill levels, you
may prefer to offer acids (other than vinegar) for students to use. You
could also dilute acid solutions so that students have some with different
pHs.

Analysis
1. A control provides a standard against which one can compare their
results.
2. Answers will vary.
3. Answers will vary, but best results (best root production) probably
occurred in the cup with least acidic levels.
4. Answers will vary. Acid rain reduces the production of healthy roots in
plants.
5. Answers will vary. Plants that do not have strong roots or leaves are
not able to carry out life processes, which impact other organisms.

16. Effects of Nitrates on Duckweed

Populations
Idea for class discussion: Discuss the concept of drainage
basins with students. Explain how all of the land surrounding a body of
Our Findings 141

water contributes to the runoff into that water. Have students suggest
some problems that might originate in a waterway’s drainage basin.
Notes to the teacher: Make three solutions of nitrogen
fertilizer (ammonium nitrate is preferable) at different strengths. To
prepare solutions, rinse out three 1-gallon jugs. Fill each with a gallon
of water. Label the jugs “B,” “C,” and “D.” To jug B, add the amount of
fertilizer recommended on the box or bag. Mix the fertilizer with the water
until completely dissolved. To jug C, add half the amount of fertilizer
recommended. Mix the fertilizer with the water until completely dissolved.
To jug D, add twice the amount of fertilizer recommended. Mix the
fertilizer with the water until completely dissolved.

Analysis
1. nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium
2. Fertilizers enter waterways through runoff from the drainage basin.
3. One duckweed plant is a single frond or lobe.
4. Answers will vary, but the best growth probably occurred in petri dish D.
5. Answers will vary. Increased levels of fertilizer will increase
populations of duckweed.
6. Answers will vary but could include limiting the use of fertilizer near
bodies of water and building erosion barriers to prevent materials
from being carried to bodies of water.

17. Seeds for the Future

Idea for class discussion: Ask students where new kinds of
seeds come from. Review the concepts of genetic information, DNA, and
mutations before the experiment.

Analysis
1. A plant adaptation is any characteristic that helps a plant survive.
2. New seeds may provide traits that are useful such as bigger plants,
more protein in seeds used for food, or plants that are resistant to
drought or insect damage.
3. Answers will vary depending on students’ experimental results.
4. Answers will vary depending on students’ experimental results.
5. Answers will vary depending on students’ experimental results.
142 Environmental Science experiments

6. Answers will vary. Students might suggest exposing corn seeds to

acidic conditions to see which ones survive the best.

18. Design a Reusable Envelope

Idea for class discussion: Show students a sample of an
envelope that contains a return mail envelope. (You may want to use
as an example mail from the Heart Association or the Humane Society
rather than a bill.) Ask them to imagine that they are in charge of
conserving paper at a business. Ask them what they could do to reduce
the amount of paper involved in such mailings.

Analysis
1. A reusable envelope extends the life of a paper product and reduces
paper production.
2. Answers will vary, but students might say that a reusable envelope
requires special production techniques, that it might not hold up well,
or that people might not know how to use them.
3. Answers will vary but could include recycling, writing on the back of
paper, and using electronic rather than print copies.
4. Answers will vary but could include notebook paper, cereal box,
tissue, paper around snack food, and paper used to print books.
5. Answers will vary.

19. Algae as Biofuel

Idea for class discussion: Ask students where we get
gasoline. Review the idea that gasoline is a product of crude oil. Find out
what students know about crude oil availability.

Analysis
1. The United States is running out of oil, which operates electrical
plants, industries, and transportation.
2. Biofuel is oil or other combustible compounds that are made from
plants.
3. Algae can be grown in areas not suitable for agriculture and require
little care.
Our Findings 143

4. Answers will vary with experimental design.

5. Answers will vary with experimental results.
6. Deep color suggests that the algae colonies are very thick.
7. Answers will vary, but students might suggesting testing another
nutrient factor, amount of oxygen, amount of exposure to light, or set-
up of the apparatus.

20. Energy in an Ecosystem

Idea for class discussion: Students sometimes have the
misconception that animals eat only plant leaves, so discuss some of the
other plant parts that animals consume. Some examples include acorns,
plant roots and bulbs, nectar, and wood.

Analysis
1. the Sun
2. Producers are most common because they capture and use energy
directly. The number of consumers depends on how many producers
are available as food.
3. Energy is lost as heat as it moves from one trophic level to the next.
4. Water represents energy. Representations of organisms will vary, but
students may have used containers such as cups.
5. See the figure below.

spiders;
blue bird

yellow, blue, and green

butterflies; caterpillars;
brown bird

tree; shrub 1; shrub 2; grass;

wildflower 1; wildflower 2

6. Answers will vary depending on experimental results.

 Glossary

acid rain rain that is acidic because of carrying capacity maximum number of
contact with air-borne pollutants such as individuals that can be supported by an
sulfur oxides, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen environment
oxides.
cellular respiration aerobic process in which
adaptation characteristic due to natural glucose is changed to a usable form of
selection that helps organisms survive in energy, called ATP
their environment
chlorophyll green pigment in plant cells that
aerobic related to processes that require can capture the Sun’s energy for use in the
oxygen process of photosynthesis
alternating current electric current that chloroplast organelle in plant cells that
reverses directions many times each contains chlorophyll
second
clones cells or individuals that are exactly
anaerobic related to processes that do not like the parent
require oxygen
conduction transfer of heat through a
aquifer permeable layer of water-bearing
substance by particle to particle contact
rock, sand, or gravel
cullet pieces of broken glass prepared for
biodegradation bacterial breakdown of
recycling
complex materials into simpler substances
daphnia small freshwater crustacean also
biodiversity number and range of species
known as a water flea
within an ecosystem
density the mass of an object per unit
biofuel fuel made from a renewable, organic
material such as plant matter volume

bioremediation use of bacteria and other direct current electrical current that flows in
microorganisms to break down pollutants one direction only

black water water that contains wastes dissecting microscope microscope used to
from humans or other animals enlarge and view macroscopic organisms
such as small crustaceans and insects
BTU (British Thermal Unit) amount of
energy needed to raise the temperature of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) genetic
1 pound of water 1 degree Fahrenheit material found within a cell

budding asexual method of reproduction dormant temporarily inactive as during the

in which a new organism develops on the period when a plant delays growth
body of the parent organism
electromagnetic radiation energy that
carbohydrate macromolecule formed from travels in a wave and has both magnetic
chains of glucose molecules and electrical characteristics
144
Glossary 145

enzyme chemical in living things that greenhouse gases atmospheric gases,

speeds up or slows down reactions primarily water vapor, methane, carbon
dioxide, and ozone, that trap the Sun’s heat
ethanol alcohol produced by yeast or from
the fermentation of corn that can be used near Earth’s surface
for fuel groundwater water that is located
eukaryotes complex cells that have nuclei underground in the porous part of Earth’s
and membrane-bound organelles crust

eutrophication process in which a body of invasive species any species that is

water becomes enriched with nutrients, introduced to an area and is likely to out
causing excessive growth of algae compete native organisms

evapotranspiration loss of water from kinetic energy the energy of a body due to
plants through evaporation and from leaves its motion
by transpiration
lactose the disaccharide sugar found in milk
fecal coliform bacteria microscopic
organisms found in the wastes of humans leaf node the place on a stem from which a
and other warm-blooded animals leaf grows

fermentation anaerobic process in which lipid macromolecule made of fatty acids and
cells convert sugar into energy, alcohol, glycerol that provides insulation, protection
and carbon dioxide for organs, and long-term energy
food chain feeding relationships in an mitochondria organelle that converts
ecosystem that show how energy is glucose into a usable form of energy
transferred from producers to consumers
mutation change in the sequence of bases
food web all of the overlapping food chains in a cell’s DNA
in an ecosystem
mutation breeding process in which a cell’s
generator machine that produces electricity DNA is changed to create desirable genes
when a magnet is rotated in a coil of wire and new traits
genetic engineering the insertion, deletion,
nonrenewable resources natural resources
or rearrangement of genes in an organism’s
such as oil and coal that cannot be
DNA
replenished
germination the process in which a seed’s
organelle membrane-bound structure within
embryo emerges from a seed
a cell that has a specialized function
global warming an overall increase in
ozone highly reactive molecule of oxygen
Earth’s temperature caused by the
accumulation of gases in the atmosphere made of three oxygen atoms

gram staining a staining technique used to pathogen organism or agent that can cause
differentiate types of bacteria disease

gray water wastewater from showers, photobioreactor device that houses algae
washing machines, and dishwashers that and provides light, heat, and nutrients for
can be used for watering plants optimal algal growth
146 Environmental Science experiments

photosynthesis biochemical process in stratosphere second layer of Earth’s

which chlorophyll traps the Sun’s energy atmosphere located 8 to 12 miles (14 to
and uses it to make glucose 22 kilometers) above the surface
phytoplankton free-floating, small algae that surface water water in lakes, rivers,
can be found on the surface of fresh water streams, bays, and oceans that is located
and in marine environments on the Earth’s surface
primary consumers organisms that feed on tertiary consumers organisms that feed on
plants or plant parts secondary consumers
renewable resources natural resources, transformer device that either increases or
such as wind and sunlight, that are decreases voltage
replenished by natural processes
transgenic organism organism whose DNA
riparian related to the area next to a body of
has been altered by the insertion of one or
water
more genes
secondary consumers organisms that feed
trophic related to the feeding levels of a
on primary consumers
food chain
seed embryonic plant and its food enclosed
in a protective coat troposphere lowest part of the atmosphere
that extends 5 to 9 miles (8 to 15
sewage solid and liquid wastes from kilometers) above Earth’s surface
homes, businesses, and industries that is
suspended in water variable the part of an experiment that is
changed
silt fine soil particles that are smaller than
sand but larger than clay volt unit of electrical potential or pressure

solar cell device that changes the Sun’s waste stream all of the solid wastes
energy into electrical energy produced by a community

source reduction reduction in the amount or weathering physical and chemical

toxicity of waste breakdown of rock into soil
 Internet Resources

The World Wide Web is an invaluable source of information for students, teachers, and
parents. The following list is intended to help you get started exploring educational
sites that relate to the book. It is just a sample of the Web material that is available to
you. All of these sites were accessible as of March 2009.

Educational Resources
Air Now. “Local Forecasts and Conditions.” Available online. URL: http://cfpub.
epa.gov/airnow/index.cfm?action=airnow.local. Accessed July 5, 2008. On this
government-backed program, you can select a state and access the recent air pollution
information.

American Chemical Society (ACS). Periodic Table of the Elements. Available online.
URL: http://acswebcontent.acs.org/games/pt.html. Accessed March 5, 2009. This
interactive Web page is devoted to the Periodic Table and offers up-to-date information
on its elements and electron configuration.

American Rivers. Thriving by Nature, 2007. Available online. URL: http://www.

americanrivers.org/site/PageServer. Accessed August 16, 2008. American Rivers
presents general information on rivers as well as specific data about rivers in danger.

Defenders of Wildlife, 2008. Available online. URL: http://www.defenders.org/index.

php. Accessed August 16, 2008. Defenders of Wildlife works to maintain native plants
and animals in their environments. Its Web site provides information on many species
as well as on conservation.

Energy Kids Page. “History of Garbage,” September 2006. Energy Information

Administration. Available online. URL: http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/
saving/recycling/solidwaste/primer.html. Accessed July 5, 2008. This Web site
provides an interesting history of garbage and the problems associated with it.

Energy Star. Available online. URL: http://www.energystar.gov/. Accessed August 16,

2008. Energy Star is a partnership between the U.S. Department of Energy, the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, manufacturers, and utilities. The group promotes
energy efficiency and offers suggestions for conserving energy and reducing the
carbon footprints of households.
147
148 ENVIRONMENTAL Science experiments

ENN. “Environmental News Network,” 2007. Available online. URL: http://www.enn.

com/. Accessed July 5, 2008. This well-organized news site offers a wide variety of
the latest stories on important environmental issues, including pollution, climate,
energy, and ecosystems.

Environmental Protection Agency. Available online. URL: http://www.epa.gov/.

Accessed July 3, 2008. This Web site has links to all topics relating to the
environment including acid rain, oil spills, ozone, and recycling.

Environmental Science Group. “Our Environment, The Science Around Us,” January 5,
2005. Available online. URL: http://www.geocities.com/rainforest/8393/. Accessed
August 16, 2008. This Web site offers easy-to-read lessons on a variety of topics
including rainforests and El Nino.

Fact Monster. “Oil Spills and Disasters,” 2007. Available online. URL: http://www.
factmonster.com/ipka/A0001451.html. Accessed July 5, 2008. This Web site
provides a timeline of oil spills from the 1967 accident on the Torrey Canyon in
England to the 2007 South Korean spill.

How Stuff Works. “How Ozone Pollution Works,” 2008. Available online. URL: http://
www.howstuffworks.com/ozone-pollution.htm. Accessed August 16, 2008. The
production of ozone and problems caused by this chemical are explained in this article.

Krantz, David, and Brad Kifferstein. “Water Pollution and Society.” Available online.
URL: http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/waterpollution.htm. The authors use
interesting graphics and clear language to describe some of the basics of water
pollution.

msnbc. U.S. News, Environment, 2008. Available online. URL: http://www.msnbc.

msn.com/id/3032493/. Accessed August 16, 2008. This Web site carries current
information on environmental issues ranging widely from problems with windmills to
the use of seals to study Antarctic water.

National Audubon Society. “Audubon,” 2008. Available online. URL: http://www.

audubon.org/. Accessed August 16, 2008. The National Audubon Society works to
conserve natural ecosystems.

National Geographic. Green Guide, 2008. Available online. URL: http://www.

thegreenguide.com/. Accessed August 16, 2008. On this Web site, you can test your
“Eco IQ” and learn how to live a “greener” lifestyle.
Internet Resources 149

National Public Radio, Environment, 2008. Available online. URL: http://www.npr.org/

templates/story/story.php?storyId=93619388. Accessed August 16, 2008. NPR
offers broadcasts on topics related to the environment.

National Resources Defense Council. “Issues, Global Warming,” February 9, 2007.

Available online. URL: http://www.nrdc.org/globalWarming/f101.asp. Accessed July 5,
2008. This Web site answers some basic questions on global warming, its cause, and
subsequent effects.

National Wildlife Federation, 2008. Available online. URL: http://www.nwf.org/.

Accessed August 16, 2008. The mission of the National Wildlife Federation is to
protect wildlife.

New York Times. “Global Warming,” July 5, 2008. Available online. URL: http://
topics.nytimes.com/top/news/science/topics/globalwarming/index.html?inline=nyt-
classifier#. Accessed July 5, 2008. This Web page provides two short articles on
global warming and links to pages addressing many of the issues related to this topic.

The Ozone Hole. “Arctic, Antarctic: Poles Apart in Climate Response,” May 2, 2008.
Available online. URL: http://www.theozonehole.com/arcticresponse.htm. Accessed
July 5, 2008. This article explains how the two poles are responding differently to
global warming.

Pickett, Sharon. “Acid Rain Revisited.” The Hubbard Research Foundation. Accessed July
5, 2008. Available online. URL: http://www.hubbardbrookfoundation.org/filemanager/
filedownload/phpoYit2t/Acid_Rain_Revisited.pdf. This 24-page document clearly
explains current problems related to air pollution and the effects of acid deposition.

Science Daily. “Environmental Science News,” 2008/ Available online. URL: http://
www.sciencedaily.com/news/earth_climate/environmental_science/. Accessed August
16, 2008. Science Daily is an online magazine that supplies articles and links on all
topics related to the environment.

U.S. Departments of Energy. Energy Efficiency, and Renewable Energy, August 15,
2008. Available online. URL: http://www.eere.energy.gov/. Accessed August 16, 2008.
This Web site provides information on methods and technologies that conserve energy.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Climate Change, July 28, 2008. Available
online. URL: http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/index.html. Accessed August 16,
2008. This Web site includes information on past weather patterns as well as global
warming and greenhouse gases.
150 Environmental Science experiments

Venkataraman, Bina. “Ocean ‘Dead Zones’ on the Rise,” New York Times, August
14, 2008. Available online. URL: http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/15/science/
earth/15oceans.html?ref=science. Accessed August 16, 2008. The author explains
how and why expanding dead zones are found in many coastal areas.

Worldwatch Institute. “10 Ways to Go Green and Save,” 2008. Available online. URL:
http://www.worldwatch.org/node/3915?gclid=CKmDzOvmk5UCFQcVswodDSvsgQ.
Accessed August 16, 2008. Worldwatch Institute is a research organization that is
concerned with global environmental issues.
Periodic Table of Elements 151
 Index

A Environmental Protection J
Agency (EPA) 38, 60, 73,
acid rain 41, 55, 88, 92, 93 Japanese honeysuckle 15
105
active solar heating 76
Escherichia coli (E. coli) 3, 5-7, K
air quality index 61
50
Alcanivorax borkumensis (A. kinetic energy 52, 53
ethanol 116
borkumensis) 67
eutrophication 98, 99
algae 13, 27, 111-116 L
exponential growth 85, 86
alligator weed 19 Lake Erie 99
Exxon Valdez 62
alumina 39 landfill 34, 38, 46
aquifer 23, 69 F logostic growth 85

B fecal coliform bacteria 1, 6, 50

M
fermentation 81
Becquerel, Edmond 44 municipal solid waste
fertilizer 94
Bell laborarotry 44 (MSW) 34, 38
fire retardant 14
biodegradation 67 mutation 100, 103
Food and Drug Administration
biodiversity 19 (FDA) 73 mutation breeding 103, 104
biofuel 111, 114 food chain 122
bioremediation 67 food web 122
N
Botryococcus 115 fossil fuel 38, 41, 55, 56, 88, National Resource Defense
budding 82 109 Council (NRCD) 73
nonpoint source pollution 13
C G nonrenewable resources 41
carrying capacity 85 garlic mustard 15, 16
cellular respiration 81, 124 generator 52 O
Clean Air Act 92 genetic engineering 67 oil spill 62, 67
clone 88 global warming 41, 109, 116 ozone 56-60, 70
coleus 88-91 gram stain 50
crustacean 12 gray water 21-26 P
greenhouse gases 109 passive solar heating 76, 77,
D ground water 69 79
daphnia 9-14 pathogens 1, 50
dispersants 67 H photobioreactors 115, 116
dissolved oxygen 28 Horse Hollow 55 photosynthesis 115, 116,
duckweed 94-97 123, 124
I phytoplankton 122, 123
E indicator organisms 10, 12 point source pollution 13
electromagnetic radiation 75 invasive species 15, 18-20, 98 pollution 13
energy pyramid 119, 122 irrigation 25 Prince William Sound 62

152
Index 153

R source reduction 109 W

recycle 35, 38, 39, 40, 106 soybeans 111 water bottles 39, 46-51, 69,
relative humidity 54, 59 specific heat 79 71, 73
Stadler, Lewis J. 104 wildlife 14
S surface water 1, 9, 27, 69 windmill 52-55
Schonbein, Christian World Wildlife Fund 73
Frederich 59 T
Schonbein test paper 56 Y
transformer 52, 53
seed 100-102 yeast 81-85,
transgenic organisms 68
sewage 7, 21
silt 32, 33 tree-of-heaven 15
solar cell 41-45 trophic level 118, 119
solar water heater 76-77, 80 turbidity tube 27, 31, 32