CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Every element has a symbol e.g. H (hydrogen). Cl (chlorine).

Chemical reactions cause atoms to change what theyre bonded to.

ELEMENT: a substance containing only one type of atom e.g. Mg, O, ae

COMPOUND: a substance containing two or more different oP

types of atoms CHEMICALLY BONDED e.g. H,O ;

Due to CONSERVATION OF MASS, atoms

CH, t 20, CO, + 2H,O can neither be created or destroyed in a
methane oxygen Gals water reaction - equations must be BALANCED.
wmoxiade

C: 1 C: 1 You can only put numbers in FRONT of

He H: substances in an equation to do this.

0: 74 0: 3 4 PRO TIP: start with atoms in @ compound:

end with elements.
MIXTURES & SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
A mixture consists of different substances NOT CHEMICALLY BONDED e.9. air, solutions.

filter EVAPORATION leaves 9

FILTRATION removes | SEid paper
behind crystals of a =
large, insoluble particles from Ve [ sinical dissolved substance <a> —_ as
@ liquid e.g. sand from water. AVN (solute) if heated gently. A, eveporatins
fo 4 \ y ) basin
filtrate — fame
chromatography water oue
paper (‘stationary phase)
DISTILLATION involves
—V =P CHROMATOGRAPHY cs on dence, condensing the evaporated
e causes substance to T solvent and collecting it.
rise up paper due to rT —

CAPILLARY ACTION. y Js FRACTIONAL

<= =
© mixture
spot Lighter particles in Conan DISTILLATION
move further up distillate can separate liquids
pencil
mark (more in Paper 2). due to their different
= 2.9. water boiling points.
(‘mobile phase’)
PURE SUBSTANCES & FORMULATIONS
Pure substances have very specific MELTING/BOILING POINTS,
which can be used to test for them.

Formulations are MIXTURES of certain quantities of

substances designed to fulfil a specific purpose e.g. /

- Paints
- Fuels
- Alloys
- Fertilisers
CHROMATOGRAPHY
The separating of a mixture to identify its constituent substances
e.9. pigments in ink, drugs in urine sample.
The MOBILE PHASE (solvent e.9. water) moves up the Gg =e
STATIONARY PHASE (e.9. chromatography/ filter paper)
due to CAPILLARY ACTION.

This pulls the substances in the mixture upwards, with

lighter particles being moved further up the stationary phase.

The starting line is drawn just above the water line, in pencil
(so it won't move). All measurements are made from this.

The Rf (retention factor) values can then be compared

against that of known substances to identify them.

distance substance moved

Rf value =
distance mobile phase moved
 DIFFUSION: the movement of particles in a
STATES OF MATTER sublimation fluid (gas/liquid) from a high concentration
to a low concentration (spreading out).

SOLID 2— LIQUID GAS

ENE AS AL AS |
SS SSS ovultird mae as C)

eo —— —> C)

+. solidification/ condensing C) C)
CX xX) freezing

- particles in regular - particles have no - particles are far apart,

arrangement (lattice) regular arrangement move randomly at fast
and vibrate about and are able to move speeds (high energy)
FIXED POSITIONS past each other - can be compressed
- cannot be compressed - cannot be compressed
ENERGY (HEAT) is needed to
PHYSICAL CHANGE: no new substance made. overcome the (electrostatic)
STATE SYMBOLS can be used in an equation. FORCES OF ATTRACTION between
particles to melt/evaporate.
(8q) indicates the substance is in solution (‘aqueous’)
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
The atomic model developed over time.

ANCIENT GREEKS
thought matter to JJ THOMSON
be made of created the ‘plum ERNEST RUTHERFORD
indivisible particles pudding’ model discovered that the nucleus NEILS BOHR deduced that
was small and positively electrons exist in ‘shells’.
charged by finding that most JAMES CHADWICK determined
alpha particles went straight that the nucleus must contain
neutron through a gold ‘leaf: NEUTRONS as well as protons

\ very few deflected back \

BD } ovcleus relative charge | relative mass

Nd \
rid proton +] ©
proton
0 1
neutron

—— electron electron =I 0 (very small)

ATOMIC & MASS NUMBERS ISOTOPES: same element,
different numbers of neutrons
MASS NUMBER (or RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS/RAM/A_)
is the number of PROTONS + NEUTRONS in a nucleus. > 12 13
So this Carbon-12 atom must have 6 neutrons. ( (

ATOMIC NUMBER is the number of PROTONS in a nucleus.

e.g. carbon atoms always have 6 protons. a 6 6
An ATOM must also have this number of ELECTRONS Carbon-13 has
in order to be neutral. If not, it is an ION instead. 7 neutrons

Some mass numbers on your periodic table are 35,5

aot whole numbers - these are an AVERAGE |
mass of all isotopes.
17
For example, the
RELATIVE ABUNDANCE of average total mass of 100 atoms (35x75)+(37x25)
Chlorine-35 is 757 mass * 100 100 = 30.0
Chlorine-37 is 252
 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION He
helium

_ _ _ [ 1 — — Ee _ _ 2

7 q I | ll 12 Ih 16 19 20
Li
lithium
Be
beryllium
H
hydrogen
B
boron
Cc
carbon
N
nitrogen
fe)
oxygen
F | Ne
fluorine neon

3 4 | ! 5 6 7 g q 10
23 24 27 28 3l 32 35.5 40

Ne | Mg Al Si P Ss Cl Ar
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon

ll 12 13 1k IS 16 17 \8

34 40 45 4s Sl 52 59 56 54 54 63.5 65 70 73 75 14 80 8h
K
POokBrrium
Ca
esleium
Se
scandium
Ti
bikaaium
V
vanadium
Cr
chromium
| Ma|
| manganere
Fe
iron
Co
eobalk
Ni
nickel
Cu
copper
| Za |
zine
Ga
gallium
Ge
germanium
As
arsenic
Se
selenium
Br
bromine
Kr
krypeaon

4 20 2 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 24 30 3| 32 33 34 35 36
as a8 a4 qj) 43 46 [97] 101 103 106 1038 12 "1S "4 |22 128 127 (31

Electron shells fill up cenevemal

f Or example
in the order 2,8,8,2. Sandee (MS) ae
. mM esium
Past calcium (Ca) are the 3 12 el ee ;
TRANSITION METALS, a 0
in total, so its electron
which have more complex shells,
configuration must be:
so we don't go further than this
(but we'll still think about
their electrons in a bit). 2,832
 METALS & NON-METALS "ltHe
helium

| 2<— GROUP: 3 4 5 6 7 2
7 q number of u 12 Ih \6 9 20
Li
lithium
| Be
beryllium € | € Cc t r e) a) § I n
H
hydrogen
B
boron
C
carbon
N
nikrogen
fe)
oxygen
F | Ne
Fluorine neon

3 . outer shell I 5 6 7 8 q 10
23 24 27 28 3\ 32 35.5 40

Na Mg Al Si P Ss Cl Ar
Fodium magnesium aluminium silicon phorphoru sulfur ehlorin argo

i] 12 13 \4 IS 16 \7 18

34 40 45 4s | 52 55 56 54 54 63.5 65 70 73 75 14 80 84
K Ce | Se | Ti V Cr | Ma| Fe | Co | Ni Cu
copper
| Za | Ga
Zine gallium
| Ge |
germanium
As |
arsenic
Se |
réelenium
Br
bromine
Kr
krypton
POkBrLium calcium ceandium biksaium vanadium chromium | manganere iron eobale nickel

14 20 2 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 24 30 3| 32 33 au 35 36
9 a) a4 ag fay) val Wwe = = a ae

METALS always DONATE electrons always ACCEPT

to gain an EMPTY OUTER SHELL electrons to gain a
to form POSITIVE IONS (e.g. Na*). FULL OUTER SHELL.
They can form NEGATIVE IONS (e.g. O7)
Again, transition metals are a bit or can share electrons to do this
more complicated, but they still (more in bonding).
form positive ions.
HYDROGEN is special as it
can basically do both!
 O[ x
GROUP ALKALI METALS, HALOGENS & He
12 _ NOBLE GASES_3 * >& 6 71|2'|
helium

7 q | ll 12 1h 16 19 20=«s|
Li Be H B c N fe) F Ne
a oe TRANSITION METALS ae “s wal “. rs ae a
7 1 | can donate different — — = - 7 7 == =
Ne | Mg | Sumbers of electrons e.g. , Al | Si p s | cl | Ar
;
sodium
7
magnesium
en IRON (Il) ion
by
is Fe*’,
Hy 2+
while '
IRON (Ill) is Fe>*.
Hy =
‘“s
aluminium
:
silicon
-
phosphorus
:
sulfur
3
ehlorine
:
argon

34 40 45 4a 5l 52 55 56 54 54 63.5 65 70 73 75 T4 80 au

K Ca Se Ti V Cr Ma | Fe Co Ni Cu Za Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
POLBETium esleium seandium bikanium wanadium chromium | manganete iron cobalt niche copper zine gallium germanium arsenic telenium roaming krypton
19 20 2l 22 24 24 25 26 27 28 24 30 3| 32 33 34 35 36

aS a2 aq q| qa as (97) 10) 103 106 08 12 WS "4 \29 128 127

Group 1 are the ALKALI METALS Group 7 are the HALOGENS. They form (1)- ions
(as they react with water to produce . __-« as they accept 1 electron to gain a
an alkali). They all lose/donate {/~\ (fm full outer shell. They get less
their outer electron so their a teh £(F \} e a h (aad

el wee oilin oink increases).

They get more REACTIVE — : =
down the group as the yr ey ye
ovter electron is further Lif WN Livia \ \ The | © GASES (group 0/8)
. fo ££ 7 * \, eee ie = : : es

" Cay
from the qucleus so is KL FY VAG/FE are VERY UNREACTIVE as they
ee [ t ; Ct } +

donated more readily (the ee ei A Neely

force of attraction is less). i no so already have an empty outer shell.
METALLIC BONDING
This is how metal atoms bond to each other.

They form a LATTICE (grid) of IONS

surrounded by a ‘SEA’ OF DELOCALISED ELECTRONS.

As the electrons are free to move, metals

are 900d CONDUCTORS of electricity and heat.
IONIC BONDING LITHIUM CHLORIDE

This is how metals bond to non-metals.

i Ny NV A

Metal atoms donate electrons ), Lidl

to non-metals to form IONS.

DOT & CROSS DIAGRAMS show FERYLLIUM OXIDE ar J

the electrons on the outer shells. BeO
(The arrow isn't needed).
BERYLLIUM CHLORIDE
Metals always end up with an empty outer
shell, non-metals with 8 electrons.

The charges of all ions in an

IONIC COMPOUND must add
up to ZERO.
IONIC STRUCTURES They can conduct electricity when
MOLTEN or in SOLUTION (dissolved).

;
lons are arranged in a LATTICE of repeating
This is because the ions are free to
units of positive and negative IONS.
move in these states, and they
These form a crystal,
carry charge. a
lonic substances have
HIGH MELTING/BOILING POINTS
due to the STRONG IONIC BONDS e

(as the ions have strong electrostatic

forces between them).
You can also get MOLECULAR IONS,
Positive ions (+) are also known as CATIONS
for example:
while negative ions (-) are called ANIONS.
€e.9. magnesium
"CATIONS are PURR-SETIVE” _ hydroxide ion: OH hydroxide
sulphate ion: SO2 '
carbonate ion: COZ Mg" OH
nitrate ion: NO, \ [2
lonic compounds are also ammonium ion: NH,” Mg(OH),
called SALTS e.9. sodium chloride.
COVALENT BONDING
This is how non-metals bond to each other.

Atoms SHARE electrons to wee

gain FULL OUTER SHELLS. Pek: Fe 2k
\ J /
Every covalent bond consists ™e eer oe
of a PAIR OF SHARED ELECTRONS.
(t—ZE
We can draw a DOT & CROSS diagram a _
or the STRUCTURAL FORMULA, a yf
with @ line representing each bond. ae ae,

6)
the number of bonds it makes (e.9. H:1 C:4).
These are SIMPLE COVALENT STRUCTURES
(molecules with a small number of atoms). beerieel
els . bi dot & H
They have low boiling points due to WEAK formula eras \
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES that aced G0. be overcome: Pilar
 ALLOTROPES OF CARBON
GIANT COVALENT BONDING (Allotropes: structures made of the
same element but arranged differently).
This results in structures that consist of
repeating units of atoms to make what c DIAMOND
| - One of the hardest
are essentially giant molecules e.g.
DIAMOND or SILICON DIOXIDE (‘silica’). ue Ps i ieee substances
. ve to very
Very high melting points as you would Fee! a strong bonds.
have to break the covalent bonds. GRAPHITE
- Delocalised electrons
(ALLOYS are mixtures of metals: "@ form weak bonds ge
different size atoms disrupt the between layers. a Le ee
LATTICE, so layers cannot slide —“Oo@ - Can conduct electricity Ete et
over each other easily - strong!) . as these electrons can move. ‘ ui ?
- Layers can slide past ie? oe ie ok, "eT
TRIPLE ONLY each other (unlike alloys). sels oe
> Henoperticlwe 10-2806 GRAPHENE: one layer.
Coarse particles e.g. dust: >2500am BUCKMINSTER
FULLERENE: Cy,
-Pullaneke eh. cig eal Bae As Celene? FULLERENES/NANOTUBES
high surface to volume ratio, ug AN - Used for electronics,
c O ‘ewer needed for purpose. ¢ Pi \_} SS composites, medical

Double the length = half the ratio. X a as purposes.

MOLES & RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS
Moles are used to compare quantities of substances.
1 MOLE = 6.02x10** atoms/molecules. 129 of carbon = 1 mole!

RELATIVE H=1 RELATIVE CH, = 12 + (4x1) = 16

ATOMIC CG =12 FORMULA O, = 2xl6 = 32
MASS (A) 0 =16 MASS (M_) CO, = 12 + (2x16) = &&
H,O = (2x1) + 16 = 18

Due to CONSERVATION OF MASS, the total mass

of reactants must equal the total mass of products,
even if & gaseous product leaves (that's why we
have to balance equations like earlier). e.g. How many moles
is 169 of oxygen?”
MOLES = GRAMS - = aids = =
46 (3)
'RAMS' elative atomic = 3 mol
formula mass 32 (9/mol)
USING MOLES
Example question: "How many grams of water would be made if 649 of methane reacted
completely with oxygen?"

MOLES =
‘GRAMS
‘RAMS'
CH, + 20, — CQ, + 2H,O
| |
MASS of substance
(CH, here)
| MOLES —> MOLES Or UHLO here) ? MASS

649 s6ler. =. 16
eile eer kL x 2 = 8 mol 18 x 8 = kha
‘GRAMS’
‘RAMS! x MOLES =
ae atts

If the mass isn't in grams, you can still do it!

STOICHIOMETRY: the ratio of moles Because we're dealing with ratios/relative
of one substance to another in a reaction. masses, you'll get the right answer so long
as youre consistent with the unit.
LIMITING REACTANTS
ln order for no reactants to be left over,
there must be the correct number of moles of
both reactants in order to react completely,
according to their STOICHIOMETRY.

CH, + 20, — CO,+ 2H,O

methane oxygen carbon water
dioxide

For example, every 1 mole of methane

needs 2 moles of oxugen.

If there is less than 2 moles of oxygen, If there is more than 2 moles of oxygen,
there will be methane left unreacted. there will be unreacted oxugen left
The oxygen is the LIMITING REACTANT behind. The methane is the
in this case. LIMITING REACTANT aow.
SOLUTION CONCENTRATION When a solvent
it is SATURATED.
cannot dissolve any more
SOLUBILITY depends on
solute,
the
solute, solvent and temperature. This is given in
When a substance is dissolved in water, 3 per 1009 of solvent.
it DISSOCIATES into its ions (e.9. H* and Cl),
as does the water (into H* and OH ions). We already know how to
convert grams to moles:
CONCENTRATION can be given in
3/dm°> or mol/dm’. ‘GRAMS’
MOLES =
‘RAMS'
HYDROCHLORIC
ACID (HCI
- If 1 mole
solution)
dissolved in
A “er: Converting volume of water:
Idm°*, conc’ = 1 mol/dm* “Yn OH. em° (or ml)
(sometimes just ‘1 molar’)
Ge a,
| +1000
Example: “What is the concentration if dm”
7.39 of HCl is dissolved in 100cm* of water?”
RAM of HCl = 36.5 Calculating concentration
MOLES = 7.3 + 36.5 = 0.2 mol . moles
VOLUME = 100 +1000= 0.1 dm° concentration =
(mol/dm°) volume (dm°)
CONCENTRATION = 0.2= 0.1 = 2 mol/dm°
!
REACTIVITY OF METALS
A DISPLACEMENT REACTION occurs when a MORE reactive metal
REACTIVITY SERIES displaces (‘kicks out’) a LESS reactive metal from a compound.
at e.g. Zn. + CuSO, 4 ZaS8O, .,.) + Cu,
potassium K
sodium Na e Most METALS also react with ACIDS to make a salt and hydrogen
calcium Ca NS, e.g. Za +2HCl — ZnCl, +H,
magnesium Mg METAL CARBONATES also react with ACIDS to make a salt, carbon
aluminium a Al dioxide & water 4. Caco, + 2HCI — CaCl, + H,0 + CO,
carbon _ C
zine O Zn Group 1 metals are more reactive than hydrogen,
so they displace it, to produce hydrogen gas and
iron oe Fe @ metal hydroxide.
tin Fe Sa oe.
lead mm €6O»Pb
hydrogen = H We can use displacement reactions to obtain metals from
copper s Cu their ores, by displacing with @ more reactive, less valuable
silver Ag metal or carbon (‘coke’). This happens in a blast furnace:
the iron oxide is 'reduced' (opposite of oxidised)
gold Au to produce iron.
platinum Pt
OXIDATION & REDUCTION For example, iron (Fe) is produced
Even if oxygen is not involved in a reaction, from FeO in a blast furnace - we can
we still say that atoms /ions/molecules show what is happening to just the
ere OXIDISED or REDUCED. iron with a HALF/IONIC equation.
(don't forget state symbols!)

Oxidation
Na.) —> Na : (oq) +p:
Is
atoms loses
Loss each Na

Reduction
ls
bain
(of electrons)
NEUTRALISATION - MAKING SALTS
When an acid (pH<7) reacts with an alkali (pH>7),
a salt and water (pH=/7, neutral) are produced
(if reacted completely). A Cl NaOH
. /
ACID + ALKALI — SALT + WATER vs
e.9. HCl...) + NaOH...) => NaCl...) + HOW) | Nia C |
hydrochloric sodium sodium water +-
acid hydroxide chloride

Using SULPHURIC ACID results in

a metal SULPHATE salt formed:
NITRIC ACID: metal NITRATE sale.
Th eo 7e leet ae Kear hak You can obtain CRYSTALS of the
iach ae aie dissolved salt by heating gently
means that we have a mixture of DISSOCIATED go the water EVARORATES: leaving
IONS, Na’, Cl, H’, OH. only the salt behiad.
TH E pH SCALE pH is dependent on the CONCENTRATION
An acid has @ pH<7 due to its H’ ions. of H* or OH ions.
An alkali has a pH>7 due to its OH ions.
Water is neutral, pH of 7 as it always has UNIVERSAL INDICATOR gives you an
an equal number of both. indication of pH by changing colour.
more acidic < neutral > more alkaline

ore : 10x hiho H also depends on how

The RE per
pH scale is NON-LINEAR
Sole Is
Oe gen
cone” Of SBOE
Sher
SF Obs
4
STRONG/WEAK an acid is.
(logarithmic). A change of 1pH
, A strong acid DISSOCIATES more completely.
is @ 10x change :in concentration —_
4 a If at the same concentration,it will have a
of H* or OH ions.
lower pH than a weak acid.
STRONG ACIDS WEAK ACIDS
For example, that means that hydrochloric 7 .
. H3 will j hydrochloric ethanoic
acid of p will have 100x the concentration culekunie aiLrie
of H ions compared to the same acid at pHs. nitric carbonic
ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN COMPOUNDS
Electrolysis involves passing an ELECTRICAL CURRENT through a substance to cause
Oxidation and reduction at the two ELECTRODES: the ANODE (+) and CATHODE (-).
This can only happen if the IONS are free to move to the electrode they're attracted to,
so for ionic compounds this can only happen when MOLTEN (melted) or in solution (coming
up next). It can be used to obtain pure metals from a compound/ore e.g. aluminium from
aluminium oxide.
anode
The Al** ions are attracted (graphite) The O* ions are attracted
cathode pully oxide
to the CATHODE, where to the ANODE, where they
they are REDUCED: \ + eryolite

=|
are OXIDISED.

Al + 3e— Alyy 20%

27

> YrQ)+ be
=

AN? In this case, the oxygen reacts

ln this case, CRYOLITE is
with the carbon in the anodes
added, which lowers the to produce CO,, which is why
melting point of the they need to be replaced
aluminium oxide - cheaper! periodically.
ELECTROLYSIS OF SOLUTIONS
Electrolysis can also be carried out on solutions, as
the dissolved ions are free to move in the mixture.

+,=-

Halide ions (F, Cl, Br.) are

always OXIDISED at the ANODE.
H* ions are less reactive than
If the anion isn't a halide, the
Na‘ ions, so they move to the
OXYGEN is oxidised instead,
CATHODE to be REDUCED.
and oxygen gas is produced.

2Cl (aq)
Clit 2e 2H’,.) (aq)
+ 2e—> H 2(9)

The MORE REACTIVE CATION In this case, Na*° and OH"

(+) remains in solution, while stay in solution to produce
the less reactive one is sodium hydroxide solution,
REDUCED at the cathode. an alkali.
 EXOTHERMIC & ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS
Every chemical reaction involves energy changes: EXOTHERMIC
energy is needed to break chemical bonds, while it
is released when bonds are made. — | net energy out,
7 — increases temp,

EXOTHERMIC there must be a which results in a re then lost to

energy
surroundings
If a reaction gets net DECREASE in net INCREASE ia bc
products
HOT POTENTIAL ENERGY KINETIC ENERG’ 8 a

ENDOTHERMIC
/\\
ckiva products

ENDOTHERMIC there must be a which results in a =

energy
If a reaction gets net INCREASE in net DECREASE in ¢
COLD POTENTIAL ENERGY ‘INETIC ENERG) 2 cand

A PRACTICAL: =
7 —> React an acid with an alkali, and
temp

measure the max temperature reached. Repeat with increasing

volumes of alkali. The max temp will eventually decrease as
max

the alkali is in excess (same energy released but larger volume).

a
—

volume of alkali 7 Where the two LOBF meet: volume needed to neutralise.
BOND ENERGIES
Every bond requires a specific amount of energy to break, it's also the same amount of
energy released when the bond is formed (you'll always be given these).
In @ reaction, we say that all bonds are broken, then the new ones are formed.

Bonn ENERGY CH, + 20, —_— CO, + 2H,O

(kJ/mol)

C-H 413 H| ‘ O=
7 —+ 0=Cc=0 + a oi
= H-C-H ==
O=0O 4495 O=0 H- UH

C=O 744 Z 0
O-H 467 (& x 413) + (2 x 495) (2 x 799) + (4 x 467)

2642 kJ/mol 3466 kJ/mol

into reaction released by bonds
to break all bonds being made

More energy released than energy needed to break bonds, so this is an EXOTHERMIC REACTION.
NET ENERGY RELEASED = 3466 - 2642 = 824 kJ/mol. This is also called ENTHALPY CHANGE, AH.
For every mole of methane burned, 824 kJ of energy is released.
TESTING FOR GASES
CARBON
HYDROGEN OXYGEN DIOXIDE CHLORINE
Lit splint produces Will relight pa heeian nd Bleaches
squeaky
queaky pop
pop. glowing
lowing splint.
spli SRR
a etreGALeleh
elexey blue ve litlitmus paper
through
it.

a rf

P| 4

Sea Vy Y
TESTING FOR METALS
METAL IONS IN SOLUTION
Add sodium hydroxide to make
metal hydroxide (coloured precipitate).
FLAME TESTS (METAL IONS)
aluminium/ calcium/ magnesium: |
LITHIUM - CRIMSON WHITE PRECIPITATE (dissolves/
disappears with excess NaOH)

Copper (Il) (Cu”’) ions |

POTASSIUM - LILAC BLUE PRECIPITATE
CALCIUM - ORANGE-RED
Iron (II) (Fe2’) ions
COPPER - GREEN GREEN PRECIPITATE

Iron (Ill) (Fe) ions

BROWN PRECIPITATE
lonic equation e.g.

Cu** + 20H > Cu(OH),

TESTING FOR CARBONATES,
HALIDES & SULPHATES
CARBONATES react with acid to
produce CARBON DIOXIDE :
chloride bromide iodide
ions ions ions
WHITE CREAM YELLOW

HALIDE IONS will produce a precipitate

when mixed with SILVER NITRATE &
NITRIC ACID.

SULPHATE IONS (or SULFATE if you

adopt the American spelling...which I don't)
produce a WHITE PRECIPITATE when mixed
with BARIUM CHLORIDE & HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
TITRATION
We use a BURETTE to measure what volume of
acid/alkali is needed to neutralise, to allow us
to calculate an unknown concentration.
- Measure e.9. 50cm? of alkaliof known concentration using a glass pipette,
put in conical flask with MET! : indicator.
- Put acid in burette (up to 0cm* mark), open tap and let it drip into flask.
- Once it goes pink/red, stop, swirl. If it stays, neutralisation has occurred.
- (Rough titration can be done before to give more accurate value.)
- Use moles to calculate unknown concentration.
(You can also use phenolphthalein indicator,
which Buns from colourless ss pink) - 50cm? of 0.2mol/dm? NaOH used :
e.g determine the concentration of 0.050 x 0.2 = 0.01 mol NaOH
lphuric acid
eer lein a bottle”
illite - As H,SO,, half the moles of acid needed
“USO, + 2NaOH — Na.SO, + 2H.0 to neutralise = 0.005 mol.
2 4 2 4 2 - Let's say that the titration gave a volume
sulphuric sodium sodium water of 12.5em?® (0.0125dm’)
acid hydroxide sulphate : ;
of acid to neutralise. 9 gos
- Concentration of acid = —— =0.4 mol/dm*
0.0125
PERCENTAGE YIELD
PERCENTAGE YIELD tells you what mass of PRODUCT is made in a reaction in reality,
compared to the MAXIMUM THEORETICAL MASS that could be made (use actual masses).

; total mass of products

Z YIELD = x 100
total mass of reactants

e.g. '109 of ammonia is made from ‘ | ;

209 of reactants. What is the % yield?” hydrogen + nitrogen = ammonia 7 YIELD = ae x 100 = 507
PERCENTAGE YIELD
PERCENTAGE YIELD tells you what mass of PRODUCT is made in a reaction in reality,
compared to the MAXIMUM THEORETICAL MASS that could be made (use actual masses).

; total mass of products

Z YIELD = x 100
total mass of reactants

e.g. '109 of ammonia is made from ‘ | ;

209 of reactants. What is the % yield?” hydrogen + nitrogen = ammonia 7 YIELD = ae x 100 = 507
RATE OF REACTION
Any rate = change in quantity+ time. (technically MEAN rate)
Can use mass/volume of reactant used/product made.
A
a Hydrochloric acid + E
ave Deienteicn E ' Gradient = rate of reaction
¢ it: r
cloudy (higher turbidity). | ae am
ee eee (unit: 9/5 oF cm3/s)

Measure time for cross S (Aay gradient = ‘up’ ~'ecross’)

~* to disappear; repeat at
.
—- *
>
different temperatures.

) INCREASING RATE OF REACTION:

—> - Increase surface area/concentration/pressure (solids,

solutions & gases respectively). Particles collide more frequently.
Measure volume
of gas produced - Increase temperature: particles move faster, collide more
by attaching gas frequently & with more energy; more likely to be successful.
syringe to
reaction vessel. - Catalyst reduces activation energy:
collisions more likely to be successful.
REVERSIBLE REACTIONS PRODUCTS = REACTANTS
Both the forward tt ‘ LE CHATELIER'S PRINCIPLE:
reverse reaction wi If a system at equilibrium is
continuously take place. N, + 3H, XN 2N H, subjected to a nena’, the
Na ae system will adjust to
Eventually the rate of both ad ® EXOTHERMICQ oo counteract the change.
of these will be equal. . 8
EQUILIBRIUM is reached: @ _ SENDOTHERM i
the overall quantity of both y mulee 2 moles
sides will not change, unless...

INCREASING PRESSURE will favour the reaction that produces fewer moles (forward in this case).
The rate of this reaction will increase to produce more ammonia until equilibrium is again reached.
“The position of equilibrium has been shifted to the right."

CONCENTRATION of solutions follows the same principle.

REMOVING product from one side shifts the position of equilibrium in that direction
e.g. removing ammonia (NH;) would result in more being made.

INCREASING TEMPERATURE favours the ENDOTHERMIC reaction (as heat is needed for it!).
One direction is always ENDOTHERMIC, while the other is EXOTHERMIC.
POLYMERS
We can choose the density of the polymers, depending on the
conditions used when making.

HDPE: High Density Polyethene

LDPE: Low Density Polyethene

HDPE

THERMOSOFTENING POLYMERS melt when heated.

THERMOSETTING POLYMERS do not, due to os

CROSSLINKS between polymers increasing the f Soe
attractive forces between the layers. iar as
ALLOYS
MIXTURES OF METALS TO FULFIL A SPECIFIC NEED

BRONZE: copper + tin BRASS: copper + zine JEWELLERY GOLD:

Vv 4 gold + silver + copper + zine

STEEL: iron + carbon -~

STAINLESS STEEL: steel + chromium/nickel ~ get eee gold
18 carat = 75Z% gold
Alloys are STRONGER than pure metals due to different etc
size atoms disrupting the lattice, so layers cannot slide 5
over each other as easily.
Se
ALUMINIUM is used to make LIGHT/LOW DENSITY alloys.
CORROSION OF METALS
THE DESTRUCTION OF METALS OVER TIME DUE TO CHEMICAL REACTIONS.

i We say iron RUSTS when ) COPPER corrodes when

it corrodes due to it it reacts with oxygen to
reaction with OXYGEN make COPPER OXIDE
+ WATER. (Steel too, > (green).
as it contains iron)
J ALUMINIUM OXIDE
is white.

We can cover materials with SACRIFICIAL METALS that will

corrode before the important metal underneath does.

Covering another metal in ZINC is called GALVANISING.

COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The Earth's early atmosphere was likely mostly
carbon dioxide, with nitrogen and water then increasing
due to volcanic activity.
The carbon dioxide was likely then dissolved into the |
oceans formed, then into sediment. SEBS
Plants and algae then converted carbon dioxide into oxygen.

THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT is what keeps the Earth warm - =

greenhouse gases absorb long wavelength radiation reflected _
off the surface. These include WATER VAPOUR, CARBON DIOXIDE g METHANE.

GLOBAL WARMING is the rise in global temperatures. ovo,

The Earth's climate is incredibly hard to model and predict, however.

CARBON FOOTPRINT is the measure of how much carbon dioxide

is released into the atmosphere as a result of your actions.
HYDROCARBONS
CRUDE OIL is made from PLANKTON buried underwater
and compressed over a long time. :

Ik consists mainly of HYDROCARBONS: molecules made from

ONLY CARBON & HYDROGEN. There are two types: ALKANES & ALKENES.

ALKANES are made of single-covalently bonded CARBON atoms

surrounded by HYDROGEN atoms (we say alkanes are SATURATED).

H. H HOH OW METH- 1 CARBON

=" oe - _1ae ETH- 2 CARBONS
H~¢ — H-C—C-C-H prop. 3 CARBONS
Hy WOH uo oHioHY BUT- k CARBONS
METHANE ETHANE PROPANE
etc

CH, CoH, CoH, (This goes for any

organic molecule, not just
GENERAL FORMULA for ALKANES: C.H,,.. hydrocarbons)
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
The hydrocarbons in crude oil must be separated into FRACTIONS before
they can be used.
Theyre evaporated and they
a (5) LPG
rise up the fractionating
column where they PETROL
recondense at different
heights: higher = colder. L
a]
KEROSENE

Longer alkanes have higher

DIESEL OIL
boiling points due to more —

energy needed to overcome $32

the stronger intermolecular _—_> HEAVY FUEL OIL
forces, so they recondense
lower down the column.

CRUDE OIL —>— BITUMEN

~N
USES OF HYDROCARBONS
COMPLETE COMBUSTION _ fuel + oxygen —>carbon dioxide + water
INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION fuel + oxygen —> carbon monoxide/carbon + water
(poisonous)
Longer alkanes have higher VISCOSITY.

Shorter alkanes are more FLAMMABLE (bura more easily).

Hydrocarbons can also be used to make SOLVENTS, LUBRICANTS, DETERGENTS

and...
POLYMERS (used to make plastics) can be H H
made from ALKENES but not alkanes. \ _ 7
c= c.
An ALKENE is @ hydrocarbon with at 7
least one DOUBLE COVALENT BOND. p)° ETHENE ~ I
Their names end with -ene.
Alkenes are UNSATURATED. General formula for alkenes: CaHan
TESTING FOR ALKENES
f | |
Alkenes will tura BROMINE WATER mwa = |
from orange to COLOURLESS. | (4 yy 7

This is due to the bromine atoms bonding to the alkene by breaking

the double bond. The molecule has been SATURATED. CHLORINE and IODINE
react in a similar way, while WATER can react with an alkene to make
aan ALCOHOL.

HON 14 HOM Ho
T Neze i+ ees H.0 F ‘ezc —F U=Cc -.c-¢
/ \ 1
Kl H R, u/ \ T 4 |!
1,2-dibromoethane ethanol
CRACKING
There is more demand for SHORTER alkanes compared to longer ones.
We use CRACKING to break longer alkanes into a shorter ALKANE
and an ALKENE to meet these demands.
CATALYTIC CRACKING uses a ZEOLITE CATALYST at 550°C.
STEAM CRACKING uses no catalyst and a higher temperature at >800°C.
lH H/ H H H 4H H H
, ] | l \ /
c-cH
Se H-c-
H-c-c4e- H + aa
! i { ] I
H H uy H 4H Lt
BUTANE ETHANE ETHENE
CH, C,H, C,H,

,' 1 | \
H-C2XC-C-C-H PH-C-H + cac-—cnmH
| [ | 4 f
lH LU wy Y H H H
BUTANE METHANE PROPENE
CH, CH, CH,
ALCOHOLS & CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
Aa ALCOHOL is an organic molecule with an -OH (hydroxyl) functional group.
Their names end with -ol.

alcohol + oxygen —>carbon dioxide + water

INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION alcohol + oxygen —> carbon monoxide/ + water
carbon
ethanol + sodium —>sodium ethoxide + hydrogen
Alcohols can produce a solution with WATER, but this becomes more
difficult the longer the alcohol.
An ALCOHOL can be OXIDISED to produce a CARBOXYLIC ACID (-COOH)
H 4H H ‘e)
t j y /f
H-C-~c-OH -—> C= e
1 | OF
H ¥ H
ETHANOL ETHANOIC ACID
ADDITION POLYMERISATION
POLYMERS are long chained organic molecules of repeating sections
made from MONOMERS.
Monomers joined together by ADDITION POLYMERISATION must contain
a DOUBLE BOND, which breaks in order to produce a SINGLE BOND to bond to

en ae
the next monomer.

Veco OD fe |
et
l
7 —N
H H H HY
\ }n
ETHENE POLYETHENE
(monomer) (polymer)
CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION
The polymerisation of different monomers carboxylic acid + alcohol —>ester + water
that have TWO FUNCTIONAL GROUPS 7 H o
on the ends of the molecules. . © + u ow i,
‘efi Hay Ljiyp sd “ere _
\

ak tric aBOCtTaR No chime sct it atin

Reacting an alcohol with -OH on both ends " 1 1

while WATER is also produced.

oO.‘ 4° H h 4 a
-” :
c 4k}
IR}
¢ ‘
_c1 -{atc-of
.
/*
— 2 nee

(RJ . HO

° oO f Oo. or
% - we e¢—R-C
ee = Kc. am —o a