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Keren Sharvit • Eran Halperin
Editors

A Social Psychology
Perspective on The Israeli-
Palestinian Conflict
Celebrating the Legacy
of Daniel Bar-Tal, Vol II.
Editors
Keren Sharvit Eran Halperin
University of Haifa Psychology
Mount Carmel, Haifa, Israel Interdisciplinary Center Herzliya
Herzliya, Israel

ISSN 2197-5779 ISSN 2197-5787 (electronic)

Peace Psychology Book Series
ISBN 978-3-319-24839-4 ISBN 978-3-319-24841-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-24841-7

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015960759

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

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Preface to the Second Volume

The Israeli-Palestinian conflict has been waging for decades, resulting in mass
losses, destruction, and suffering with profound effects on the members of the
involved societies. Furthermore, its effects reach beyond the involved societies and
influence regional and global stability. Many attempts have been made to bring this
conflict to peaceful resolution, but so far without success. Due to its intensity and
extensive effects, this conflict has drawn the attention of scholars from numerous
disciplines, who attempted to explain the causes of the conflict and the reasons for
the difficulties in resolving it. Among these one can find historians, geographers,
political scientists, sociologists, and others. Social and political psychologists have
also addressed this conflict, and one of the most influential among them has been
Daniel Bar-Tal.
This is the second of two volumes intended to pay tribute to Bar-Tal’s scholarly
contribution upon his retirement from his position at Tel Aviv University. While the
first volume was devoted to Bar-Tal’s general theory of the sociopsychological
foundations of intractable conflict and the theory’s relation to other prominent theo-
retical frameworks, this volume is devoted to applying Bar-Tal’s theory to the spe-
cific case of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. In his most recent book, published in
2013, Bar-Tal acknowledges the immense effects that living in Israel, being exposed
to this conflict, and taking part in it have had on his thinking, theorizing, and empiri-
cal research regarding intractable conflicts. We too, as his former students, have
been inspired by living in Israel and by Bar-Tal’s work to continue to investigate the
sociopsychological dynamics of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and through them to
advance the understandings of intractable conflicts in general.
We were by no means the only fortunate ones to benefit from Bar-Tal’s guidance.
Over the years Bar-Tal has educated dozens of scholars, most of whom conducted
their research in the context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and contributed to its
understanding. Specifically, over the past 15 years, a group of Bar-Tal’s graduate
students and other colleagues met every other Monday to present their work,
exchange ideas, develop collaborative projects, and learn about the work of other
scholars. Under the guidance of Bar-Tal and his colleague Amiram Raviv, this group
became a cohesive collective and a sort of “intellectual family.” To those of us who

v
vi Preface to the Second Volume

took part in that group, Bar-Tal is not just a world-renowned scholar, but also sim-
ply Danny, our friend, colleague, and mentor. Through the years of leading this
group, one of Danny’s dreams has been to publish an edited volume, to which dif-
ferent group members would contribute chapters. He was never able to realize that
dream himself, but in a way, we fulfill that dream for him in this volume, since 12
out of the 18 chapters in the volume are written by members of the group who are
Danny’s former students.
In studying an intractable conflict as complex as the Israeli-Palestinian conflict,
it is very difficult and perhaps nearly impossible to adopt an entirely impartial posi-
tion. This is true especially if the researchers are also members of one of the societ-
ies involved in the conflict. Hence, none of the contributors to this volume can claim
complete objectivity. One of our regrets regarding this volume is that we were not
able to include a larger number of Palestinian contributors. This is, in part, an unfor-
tunate reflection of the present intractable state of the conflict, in which it is very
difficult for Israelis and Palestinians to collaborate with each other. As a result, most
of the contributors are Jewish Israelis, and the volume is inevitably biased toward
their perspective, though as the different chapters illustrate, this perspective is far
from uniform and in fact encompasses a multitude of perspectives. While Palestinian
perspectives are admittedly underrepresented in this volume, they are not entirely
absent, and we are happy and proud to include chapters by Eman Nahhas and by
Anan Srour (with Adi Mana and Shifra Sagy). We can only wish for a future of bet-
ter relations between Israelis in Palestinians, which, among many positive effects,
may also allow more extensive collaborations between scholars and enrich all the
parties’ knowledge.
This volume begins with an introductory chapter by Keren Sharvit, which pres-
ents an overview of Bar-Tal’s theory of the sociopsychological foundations of
intractable conflict and discusses how the theory can be and has been applied toward
understanding the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The rest of the chapters in the volume
then expand on the different components of the theory and their manifestations in
the Israeli-Palestinian context. Part I of the volume is concerned with the effects of
the conflict on young children and the manner in which children are socialized.
Yona Teichman (Chap. 2) presents a developmental perspective on children’s acqui-
sition of stereotypes and prejudice. Meytal Nasie (Chap. 3) then discusses the man-
ner in which children’s direct experiences of violence and indirect experiences of
education in preschools and elementary schools shape the formation of the socio-
psychological infrastructure of intractable conflict. Part II deals with the role of
collective memories and narratives in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Rafi Nets-
Zehngut (Chap. 4) discusses the Jewish Israeli collective memory of the conflict,
the changes it has gone through over the years, and its relation to developments in
the conflict and to the Palestinian collective memory. Eman Nahhas (Chap. 5) dis-
cusses the collective memory of the 1948 war among young Palestinians in Israel
and the manner in which it has been preserved despite attempts by the state to
silence it. Then, Srour, Mana, and Sagy (Chap. 6) present empirical findings regard-
ing the reactions of Israeli Jewish and Arab adolescents when presented with the
narratives of their own group and the “other” group. Part III deals with societal
Preface to the Second Volume vii

beliefs and the ethos of conflict, which are central components of the sociopsycho-
logical infrastructure of intractable conflict according to Bar-Tal’s theorizing. Eli
Podeh (Chap. 7) presents a historical perspective on the Israeli and Egyptian per-
ceptions of each other during the Nasserite period. Neta Oren (Chap. 8) and Ronni
Shaked (Chap. 9) then discuss the Jewish Israeli and the Palestinian ethos of con-
flict, respectively. Part IV deals with the relationship between ideology, ethos, and
affective experiences in the context of the conflict. Daphna Canetti (Chap. 10) dis-
cusses the relationships among exposure to violence, experiences of distress and
threat, the ethos of conflict, and political preferences. Pliskin and Halperin (Chap.
11) discuss the role of emotion and emotion regulation in the Israeli-Palestinian
conflict and the manner in which they may relate to and interact with the ethos of
conflict in the Israeli society.
Part V deals with the role of education and educational interventions. Ohad
David (Chap. 12) presents an educational case study in which Israeli Jewish chil-
dren learned about encountering “otherness” while applying the sociopsychological
model of identity. Then, Soli Vered (Chap. 13) discusses the potential role of peace
education in transforming intractable conflict and the reasons that such education
has not been implemented in Israel. Finally, Part VI deals with the role of various
actors and potential interventions in possibly advancing peaceful resolution of the
Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Nimrod Rosler (Chap. 14) discusses the role of the two
national leaders, Rabin and Arafat, in the peacemaking process during the 1990s.
Tamir Magal (Chap. 15) discusses the role of civil society organizations in Israel in
different phases of the conflict. Maoz and Ron (Chap. 16) discuss the potential of
structured encounters between Israelis and Palestinians to promote peace. SimanTov-
Nachlieli and Shnabel (Chap. 17) present the needs-based model of reconciliation
and discuss how fulfilling Israelis’ and Palestinians’ needs might encourage them to
respond pro-socially toward each other. Lastly, Ofer Shinar Levanon presents the
concept of “transitional justice” and discusses the need to integrate it with knowl-
edge regarding the sociopsychological infrastructure of intractable conflict.

Keren Sharvit
Eran Halperin
Contents

Sociopsychological Foundations of the Israeli-Palestinian

Conflict: Applying Daniel Bar-Tal’s Theorizing .......................................... 1
Keren Sharvit

Part I Acquisition of the Socio-Psychological Repertoire

Stereotypes and Prejudice in Conflict: A Developmental

Perspective ....................................................................................................... 17
Yona Teichman
Young Children’s Experiences and Learning in Intractable
Conflicts ........................................................................................................... 31
Meytal Nasie

Part II Collective Memory and Narratives

The Israeli Collective Memory of the Israeli-Arab/Palestinian

Conflict: Its Characteristics and Relation to the Conflict ........................... 49
Rafi Nets-Zehngut
The “Silenced” Narrative of 1948 War Events Among
Young Palestinians in Israel ........................................................................... 61
Eman Nahhas
Perceptions of Collective Narratives Among Arab
and Jewish Adolescents in Israel: A Decade
of Intractable Conflict .................................................................................... 77
Anan Srour, Adi Mana, and Shifra Sagy

ix
x Contents

Part III Societal Beliefs and Ethos

“Seeing Through a Glass Darkly”: Israeli and Egyptian

Images of the Other During the Nasserite Period (1952–1970) .................. 99
Elie Podeh
The Jewish–Israeli Ethos of Conflict............................................................. 115
Neta Oren
Ethos of Conflict of the Palestinian Society .................................................. 133
Ronni Shaked

Part IV Distress, Emotions and Ideology

Harmed by Our Protection: Exposure to Political

Violence and Political Preferences in the Range of Fire .............................. 151
Daphna Canetti
Emotions and Emotion Regulation in Intractable
Conflict and Their Relation to the Ethos of Conflict
in Israeli Society .............................................................................................. 167
Ruthie Pliskin and Eran Halperin

Part V The Role of Education

When Jewish and Zionist Identities Encounter

Otherness: Educational Case Study .............................................................. 187
Ohad David
Peace Education Between Theory and Practice:
The Israeli Case ............................................................................................... 199
Soli Vered

Part VI Prospects for Change?

Containing the Duality: Leadership in the Israeli-Palestinian

Peace Process ................................................................................................... 217
Nimrod Rosler
The Role of Peace Organizations During Peacemaking
Processes: The Case of the Jewish-Israeli Society........................................ 229
Tamir Magal
The Road to Peace: The Potential of Structured Encounters
Between Israeli Jews and Palestinians in Promoting Peace ........................ 243
Ifat Maoz and Yiftach Ron
Contents xi

Addressing Israelis’ and Palestinians’ Basic Needs

for Agency and Positive Moral Identity Facilitates
Mutual Prosociality ......................................................................................... 253
Ilanit SimanTov-Nachlieli and Nurit Shnabel
Transitional Justice in Societies Emerging from Intractable
Conflicts: Between the Right to Truth and Collective Memory ................. 263
Ofer Shinar Levanon

Index ................................................................................................................. 277

Contributors

Daphna Canetti School of Political Science, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel

Ohad David Faculty of Education, Levinsky College of Education, Tel Aviv, Israel
Eran Halperin Baruch Ivcher School of Psychology, Interdisciplinary Center
Herzliya, Herzliya, Israel
Ofer Shinar Levanon School of Social Work, Sapir College, Sderot Israel and
Rothberg International School, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
Tamir Magal Center for Ethics and Morality, University of California, Irvine,
Irvine, CA, USA
Adi Mana Department of Psychology, Peres Academic Center, Rehovot, Israel
Ifat Maoz Department of Communication, Hebrew University of Jerusalem,
Jerusalem, Israel
Eman Nahhas Department of Education, Academic Arab College for Education –
Haifa, Haifa, Israel
Meytal Nasie School of Education, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
Rafi Nets-Zehngut Conflict Resolution, Management and Negotiation Graduate
Program, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
Neta Oren School of Conflict Analysis and Resolution, George Mason University,
Arlington, VA, USA
Ruthie Pliskin School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv,
Israel
Baruch Ivcher School of Psychology, Interdisciplinary Center Herzliya, Herzliya,
Israel
Elie Podeh Department of Islamic and Middle Eastern Studies, Hebrew University
of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel

xiii
xiv Contributors

Yiftach Ron The Harry S. Truman Research Institute for the Advancement of
Peace, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
Nimrod Rosler The Program in Conflict Resolution and Mediation, Tel Aviv
University, Tel Aviv, Israel
Shifra Sagy Conflict Management and Resolution Program, Ben Gurion University
of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
Ronni Shaked The Harry S. Truman Research Institute for the Advancement of
Peace, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
Keren Sharvit Department of Psychology and Program for Peace and Conflict
Management, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
Nurit Shnabel School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv,
Israel
Ilanit SimanTov-Nachlieli School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University,
Tel Aviv, Israel
Anan Srour Conflict Management and Resolution Program, Ben Gurion University
of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
Yona Teichman School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv,
Israel
Baruch Ivcher School of Psychology, Interdisciplinary Center Herzliya, Herzliya,
Israel
Soli Vered School of Education, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
Sociopsychological Foundations of the Israeli-
Palestinian Conflict: Applying Daniel
Bar-Tal’s Theorizing

Keren Sharvit

The theory of the sociopsychological foundations of intractable conflicts, developed

by Daniel Bar-Tal (2007b, 2013), refers to the social and psychological processes
through which societies involved in intractable conflicts adapt to the difficult condi-
tions of the conflict and to the consequences of this adaptation for the dynamics and
continuation of the conflict. The theory was developed, to a large extent, on the basis
of research conducted by Bar-Tal, along with his colleagues and students, in the
context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Indeed, as will be discussed in detail in
what follows, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict is considered a prototypical case of an
intractable conflict (Bar-Tal, 2007a). It is an intense and violent conflict, which has
involved extensive deaths, injuries, destruction of property, displacement, and con-
stant experiences of threat and danger, all of which have caused considerable suffer-
ing to the members of the involved societies. Such difficult conditions are bound to
have a psychological effect on society members, as well as consequences for macro-
level societal processes. Bar-Tal’s theorizing and research is concerned with these
dynamics. The aim of the present chapter is to present an overview of the theory of
the sociopsychological foundations of intractable conflicts and demonstrate how it
applies to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The subsequent chapters in this volume
then elaborate on the different elements of the theory as observed in the context of
the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

K. Sharvit (*)
Department of Psychology and Program for Peace and Conflict Management,
University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 1

K. Sharvit, E. Halperin (eds.), A Social Psychology Perspective
on The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, Peace Psychology Book Series,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-24841-7_1
2 K. Sharvit

The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict as an Intractable Conflict

Conflicts between societies and nations are not a unitary phenomenon. They may be
classified along a continuum that varies between short-term low-intensity conflicts that
involve minimal violence on one end and intense protracted conflicts that involve
extensive violence on the other end. Bar-Tal’s (2007b, 2013) theorizing is concerned
with conflicts that are placed at the negative end of this continuum, of which the Israeli-
Palestinian conflict is one example. The theory begins by delineating the defining char-
acteristics of intractable conflicts, some of which were originally suggested by
Kriesberg (1993). Specifically, intractable conflicts are violent and protracted, demand
extensive investment, play a central role in the lives of the involved societies, and are
perceived by them as total, irresolvable, and having zero-sum nature.
The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is indeed protracted, with roots dating back to the
Jewish immigration and settlement in the territory of Palestine/Land of Israel in the late
nineteenth and early twentieth century. Jews and Palestinians have repeatedly clashed
over the control of this territory, which both parties consider to be their historic homeland
(for detailed historical reviews, see Gelvin, 2005; Gerner, 1991; Morris, 1999; Tessler,
1994). Over the years, the conflict has expanded, involving other regional and interna-
tional parties and additional issues including religion, culture, and economy. In some
periods, it was inseparable from the broader Israeli-Arab conflict that involved Israel’s
other Arab neighbors (see Podeh, Chap. 7). Importantly, several generations have now
been born and raised into the conflict and are not familiar with alternative realities.
The conflict had been violent since its beginning. Although the extent of violence
fluctuates, it continually characterizes this conflict. Over the years, the conflict has
involved several wars, numerous large-scale military operations, military occupa-
tion, violent uprisings, and terror attacks. Engaging in such extensive violence has
forced the parties to mobilize all their available resources toward the conflict, as
well as to recruit the support of external parties (see e.g., Hever, 2013; Lifshitz,
2000; Swirski, 2005; Tov, 1998).
The conflict is central to the being of the involved societies and leaves its mark
not only on the collective lives of the Israeli and Palestinian societies but also on the
daily lives of individual society members (Bar-Tal, 2007a). It receives extensive
attention in the media and occupies a central place in the public discourse of both
societies. Consequently, it affects many of the decisions that are made by leaders,
institutions, and individuals. Moreover, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict also draws
attention from the international community. Many international actors consider this
conflict to be a threat to world stability, and numerous states and international orga-
nizations have been involved in attempts to resolve it.
As mentioned earlier, there are multiple issues in dispute between Israelis and
Palestinians. The conflict concerns issues that are believed to be fundamental and
essential to the existence of the parties and central to their national identities,
namely, the rights to self-determination, statehood, security, territory, and resources
(Bar-Tal, 2007a; Dowty, 2008; Khalidi, 2010). In addition, the conflict involves
disputes around religious and cultural issues. Because these issues are seen as exis-
tential, they became protected values (Ginges, Atran, Medin, & Shikaki, 2007;
Landman, 2010), and the conflict came to be seen as a zero-sum game, in which