1.
Meaning, Defini on, and Need for Sta s cs
Meaning & Defini on:
Sta s cs is the science of collec ng, organizing, analyzing, interpre ng, and presen ng data.
It applies to quan ta ve informa on and is used to make decisions under uncertainty.
Need for Sta s cs:
Helps in planning and forecas ng
Aids decision-making in business, economics, health, and other fields
Makes sense of large and complex datasets
Enables comparison between datasets
Helps in hypothesis tes ng and drawing conclusions
2. Techniques of Conduc ng Surveys
Surveys are tools to collect data from a defined group of people.
Survey Techniques Include:
1. Personal Inves ga on – Self-conducted by the researcher
2. Through Inves gators – Trained individuals collect data (usually for large-scale surveys)
3. Ques onnaires – Forms with structured ques ons
4. Telephone Surveys – Quick, direct, verbal responses
5. Internet/Online Surveys – Popular in modern research (e.g., Google Forms)
6. Local Sources – Agents or local reps collect data based on experience
Choosing a technique depends on:
Scope and scale of the survey
Budget
Nature of data required
Time availability
3. Survey Design
Survey Design involves planning every step of the data collec on process to ensure accuracy and
efficiency.
Key Elements:
Defining the target popula on
Choosing data collec on methods
Formula ng a sampling plan
Designing the ques onnaire or observa on method
Tes ng the survey (pilot)
Establishing a meline and logis cs
Analyzing and interpre ng the results
4. Sources of Data
A. Internal Sources: Within the organiza on
Examples: Company records, reports, employee data
B. External Sources: Outside the organiza on
Examples: Government reports, industry publica ons, other research ins tu ons
5. Methods of Primary Data Collec on
Primary Data = Collected directly by the researcher
Methods:
1. Personal Inves ga on – Best for small-scale studies
2. Through Trained Inves gators – More reliable for large-scale surveys
3. Ques onnaires – Cost-effec ve but high non-response risk
4. Telephone Surveys – Fast and efficient
5. Internet Surveys – Popular and scalable
6. Local Sources – Quick, but less accurate
Advantages:
More reliable and accurate
Tailored to the research purpose
Be er control over data quality
Disadvantages:
Expensive
Time-consuming
Risk of non-responses
6. Sampling
Sampling is the process of selec ng a representa ve subset of a popula on for the purpose of
sta s cal analysis.
Why Sample?
Saves me
Reduces cost
Prac cal when popula on is large
7. Types of Sample Design
Sampling methods are classified into:
A. Probability Sampling (random):
1. Simple Random Sampling – Every member has equal chance
2. Systema c Sampling – Every nth item is chosen a er a random start
3. Stra fied Sampling – Popula on is split into groups (strata), samples are taken from each
4. Cluster Sampling – Popula on is split into clusters; some clusters are sampled en rely
B. Non-Probability Sampling (non-random):
1. Convenience Sampling – Chosen based on availability
2. Quota Sampling – Specific traits are used to select sample
3. Snowball Sampling – Exis ng subjects recruit future subjects
4. Judgmental Sampling – Based on researcher's judgment
8. Data Analysis and Presenta on
Data Analysis:
Summarizing (using averages, charts)
Exploring pa erns
Tes ng hypotheses
Making inferences
Tools Used:
Descrip ve sta s cs (mean, median, mode)
Graphs (bar, line, pie)
Measures of dispersion (range, variance, standard devia on)
Inferen al methods (confidence intervals, significance tes ng)
Data Presenta on Methods:
1. Tables – Organize raw data
2. Bar Graphs – For categorical data
3. Histograms – For con nuous data
4. Pie Charts – Show propor ons
5. Frequency Polygons & Curves – Show distribu ons
6. Ogives – Cumula ve frequency curves
