Medicinal Spices and Vegetables from Africa Therapeutic

Potential against Metabolic, Inflammatory, Infectious and

Systemic Diseases

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MEDICINAL SPICES
AND VEGETABLES
FROM AFRICA
Therapeutic Potential
against Metabolic,
Inflammatory, Infectious
and Systemic Diseases

Edited by

VICTOR KUETE
University of Dschang
Dschang, Cameroon
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CONTENTS

List of Contributors xv
Prefacexix

PART I. DIVERSE DEGENERATIVE DISEASES IN AFRICA 1

1. Diseases in Africa: An Overview 3
J.C.N. Assob, D.S. Nsagha, A.J. Njouendou, D. Zofou, W.F. Sevidzem, A. Ketchaji, A. Chiara,
T.E. Asangbeng, K.O. Dzemo, B.M. Samba, A.C. Wenze, E. Malika, V.B. Penlap, V. Kuete

1. General overview of disease burden in Africa 3

2. Infectious diseases 6
3. Neglected tropical diseases 32
4. Noncommunicable diseases 43
5. Malnutrition57
6. Conclusions63
References64

2. Management of Inflammatory and Nociceptive Disorders in Africa 73

G.S. Taïwe, V. Kuete

 1. Introduction73
 2. Epidemiology of inflammatory and nociceptive disorders 74
 3. Gender and age of patients versus inflammatory and nociceptive disorders in Africa 75
 4. Prevention75
 5. Inflammatory pain control policy in the African context 76
 6. The inflammatory response 77
 7. Pain processing and nociception pathway 84
 8. Conventional drugs used for the management of inflammatory
and nociception disorders 87
 9. Medicinal plants used for the management of inflammatory
and nociception disorders 88
10. Conclusions89
References90

3. Burden and Health Policy of Cancers in Africa 93

T.J. Makhafola, L.J. McGaw

1. Introduction93
2. Common cancers in Africa 94

v
vi Contents

3. Government control policies for cancer in African countries 100

4. Conclusions105
References106

4. Metabolic Syndromes and Public Health Policies in Africa 109

E.U. Nwose, P.T. Bwititi, V.M. Oguoma

1. Introduction109
2. Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Africa 109
3. Systematic review of public health policies on metabolic syndrome in Africa 117
4. Framework to develop public health policy for medicinal herbs—the case of pepper 121
5. Conclusions127
References127

5. Management of Infectious Diseases in Africa 133

R. Seebaluck-Sandoram, F.M. Mahomoodally

 1. Introduction133
 2. HIV/AIDS134
 3. Dengue135
 4. Ebola136
 5. Chikungunya137
 6. Cholera139
 7. Cryptococcal meningitis 139
 8. Malaria140
 9. Schistosomiasis141
10. Antimicrobial resistance 142
11. Management of infectious diseases using African biodiversity 143
12. Conclusions148
References148

6. Overview of Governmental Support Across Africa Toward the

Development and Growth of Herbal Medicine 153
D.O. Ochwang’i, J.A. Oduma

 1. Introduction153
 2. Encouragement of use of medicinal plants in health care programs 154
 3. Policies for conservation of medicinal plants and local community participation 157
 4. Policy for restoring plants harvested in the wild and sustainability of use 158
 5. Incentives to collectors and farmers to keep production of medicinal
plants sustainable 159
 6. Government support on medicinal plant research 159
 7. Policies regarding export of medicinal plants 160
 Contents vii

 8. Policy for trade in herbal medicine 161

 9. Herbal medicine regulation in Africa 163
10. Conclusions and recommendations 165
References167

7. Preparation, Standardization, and Quality Control of Medicinal

Plants in Africa 171
M.O. Nafiu, A.A. Hamid, H.F. Muritala, S.B. Adeyemi

1. Introduction171
2. Factors that affect the use of medicinal plant preparations 172
3. Modes of preparation of medicinal plants used in traditional medicine 173
4. Modes of preparation of extracts in research laboratories in Africa 176
5. Parameters for selecting an appropriate extraction method 179
6. Standardization of medicinal plant preparation in Africa and other parts of the world 180
7. Quality control of medicinal preparations 188
8. Conclusions201
References201

PART II. THERAPEUTIC POTENTIAL OF AFRICAN MEDICINAL SPICES

AND VEGETABLES 205
8. Antimicrobial Activities of African Medicinal Spices and Vegetables 207
J.D.D. Tamokou, A.T. Mbaveng, V. Kuete

1. Introduction207
2. Antimicrobial secondary metabolites and their modes of action 208
3. In vitro screening methods of phytochemicals for antimicrobial activities 213
4. Antimicrobial effects of African medicinal spices and vegetables 219
5. Other antimicrobial spices and vegetables from Africa 228
6. Antimicrobial mode of action of African spices and vegetables 229
7. Conclusions230
References231

9. Anti-inflammatory and Anti-nociceptive Activities of African

Medicinal Spices and Vegetables 239
J.P. Dzoyem, L.J. McGaw, V. Kuete, U. Bakowsky

1. Introduction239
2. Methods used in the screening of antiinflammatory and antinociceptive
activity of African spices and vegetables 240
3. Selected African spices with antiinflammatory and antinociceptive activity 247
4. Prominent antiinflammatory active ingredients found in African spices
and vegetables 255
viii Contents

5. Clinical trials 259

6. Conclusions259
References259

10. Anticancer Activities of African Medicinal Spices and Vegetables 271

V. Kuete, O. Karaosmanoğlu, H. Sivas

1. Introduction271
2. In vitro screening methods of phytochemicals for anticancer activities 272
3. Anticancer potential of phytochemicals 277
4. Antiproliferative effects of African medicinal spices 277
5. Cytotoxicity of other African medicinal vegetables 286
6. Mode of action of African spices, vegetable’s extracts, and derived products 290
7. Conclusions292
References292

11. Antiemetic African Medicinal Spices and Vegetables 299

S. Tchatchouang, V.P. Beng, V. Kuete

1. Introduction299
2. Modes of action of antiemetics 300
3. Antiemetics screening methods 301
4. In vitro and in vivo antiemetic activities of chemicals 302
5. African medicinal spices as sources of antiemetics 304
6. African vegetables as sources of antiemetics 308
7. Conclusions309
References310

12. African Medicinal Spices and Vegetables and Their Potential in

the Management of Metabolic Syndrome 315
V. Kuete

1. Introduction315
2. In vitro screening methods of phytochemicals against metabolic syndrome 316
3. Potential of phytochemicals against metabolic syndrome 317
4. Effects of African medicinal spices on metabolic syndrome 318
5. Conclusions324
References324

13. Other Health Benefits of African Medicinal Spices and Vegetables 329
V. Kuete

1. Introduction329
2. African medicinal spices and vegetables in the treatment of age-related
and Alzheimer’s diseases 330
 Contents ix

3. Oxidative stress and antioxidant effects of African medicinal spices

and vegetables 334
4. Medicinal spices and vegetables from Africa used in the treatment of epilepsy 338
5. Prevention of rheumatoid arthritis with African medicinal spices and vegetables 340
6. African spices and vegetables and their potential effects on obesity 341
7. Role of African spices and vegetables in human fertility 344
8. Conclusions344
References345

PART III. POPULAR AFRICAN MEDICINAL SPICES AND VEGETABLES,

AND THEIR HEALTH EFFECTS 351
14. Allium cepa353
V. Kuete

1. Introduction353
2. Cultivation and distribution of Allium cepa 353
3. Chemistry of Allium cepa 354
4. Pharmacology of Allium cepa 356
5. Patents with Allium cepa 359
6. Conclusions360
References360

15. Allium sativum363

V. Kuete

1. Introduction363
2. Cultivation and distribution of Allium sativum 364
3. Chemistry of Allium sativum 365
4. Pharmacology of Allium sativum 368
5. Toxicity of Allium sativum 373
6. Patents with Allium sativum 373
7. Conclusions374
References374

16. Canarium schweinfurthii379

V. Kuete

1. Introduction379
2. Botanical aspects and distribution of Canarium schweinfurthii 379
3. Chemistry of Canarium schweinfurthii 380
4. Pharmacology of Canarium schweinfurthii 381
5. Conclusions383
References383
x Contents

17. Cinnamon Species 385

A.T. Mbaveng, V. Kuete

1. Introduction385
2. Botanical aspects 385
3. Chemistry of Cinnamomum cassia and Cinnamomum zeylanicum 386
4. Pharmacology of Cinnamomum cassia and Cinnamomum zeylanicum 387
5. Conclusions393
References393

18. Cymbopogon citratus397

O.A. Lawal, A.L. Ogundajo, N.O. Avoseh, I.A. Ogunwande

1. Introduction397
2. Chemical constituents of C. citratus 400
3. Pharmacological activities of C. citratus 407
4. Patents416
5. Conclusions416
References416

19. Curcuma longa425

L.K. Omosa, J.O. Midiwo, V. Kuete

1. Introduction425
2. Cultivation and distribution of Curcuma longa 426
3. Chemistry of Curcuma longa 426
4. Pharmacology of Curcuma longa 426
5. Patents with Curcuma longa 432
6. Conclusions433
References433

20. Lactuca sativa437

J.A.K. Noumedem, D.E. Djeussi, L. Hritcu, M. Mihasan, V. Kuete

1. Introduction437
2. History438
3. World and African distribution 438
4. Chemistry438
5. Pharmacological activities 441
6. Other pharmacological activities 446
7. Clinical trials 447
8. Conclusions447
References447
 Contents xi

21. Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae) 451

S. Derese, E.M. Guantai, Y. Souaibou, V. Kuete

1. Introduction451
2. Botanical description 452
3. Origin and distribution 454
4. Classification and cultivars of Mangifera indica 455
5. Phytochemistry of Mangifera indica 455
6. Pharmacological activity of Mangifera indica 469
7. Clinical trials 476
8. Toxicity status of Mangifera indica 477
9. Conclusions477
References478

22. Moringa oleifera485

V. Kuete

1. Introduction485
2. Cultivation and distribution of Moringa oleifera 485
3. Chemistry of Moringa oleifera 486
4. Pharmacology of Moringa oleifera 487
5. Conclusions493
References493

23. Myristica fragrans: A Review 497

V. Kuete

1. Introduction497
2. Botanical aspects and distribution of Myristica fragrans 497
3. Chemistry of Myristica fragrans 498
4. Pharmacology of Myristica fragrans 499
5. Toxicity of Myristica fragrans 507
6. Patents with Myristica fragrans 508
7. Conclusions508
References509

24. Passiflora edulis513

G.S. Taïwe, V. Kuete

1. Introduction513
2. Botanical description 514
3. Propagation515
4. Traditional or ethnomedicinal uses 515
xii Contents

5. Phytochemistry516
6. In vitro and in vivo pharmacological studies 519
7. Clinical trials 522
8. Safety profile and pharmacovigilance data 522
9. Conclusions523
References523

25. Petroselinum crispum: A Review 527

C. Agyare, T. Appiah, Y.D. Boakye, J.A. Apenteng

 1. Introduction527
 2. Plant description 528
 3. Geographical distribution 529
 4. Ethnomedicinal uses 529
 5. Pytochemical constituents 530
 6. Pharmacological properties 534
 7. Toxicity541
 8. Clinical trials 541
 9. Patents542
10. Conclusions543
References544

26. Sesamum indicum549

S.O. Amoo, A.O.M. Okorogbona, C.P. Du Plooy, S.L. Venter

1. Introduction549
2. Origin of the crop 551
3. Chemical properties of Sesamum indicum 551
4. Phytochemical studies 552
5. Pharmacological evaluation of plant extracts 559
6. Production and cultivation of Sesamum indicum 572
7. Conclusions575
References576

27. African Medicinal Spices of Genus Piper 581

I.A. Oyemitan

 1. Introduction581
 2. Taxonomy of the genus Piper 582
3. Diversity in the Piper species 582
 4. Distribution of the genus Piper 583
5. Ethnobotanical and ethnosocial importance of the genus Piper 584
6. Ethnomedicinal applications of the genus Piper 585
 Contents xiii

7. Economic and commercial prospect of the genus Piper 585

8. Bioprospecting and conservation status of the genus Piper 586
9. Phytochemical constituents of the genus Piper 587
10. Biological and pharmacological effects of the genus Piper 589
11. Toxicity profile 592
12. Conclusions592
References593

28. Thymus vulgaris599

V. Kuete

1. Introduction599
2. Cultivation and distribution of Thymus vulgaris 599
3. Chemistry of Thymus vulgaris 600
4. Pharmacology of Thymus vulgaris 602
5. Patents with Thymus vulgaris 606
6. Conclusions606
References607

29. Syzygium aromaticum611

A.T. Mbaveng, V. Kuete

1. Introduction611
2. Botanical aspect and distribution of Syzygium aromaticum 611
3. Chemistry of Syzygium aromaticum 612
4. Pharmacology of Syzygium aromaticum 613
5. Patents with Syzygium aromaticum 621
6. Toxicity of Syzygium aromaticum 622
7. Conclusions622
References623

30. Zingiber officinale627

A.T. Mbaveng, V. Kuete

1. Introduction627
2. Botanical aspect, distribution, and production of Zingiber officinale 628
3. Chemistry of Zingiber officinale 628
4. Pharmacology of Zingiber officinale 630
5. Patents with Zingiber officinale 636
6. Conclusions636
References637

Index641
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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Sherif Babatunde Adeyemi

Department of Plant Biology, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara, Nigeria
Christian Agyare
Department of Pharmaceutics, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi, Ghana
Ketchaji Alice
Department of Public Health and Hygiene, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Buea,
Buea, Cameroon
Stephen O. Amoo
Agricultural Research Council–Roodeplaat Vegetable and Ornamental Plant Institute, Pretoria,
South Africa
John Antwi Apenteng
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central University College, Accra, Ghana
Theresa Appiah
Department of Pharmaceutics, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi, Ghana
Tanue Elvis Asangbeng
Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon
Jules Clement Nguedia Assob
Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Buea,
Buea, Cameroon
Nudewhenu O. Avoseh
Natural Products Research Unit, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Lagos State
University, Lagos, Nigeria
Udo Bakowsky
Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmaceutics, Marburg University,
Marburg, Germany
Veronique P. Beng
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Biotechnology Centre, University of Yaoundé
I,Yaoundé, Cameroon
Yaw Duah Boakye
Department of Pharmaceutics, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi, Ghana
Samba Melvis Bora
Department of Public Health and Hygiene, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Buea,
Buea, Cameroon


 xv
xvi List of Contributors

Phillip Taderera Bwititi

Faculty of Science, Charles Sturt University, Bathurst, NSW, Australia
Achangwa Chiara
Department of Public Health and Hygiene, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Buea,
Buea, Cameroon
Zofou Denis
Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Buea,
Buea, Cameroon
Solomon Derese
Department of Chemistry, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
Doriane E. Djeussi
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon
Christian Phillipus Du Plooy
Agricultural Research Council–Roodeplaat Vegetable and Ornamental Plant Institute, Pretoria,
South Africa
Kibu Odette Dzemo
Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon
Jean P. Dzoyem
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon;
Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmaceutics, Marburg University,
Marburg, Germany
Eric M. Guantai
Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacognosy, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
Abdulmumeen Amao Hamid
Department of Chemistry, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara, Nigeria
Lucian Hritcu
Department of Biology, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iaşi, Romania
Oğuzhan Karaosmanoğlu
Department of Biology, Science Faculty, Anadolu University, Eskişehir; Department of Biology,
Kamil Özdağ Science Faculty, Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University, Karaman, Turkey
Victor Kuete
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon
Oladipupo A. Lawal
Natural Products Research Unit, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Lagos State
University, Lagos, Nigeria
Fawzi M. Mahomoodally
Department of Health & Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Mauritius, Réduit,
Mauritius
Tshepiso J. Makhafola
Department of Life and Consumer Sciences, College of Agriculture and Environmental
Science, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa