electronics

Review
A Systematic Review of the Design of Serious Games for
Innovative Learning: Augmented Reality, Virtual Reality, or
Mixed Reality?
Lap-Kei Lee 1 , Xiaodong Wei 2, * , Kwok Tai Chui 1, * , Simon K. S. Cheung 3 , Fu Lee Wang 1 ,
Yin-Chun Fung 1 , Angel Lu 4 , Yan Keung Hui 5 , Tianyong Hao 6 , Leong Hou U 7 and Nga-In Wu 8

1 School of Science and Technology, Hong Kong Metropolitan University, Hong Kong, China;
[email protected] (L.-K.L.); [email protected] (F.L.W.); [email protected] (Y.-C.F.)
2 School of Educational Technology, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou 730070, China
3 Information Technology Office, Hong Kong Metropolitan University, Hong Kong, China;
[email protected]
4 Talent & Education Development Office, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China;
[email protected]
5 Hong Kong Institution of Information Technology, Vocational Training Council, Hong Kong, China;
[email protected]
6 School of Computer Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China;
[email protected]
7 Department of Computer and Information Science, University of Macau, Macau, China; [email protected]
8 College of Professional and Continuing Education, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
Hong Kong, China; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] (X.W.); [email protected] (K.T.C.)

Abstract: The recent integration of educational technologies and emerging learning approaches into
education systems has been driven largely by the pandemic. This paper conducts a systematic review
and delves into the new wave of research on serious games designed for innovative learning using
augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and mixed reality (MR). The review was referenced to
Citation: Lee, L.-K.; Wei, X.; Chui,
K.T.; Cheung, S.K.S.; Wang, F.L.; Fung,
the review protocol, PRISMA 2020. Using the Scopus Database with a time filter from 2007 to 2023
Y.-C.; Lu, A.; Hui, Y.K.; Hao, T.; U, (27 July), we searched 329 articles and shortlisted 273 relevant studies. Notably, European countries
L.H.; et al. A Systematic Review of the contributed the most (62.9%) to this research area. Among the most frequent keywords, VR (90.9%)
Design of Serious Games for was commonly used in AR/VR/MR, while e-learning (95.3%) was among the popular innovative
Innovative Learning: Augmented learning approaches. Further research studies are needed to employ AR and MR technologies, as
Reality, Virtual Reality, or Mixed well as other innovative learning approaches, to enable performance evaluation and comparison
Reality?. Electronics 2024, 13, 890. of various educational technologies and learning approaches. We conducted an in-depth analysis
https://doi.org/10.3390/ of the relevant studies and their basic characteristics. Additionally, we introduced 15 essential
electronics13050890
and recently published AR/VR/MR standards to ensure better reliability, quality, and safety of
Academic Editor: Stefanos Kollias architectures, systems, products, services, and processes. To facilitate performance evaluation and
analysis, we surveyed 15 recently published benchmark education datasets. This review suggested
Received: 7 January 2024
four future research directions, including multisensory experiences, generative artificial intelligence,
Revised: 3 February 2024
personalization and customization, and real-time interaction.
Accepted: 15 February 2024
Published: 26 February 2024
Keywords: augmented reality; blended learning; e-learning; hybrid learning; immersive learning;
innovative learning; mixed reality; serious games; smart education; virtual reality

Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article 1. Introduction
distributed under the terms and
Education is a vital element of the sustainable development of individuals, nations, and
conditions of the Creative Commons
the world [1]. Many worldwide alliances and agendas have been established to promote
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
education. One of the most prominent is the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [2],
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
which was agreed upon and adopted by 193 countries in the United Nations General
4.0/).

Electronics 2024, 13, 890. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13050890 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2024, 13, 890 2 of 24

Assembly in September 2015. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) coordinates communities across the globe to achieve Sustainable
Development Goal 4 (SDG 4), namely “Quality Education”, through different means
such as partnerships and policy guidance [3]. SDG 4 is one of the 17 SDGs outlined in the
agenda and aims to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote life-
long learning opportunities for all” [2]. Another initiative is UNESCO’s Global Education
Coalition [4], which aims to support countries in scaling up their best distance learning
practices and reaching children and youth who are most at risk.
Innovative learning. According to the SDG Report 2022 [5] compiled by the United
Nations Statistics Division, the COVID-19 pandemic has led to 147 million children
missing over half of the in-person instruction in 2020–2021, and remote learning is of-
fered to 3 million Ukrainian children in the chaos of war as of April 2022. All of these
crises have accelerated the transition of traditional education toward innovative learning,
such as e-learning, agile learning, and blended learning. E-learning has become one of the
mainstream ways of learning new skills and knowledge; for example, a common form
of e-learning is online courses such as those on MIT’s Open Courseware (ocw.mit.edu)
(accessed on 1 July 2023) and Coursera (www.coursera.org) (accessed on 1 July 2023).
E-learning allows students to access learning materials and learn anywhere and anytime
on any smart device, and its learning effectiveness has also been supported by a lot of
research studies [6]. On the other hand, agile learning refers to the ability to adapt learning
strategies quickly in response to change and bridge the gap between various identified
needs of stakeholders and the learning process being deployed [7], and it is a concept
transferred from agile methods in software engineering to the learning design process [8].
Noguera et al. [9] showed that agile strategies for teamwork organization can improve
students’ team regulation and project management in collaborative project-based learning.
Another example of innovative learning is blended learning, which refers to the combi-
nation of face-to-face and computer-mediated instructions, such as online learning and
self-paced study [10]. Blended learning is an effective approach to creating a more engaging
and effective learning experience for students [11,12]. During the pandemic, it has become
a common solution to blend online learning and remote face-to-face learning to keep the
students’ study progress on track and to ensure effective learning [11].
Serious games. Serious games are “digital games created with the intention to enter-
tain and to achieve at least one additional goal (e.g., learning or health)” [13]. They have
been applied in different educational contexts because of their effectiveness in promoting
engagement and learning in different modes of learning, see, e.g., ref. [14] for e-learning,
ref. [15] for agile learning, and [16] for blended learning. Two closely related concepts on
serious games in education are gamification and game-based learning (GBL). Gamification
is the process of combining game theory and design, game elements, game aesthetics, and
game mechanics into a learning experience, in which serious games are created as products,
while GBL is a pedagogical approach to teaching in which students can explore relevant
aspects of games in a learning context designed by the teachers [17].
VR, AR, and MR in education. Virtual Reality (VR) is a computer technology that
creates a 3D virtual environment and simulates the user’s physical presence in a virtual
world [18]. Augmented Reality (AR) also generates 3D virtual environments for users,
but AR integrates the virtual world with reality by anchoring 3D models to specific loca-
tions or objects in the physical environment, such as those captured on a camera screen.
Mixed Reality (MR) combines elements of both VR and AR to create an interactive and
immersive experience that blends the digital and physical worlds, in which digital objects
and information are also superimposed onto the real world like AR, yet MR creates a
spatially aware environment that allows users using a see-through display or a headset,
e.g., Microsoft’s HoloLens 2 device, to interact with virtual objects in a 3D environment in
a way different to AR [19]. Over the past decade, the affordability and user-friendliness of
the hardware and software supporting VR and AR (referred to collectively as immersive
reality) have improved, leading to their growing use in education (e.g., refs. [20–24]; refer
Electronics 2024, 13, 890 3 of 24

to surveys [25,26] for more examples). The utilization of VR and AR in education enables
learners to practice skills and gain knowledge in a safe and controlled virtual environment.
It also provides them with access to experiences and resources that may not be available
in traditional classrooms [26]. VR and AR serious games are particularly well-suited for
skill-based education and attract students’ interest in learning [27].
Existing reviews on innovative learning. Numerous reviews have been conducted on
innovative learning across diverse subject domains, with each review emphasizing a specific
technology within its respective field of study. In the medical domain, Gaballa et al. [28]
conducted a study to explore the potential of augmented reality (AR), virtual reality
(VR), and mixed reality (MR) systems in enhancing upper-limb prosthesis rehabilitation.
Kleinsorgen et al. [29] performed a descriptive analysis of publication activities related to
digital teaching and learning in the GMS Journal for Medical Education from 1984 to 2020.
Shahid et al. [30] compared various information technology applications for the treatment
of autism. On the other hand, the education domain also benefits from the integration
of innovative learning technologies. For instance, Ongoro and Fanjiang [31] conducted
a systematic review that examined the use of digital game-based learning technology
for English language instruction in preschool and elementary schools. Baxter et al. [32]
developed a framework through a comprehensive preliminary discursive review of the
literature on innovative education and computer technology, specifically in the context
of teaching history. Ullah et al. [33] conducted a systematic literature review focused on
serious games for science education, highlighting research trends and patterns from 2011
to 2021.
In addition to industrial training, innovative learning technologies have also been
examined in other domains, such as personal skills development. For example,
Vigoroso et al. [34] conducted a synthesis of available works on game-based safety training
across various occupational domains. Williams-Bell et al. [35] reviewed several serious
games and virtual simulations that aid in fire service training. Wahyudin and Hasegawa [36]
focused on the role of serious games in disaster and safety education. Feng et al. [37] ex-
plored the use of immersive virtual reality serious games for building evacuation training
and research, specifically for indoor emergencies like fire and earthquakes.
Some reviews cover multiple domains and investigate specific technologies or method-
ologies. For instance, Hare and Tang [38] categorized player modeling and game adaptation
methods in serious games for higher education. Chavez and Bayona [39] selected articles
published between 1999 and 2017 across various fields of study to identify the characteristics
of virtual reality technology and its impact on the learning process. Checa and Bustillo [27]
reviewed 135 proposals for immersive virtual reality serious games, examining their stan-
dards and differences between training and learning applications. Yomeldi et al. [40]
conducted a systematic literature review of serious games for mobile learning, highlighting
the potential influence of visualization, enjoyment, immersion, and interactivity on learning
outcomes.
However, there is currently a lack of research specifically focused on the design of
serious games for innovative learning.

1.1. Research Contributions

To address the above significant aspects and gaps, the objective of this systematic
review using a review protocol (PRISMA 2020) [41] is to provide an in-depth analysis of
the relevant studies on serious games designed for innovative learning using augmented
reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and mixed reality (MR):
• We provide an in-depth analysis of the 273 relevant studies and their basic characteristics.
• Our work introduces 15 essential AR/VR/MR standards to ensure better reliability,
quality, and safety of architectures, systems, products, services, and processes.
• Lastly, to facilitate performance evaluation and analysis, we survey 15 benchmark
education datasets.
Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 23

Electronics 2024, 13, 890 • Lastly, to facilitate performance evaluation and analysis, we survey 15 benchmark
4 of 24
education datasets.

1.2. Organization of the Article

1.2. Organization of the Article
The rest of the article is organized as follows. Section 2 presents the methodology of
The rest of the article is organized as follows. Section 2 presents the methodology of
article search
article searchandandselection
selectionprocesses
processestotoshortlist
shortlistrelevant
relevantarticles
articlesininAR/VR/MR
AR/VR/MR research
research
areas for innovative learning using serious games. It is followed by
areas for innovative learning using serious games. It is followed by the discussion the discussion of re-
of
sults in Section 3, comprising basic characteristics of shortlisted articles and
results in Section 3, comprising basic characteristics of shortlisted articles and an in-depth an in-depth
analysis of
analysis of journal
journal articles.
articles. To
To support
support environments
environments with with good
good quality, repeatability,
quality, repeatability,
safety, interoperability, and compatibility, AR, VR, and MR standards (published andand
safety, interoperability, and compatibility, AR, VR, and MR standards (published un-
under
der development)
development) will will be summarized
be summarized in Section
in Section 4. Lastly,
4. Lastly, a conclusion
a conclusion is drawn
is drawn in Sec-
in Section 5.
tion 5. Figure 1 summarizes the structure
Figure 1 summarizes the structure of this article. of this article.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Structure
Structure of
of this
this article.
article.

2.
2. Methodology
Methodology
As
As aa review
review article,
article, this
this section
section starts
starts with
with an
an illustration
illustration of
of the
the search
search process,
process, fol-
fol-
lowed
lowed by a selection process to exclude and shortlist articles for an in-depth literature
by a selection process to exclude and shortlist articles for an in-depth literature
review
review in
in the
the following
followingsections.
sections.
2.1. Search Process
2.1. Search Process
Advanced document search of Scopus Database was used to search for relevant articles,
Advanced document search of Scopus Database was used to search for relevant arti-
which is the largest database in this domain. The search was based on article title, abstract,
cles, which is the largest database in this domain. The search was based on article title,
and keywords. The query string comprised: (“serious game”) AND (“blended learning” OR
abstract, and keywords. The query string comprised: (“serious game”) AND (“blended
“hybrid learning” OR “e-learning” OR “agile learning”) AND (“virtual reality” OR “VR”
learning” OR “hybrid learning” OR “e-learning” OR “agile learning”) AND (“virtual re-
OR “augmented reality” OR “AR” OR “mixed reality” OR “MR”). The learning approaches
ality” OR “VR” OR “augmented reality” OR “AR” OR “mixed reality” OR “MR”). The
covered the latest categories of innovative learning. The shortlisted articles must be serious
learning approaches covered the latest categories of innovative learning. The shortlisted
games-related and fall into at least one of the learning and reality approaches. Three
articles must be serious games-related and fall into at least one of the learning and reality
authors (L.-K.L., X.W., and K.T.C.) checked the query and confirmed the results. The initial
approaches. Three authors (L.-K.L., X.W., and K.T.C.) checked the query and confirmed
search responses were 329 articles with a time filter from 2007 to 2023 (27 July, the first date
thewhich
on results.
theThe initial
team searchthis
prepared responses
article). were 329 articles with a time filter from 2007 to
2023 (27 July, the first date on which the team prepared this article).
2.2. Articles Selection Process
The inclusion criteria for the review were that the articles must be related to education
purposes and that details must be presented to describe the game setting and approach of
innovative learning. Three authors independently and randomly reviewed all papers’ titles
and papers. Each author read about 74 papers. Discussions were made when there was
any inconsistency. To shortlist appropriate articles, the following exclusion criteria were
adopted.
 2.2. Articles Selection Process
The inclusion criteria for the review were that the articles must be related to educa-
tion purposes and that details must be presented to describe the game setting and ap-
proach of innovative learning. Three authors independently and randomly reviewed all
Electronics 2024, 13, 890
papers’ titles and papers. Each author read about 74 papers. Discussions were made 5when of 24

there was any inconsistency. To shortlist appropriate articles, the following exclusion cri-
teria were adopted.
•• To Toensure
ensuretechnical
technical content
content is discussed,
is discussed,only non-review
only non-reviewarticles under
articles the document
under the docu-
type are included. Therefore, 30 articles are excluded, including conference
ment type are included. Therefore, 30 articles are excluded, including conference review re-
(n
view (n = 21), article review (n = 6), short survey (n = 1), note (n = 1), and book 1);
= 21), article review (n = 6), short survey (n = 1), note (n = 1), and book (n = (n = 1);
•• To Toensure
ensurethethebest
bestcommunication
communicationin inacademia,
academia,only
onlyarticles
articlespresented
presentedin inEnglish
Englishare are
included.
included. Thus, four articles are excluded, including Spanish (n = 1), French (n
Thus, four articles are excluded, including Spanish (n = 1), French (n == 1),
1),
German (n = 1), and Hungarian
German (n = 1), and Hungarian (n = 1); (n = 1);
•• The authors carefully read the titles and abstracts of the articles and further excluded
The authors carefully read the titles and abstracts of the articles and further excluded
22 articles, including conference review (n = 11), article review (n = 10), and book
22 articles, including conference review (n = 11), article review (n = 10), and book
chapter review (n = 1).
chapter review (n = 1).
After
Afterapplying
applyingthe thecriteria,
criteria,273
273articles
articleswere shortlisted.
were Among
shortlisted. Among thethe
shortlisted articles,
shortlisted arti-
an in-depth analysis will be conducted on journal articles (n = 44). To summarize
cles, an in-depth analysis will be conducted on journal articles (n = 44). To summarize the the article
selection process,process,
article selection a workflow is presented
a workflow in Figure
is presented in2.
Figure 2.

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Workflow
Workflow of
of the
the article
article selection
selection process.
process. The
Thepurple,
purple,blue,
blue,and
andgreen
greencolors
colorsdenote
denotethe
the
information related to the initial search, screening, and analysis, respectively.
information related to the initial search, screening, and analysis, respectively.

3. Results
3. Results
The shortlisted
The shortlisted 273
273 articles
articles are
areanalyzed
analyzedin invarious
variousaspects:
aspects: (i)
(i)basic
basiccharacteristics
characteristics
includethe
include thenumber
numberofofpublications,
publications,distribution
distributionofofthe
the document
document type,
type, geographical
geographical dis-
distri-
tribution
bution of country
of country affiliations,
affiliations, distribution
distribution of subject
of subject areas,areas, publication
publication sources,
sources, key-
keywords
analysis, and Word
words analysis, andcloud;
Wordand (ii) literature
cloud; review of
and (ii) literature shortlisted
review journal articles.
of shortlisted journal articles.

3.1.
3.1. Basic
Basic Characteristics
Characteristics
The number
The number of of articles
articlespublished
publishedbetween
between 2007
2007 and
and 2023
2023 (up(up toJuly
to 27 27 July
2023)2023) is
is sum-
summarized in Figure 3. It can be seen from the trend that the research areas have
marized in Figure 3. It can be seen from the trend that the research areas have generally generally
received
received increasing
increasing intentions
intentions (although
(although itit is
is not
not monotonically
monotonically increasing)
increasing) from
from 2007
2007
(two articles) to 2022 (40 articles). Notably, more articles were published during the
COVID-19 pandemic (2020–2022) because the face-to-face learning mode was usually not
feasible [42,43]. To further study the distribution of the document type of these articles,
Figure 4 presents a pie chart showing 223 conference papers (82%), 44 articles (16%), and
six book chapters (2%). The distribution indicates that many research studies published as
conference papers are initial ideas, preliminary analyses, and case studies. It reflects that
there is room for future research for innovative learning using VR and AR.
 (two articles) to 2022 (40 articles). Notably, more articles were published during the
COVID-19
COVID-19pandemic
pandemic(2020–2022)
(2020–2022)because
becausethe theface-to-face
face-to-facelearning
learningmode
modewas wasusually
usuallynotnot
feasible
feasible[42,43].
[42,43].To
Tofurther
furtherstudy
studythe
thedistribution
distributionofofthethedocument
documenttypetypeofofthese
thesearticles,
articles,
Figure
Figure4 4presents
presentsa apie
piechart
chartshowing
showing223 223conference
conferencepapers
papers(82%),
(82%),4444articles
articles(16%),
(16%),and and
six book chapters (2%). The distribution indicates that many research studies
six book chapters (2%). The distribution indicates that many research studies published published
Electronics 2024, 13, 890 6 of 24
asasconference
conferencepapers
papersare areinitial
initialideas,
ideas,preliminary
preliminaryanalyses,
analyses,andandcase
casestudies.
studies.ItItreflects
reflects
that
thatthere
thereisisroom
roomforforfuture
futureresearch
researchfor
forinnovative
innovativelearning
learningusing
usingVRVRand
andAR.AR.

Figure
Figure3. Number
Numberofofarticles
articlespublished
publishedbetween
between2007
2007and
and2003
2003(up
(upto 2727July
July2023).
Figure 3.3.Number of articles published between 2007 and 2003 (up toto27 July 2023).
2023).

Figure
Figure4. Distribution
Distributionofofthe
thedocument
documenttype
typeof
ofthe
the273
273shortlisted
shortlistedarticles.
Figure 4.4.Distribution of the document type of the 273 shortlisted articles.
articles.
Table
Table111summarizes
summarizesthe thegeographical
geographicaldistribution
distributionof ofthe
theauthors’
authors’country
countryaffiliations
affiliations
Table summarizes the geographical distribution of the authors’ country affiliations
(n(n= =160). Of the 273 articles, 57 countries/territories contributed to the research. The
Thecon-
(n = 160). Of Ofthe the273273articles,
articles,5757countries/territories
countries/territories contributed
contributed to the research.
to the research. con-
The
tinents’
tinents’contributions
contributions are
areranked
ranked inindescending
descending order:
order: Europe
Europe (62.9%),
(62.9%), Asia
Asia(13.5%),
(13.5%), North
North
continents’ contributions are ranked in descending order: Europe (62.9%), Asia (13.5%),
America
America (13.2%),
(13.2%), South America
SouthSouthAmerica (6.29%),
(6.29%), Africa
Africa (2.10%),
(2.10%), and
andOceania
Oceania (2.10%).
(2.10%). The re-
TheThe re-
North America (13.2%), America (6.29%), Africa (2.10%), and Oceania (2.10%).
search studies
search studies
research of VR
studiesofofVR and
VRand AR
andAR for
ARfor innovative
forinnovative learning
innovativelearning
learning are are dominated
are dominated by European
dominated by European institu- institu-
institu-
tions,
tions, which
whichisisis
tions,which attributable
attributable
attributable toto tothe
the theunique
unique unique characteristics
characteristics
characteristics ofofeducational
of their their
theireducational
educational
systems systems
systems
[44,45].
[44,45].
However, However,
[44,45]. However, this
this doesthis does
notdoesmean not
not mean
mean
other other continents
other continents
continents far
far less value less
far less value innovative
value innovative
innovative learning, learning,
learning,
where
where
they
where they
theydevote
devote effort effort
devote toeffort
othertotoother
otherlearning
learning tools
tools (less
learning toolson(less ononAR/VR/MR).
AR/VR/MR).
(less AR/VR/MR). During
During a apandemic,
a pandemic,
During pandemic, the
the
theresearch
research andand
research and adoption
adoption
adoption ofofinnovative
of innovative
innovative learning
learning have
learning have been
have been
been accelerated
accelerated
accelerated because
because
becausethethe chang-
changing
the chang-
ing
ingmode
mode mode ofoflearning
of learninglearning drives
drives thethe
drives themitigation
mitigation
mitigation (at(at (atleast
least some
least some
some trials)
trials) from
from
trials) face-to-face
face-to-face
from face-to-face learning
learning
learning to
to
anyany
to any innovative
innovative
innovative learning.
learning.
learning.
Figure
Figure555shows
Figure showsthe
shows thedistribution
the distributionof
distribution ofofthe
thearticles
the articlesbased
articles basedon
based on22
on 22subject
22 subjectareas,
subject areas,where
areas, where777out
where out
out
of
of 22
22 (31.8%)
(31.8%) subject
of 22 (31.8%) subjectsubject areas
areas comprise
comprise at least
at least ten articles encompassing AR/VR/MR forin-
least ten
ten articles
articles encompassing
encompassing AR/VR/MR
AR/VR/MR for for
in-
novative
novativelearning.
innovative learning.
learning. The
The top
The top three
topthree dominant
three dominant
dominant subject areas
subject
subject areas are
areas arecomputer
are computer
computer science (82.1%),
science
science en-
(82.1%),
(82.1%), en-
gineering
gineering(43.4%),
engineering (43.4%),
(43.4%), and and
and social
social
social sciences
sciences
sciences (28.8%).
(28.8%).
(28.8%). TheThe
The first
firsttwo
first twosubject
two subjectareas
subject areascan
areas canbe
can beexplained
be explained
explained
by
by the
bythe fact
thefact that
factthat AR/VR/MR
thatAR/VR/MR
AR/VR/MR and and educational
and educational technologies
educational technologies
technologies usually usually cover
usually cover discussion
discussionin
cover discussion inthe
in the
the
domain
domain of computer science
science and
and engineering.
engineering. ToTo further
further
domain of computer science and engineering. To further analyze the key contributions, analyze
analyze thethe
key key contributions,
contributions, the
the
theannual
annual annual publications
publications in thein
publications inthe
top three
the top three
subject
top subject
threeareassubjectare areas
areasare
shown in shown
areFigure
shown 6.in inFigure
The 6.6.The
contributions
Figure The
started to be more obvious in 2017. Key observations are illustrated in each area: (i) The
number of annual publications in computer science remained steady every two years
(2017–2018, 2019–2020, and 2021–2022) and stepped up to the next level (about five articles
increment); (ii) The number of annual publications in engineering fluctuated (up and down)
four times from 2017 to 2021; and (iii) The number of annual publications in social sciences
remained steady (about 10 on average).
 in social sciences remained steady (about 10 on average).

Table 1. Geographical distribution of the country affiliations of all the authors.

Countries/Territories Number of Articles Countries/Territories Number of Articles

Electronics 2024, 13, 890 7 of 24
Germany 38 Austria 2
United States 34 Croatia 2
United Kingdom 23 Ecuador
Table 1. Geographical distribution of the country affiliations of all the authors. 2
Italy 17 Indonesia 2
France
Countries/Territories Number16 of Articles Iran
Countries/Territories Number 2
of Articles
Portugal
Germany 15
38 Malaysia
Austria 22
Greece
United States 14
34 Mexico
Croatia 22
United Kingdom
Spain 23
13 Ecuador
Poland 22
Italy 17 Indonesia 2
Australia 11 Slovakia 2
France 16 Iran 2
Brazil
Portugal 10
15 Switzerland
Malaysia 22
China
Greece 10
14 Taiwan
Mexico 22
Spain
Netherlands 13
9 Poland
Thailand 22
Australia 11 Slovakia
Canada 8 Algeria 12
Brazil 10 Switzerland 2
Norway
China 8
10 Cyprus
Taiwan 12
New Zealand
Netherlands 79 Egypt
Thailand 12
Canada
Denmark 68 Algeria
Hungary 11
Norway
South Korea 68 Cyprus
Iceland 11
New Zealand 7 Egypt 1
Sweden
Denmark
66 Ireland
Hungary
11
Colombia
South Korea 56 Lithuania
Iceland 11
Japan
Sweden 56 Pakistan
Ireland 11
Colombia
Belgium 45 Lithuania
Philippines 11
Japan 5 Pakistan 1
Chile 4 Qatar 1
Belgium 4 Philippines 1
Finland
Chile 44 Saudi Arabia
Qatar 11
Morocco
Finland 44 Serbia
Saudi Arabia 11
Morocco
Romania 44 SriSerbia
Lanka 11
Romania 4 Sri Lanka
Singapore 4 Tunisia 11
Singapore 4 Tunisia 1
Bosnia
Bosniaand
and Herzegovina
Herzegovina 33 Turkey
Turkey 11
Bulgaria
Bulgaria 33 Ukraine
Ukraine 11
India
India 33

Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 23

Figure
Figure 5.
5. Distribution
Distribution of
of the
the articles
articles based
based on
on 22
22 subject
subject areas.
areas.

Figure 6. Number of articles in the top three subject areas between 2007 and 2003 (up to 27 July
Figure 6. Number of articles in the top three subject areas between 2007 and 2003 (up to 27 July 2023).
2023).

Table 2 summarizes the selected list of AR/VR/MR publication sources for innovative
learning, with at least two articles published between 2007 and 2023 (up to 27 July 2023).
In total, there are 160 sources, 36 of which (22.5%) are listed in Table 2. The leading publi-
cation source Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Including Subseries Lecture Notes in
Electronics 2024, 13, 890 8 of 24

Table 2 summarizes the selected list of AR/VR/MR publication sources for innovative
learning, with at least two articles published between 2007 and 2023 (up to 27 July 2023). In
total, there are 160 sources, 36 of which (22.5%) are listed in Table 2. The leading publication
source Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Including Subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial
Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics, is mainly supported by collecting various
conference proceedings since 2012.

Table 2. Selected AR/VR/MR publication sources for innovative learning (from 2007 to 27 July 2023).

Publication Sources Number of Articles Publication Sources Number of Articles

Lecture Notes in Computer Science
10th International Conference on
Including Subseries Lecture Notes in
26 Information Intelligence Systems 2
Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes
and Applications Iisa 2019
in Bioinformatics
2019 IEEE 7th International
ACM International Conference
9 Conference on Serious Games and 2
Proceeding Series
Applications for Health Segah 2019
Studies in Health Technology 2022 IEEE Games Entertainment
7 2
and Informatics Media Conference Gem 2022
2022 International Conference on
2016 8th International Conference on
Interactive Media Smart Systems
Games and Virtual Worlds for Serious 5 2
and Emerging Technologies Imet
Applications vs. Games 2016
2022 Proceedings
Advances in Intelligent Systems ACM SIGGRAPH 2019 Posters
5 2
and Computing SIGGRAPH 2019
ASEE Annual Conference and
Ceur Workshop Proceedings 5 2
Exposition Conference Proceedings
Proceedings of The European Conference Conference on Human Factors in
5 2
on Games Based Learning Computing Systems Proceedings
2017 9th International Conference on
Virtual Worlds and Games for Serious 4 IEEE Access 2
Applications vs. Games 2017 Proceedings
2017 IEEE 5th International Conference
IEEE Conference on Computational
on Serious Games and Applications for 4 2
Intelligence and Games Cig
Health Segah 2017
Iadis International Conference on
Communications in Computer and
4 Cognition and Exploratory 2
Information Science
Learning in Digital Age Celda 2013
IEEE Global Engineering Education
4 Information Switzerland 2
Conference Educon
International Journal of Emerging
Virtual Reality 4 2
Technologies in Learning
Proceedings 2022 IEEE Conference
2018 IEEE 6th International Conference
on Virtual Reality And 3D User
on Serious Games and Applications for 3 2
Interfaces Abstracts and Workshops
Health Segah 2018
Vrw 2022
Proceedings Frontiers in Education
Advanced Engineering Informatics 3 2
Conference Fie
Computers and Education 3 Proceedings IEEE Virtual Reality 2
International Archives of The Proceedings of 2022 8th
Photogrammetry Remote Sensing and International Conference of The
3 2
Spatial Information Sciences Immersive Learning Research
ISPRS Archives Network Ilrn 2022
Electronics 2024, 13, 890 9 of 24

Table 2. Cont.

Publication Sources Number of Articles Publication Sources Number of Articles

Proceedings of The International
Proceedings of The European Conference
3 Conferences on E Society 2022 And 2
On E-Learning Ecel
Mobile Learning 2022
Tale 2021 IEEE International
Segah 2021 2021 IEEE 9th International
Conference on Engineering
Conference on Serious Games and 3 2
Technology and
Applications for Health
Education Proceedings

Table 3 summarizes the top 40 AR/VR/MR keywords for innovative learning. Figure 7
provides the trends of the top three keywords. Some key observations are concluded:
(i) The number of annual publications of all three keywords dropped in 2018; (ii) The
number of annual publications in the top keyword, e-learning, increased monotonically
from 2017 to 2021; (iii) The number of annual publications in the second top keyword,
serious games fluctuated (up and down) from 2017 to 2021; and (iv) The number of annual
publication in the third top keyword, virtual reality increased monotonically from 2017 to
2022. As a full picture, Figure 8 shows a word cloud of all keywords.

Table 3. Selected AR/VR/MR keywords for innovative learning (from 2007 to 27 July 2023).

Keywords Number of Articles Keywords Number of Articles

E-learning 261 Learning Environments 15
Serious Games 254 Human 14
Virtual Reality 249 Three-Dimensional Computer Graphics 14
Students 61 Training 14
Serious Game 52 User Interfaces 14
Education 46 Helmet Mounted Displays 13
Augmented Reality 37 Learning 13
Interactive Computer Graphics 35 Virtual Learning Environments 13
Personnel Training 35 Immersive 12
Computer Aided Instruction 29 Motivation 11
Engineering Education 28 Surveys 11
Virtual Worlds 28 User Experience 11
Gamification 27 Article 10
Human-Computer Interaction 27 Head-Mounted Displays 10
Immersive Virtual Reality 26 Health 10
Electronics 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 23
Learning Systems 26 Humans 10
Teaching 25 Mixed Reality 10
Game-based Learning 22 Simulation 10
Education
Education Computing
Computing 2020 Virtual Reality Technology
Virtual Reality Technology 1010
Educational Game 17 Virtual Reality Environment 10
Educational Game 17 Virtual Reality Environment 10

Figure 7. Number of articles in the top three keywords between 2007 and 2003 (up to 27 July 2023).
Figure 7. Number of articles in the top three keywords between 2007 and 2003 (up to 27 July 2023).
Electronics 2024, 13, 890 10 of 24

Figure 7. Number of articles in the top three keywords between 2007 and 2003 (up to 27 July 2023).

Figure 8. Word cloud of all keywords.

Figure 8. Word cloud of all keywords.

3.2. Literature
Literature Review
Review of
of Shortlisted
Shortlisted Journal
JournalArticles
Articles
To balance a concise and in-depth discussion of AR/VR/MR AR/VR/MRfor forinnovative
innovativeeducation,
education,
only shortlisted
shortlisted journal
journal articles
articles (n
(n == 44)
44) are
are fully
fully investigated
investigatedininthis
this subsection.
subsection.Table
Table44
summarizes
summarizes the the crucial
crucial elements
elements of of the
the existing
existing studies
studies[46–89].
[46–89].The
Thepublication
publicationyears
yearsofof
the journal
journal articles
articles ranged
ranged from
from 2011
2011 to
to 2023.
2023. Among
Among44 44articles,
articles,the
themajority
majorityof
ofstudies
studies
utilized VR (n = 36, 81.8%), followed by AR (n = 6, 13.6%), unspecified type of reality
(n = 5, 11.4%), and MR (2, 4.55%). Regarding innovative learning, various approaches
were considered, such as immersive learning (n = 23, 52.3%), e-learning (n = 15, 34.1%),
blended learning (n = 5, 11.4%), active learning (n = 2, 4.55%), online learning (n = 2,
4.55%), digital, experiential learning (n = 1, 2.27%), short-term learning (n = 1, 2.27%),
long-term learning (n = 1, 2.27%) hybrid learning (n = 1, 2.27%), non-immersive learning
(n = 1, 2.27%), project-based learning (n = 1, 2.27%), autonomous learning (n = 1, 2.27%),
smart learning (n = 1, 2.27%), and collaborative learning (n = 1, 2.27%). Please note that
the virtual experience in emergency-, safety-, or security-related applications is common
and effective (n = 16, 36.4%). In the literature, only a few works utilized MR [80] and
mixed approaches [81–84] that reflect room for future research studies. In addition, some
works [85–89] did not specify the specific approaches among AR/VR/MR.
Electronics 2024, 13, 890 11 of 24

Table 4. Summary of journal articles in AR/VR/MR for innovative learning (from 2007 to 27 July
2023).

Innovative Gaming Duration of

Work AR/VR/MR Learning Digital Tools Application Subjects Study Results

Played the
Hardware: Enhance the game once
Software: Unity, understanding 20 students Enhanced the
Immersive Serious and answered mean test result
[46] AR Adobe of prism (a ages nine years pre- and
learning games from 12.6 to 14.6
Photoshop CC, Mathematics old post-test (out of 30)
and Blender topic) questions in
30 min
Hardware: About 90% of
Smartphone students agreed
Enhance dental 19 students
AR Serious and computer; studying for a
[47] E-learning games skills for local 10 days on the benefit of
Software: anesthesia dental degree games in the
Dental learning process
Simulator v1.13
Hardware: Harmonize
Computer; and improve 99 clinical
E-learning Software: phar- clinical therapeutics Not 70% of
and Serious macokinetics therapeutics applicable respondents
[48] AR games and using ques-
blended simulator and and pharmacology used innovative
learning pharmacody- tionnaires learning
pharmacology teachers
namics
simulator education

Enhance
healthcare
skills of the
healthcare
professionals
in various
Hardware: aspects, such Played the
Digital ex- Computer and as the game once Enhanced the
Serious 50 volunteers, mean survey
[49] VR periential role-playing mobile devices; awareness of with ages of 21 and answered
game Software: the enduring to 70 pre- and result from 4.19
learning Reallusion and post-survey to 4.4 (out of 5)
impact of the
Unity questions
social
determinants
of health and
the importance
of cultural
humility
Hardware:
Neuromender
rehabilitation Enhance Three game Average score of
Immersive Serious system, VR upper-limb Four participants, 3.6 (out of 4.0) in
[50] VR learning games ages 62 to 82 settings of 2,
headset, and rehabilitation 15 engagement
computer; post-stroke 3, and 4 min levels
Software:
Neuromender
Enhance the
Immersive Serious Hardware: HTC learning and A game of 3 Average usability
[51] VR learning games Vive; Software: 57 participants
Unity skills for motor min score of 81.7
tasks
Hardware:
Head-mounted Rehabilitation
training for 12 to 20 min Lowered the
Immersive Serious display and 20 participants in the mean missed
[52] VR motor-
learning games wearable haptic impaired ages 7 to 32 kinematic contacts from
devices; assessment 4.16 to 3.29
children
Software: Unity
Earthquake
Hardware: emergency Played the Enhanced
Problem- 99 university game once
Immersive VR training for the knowledge from
VR Immersive based headset and staff and and answered
[53] learning serious enhancement 7.52 to 8.7 and
computer; students, ages pre- and
games of knowledge 18 to 53 post-test self-efficacy from
Software: Unity and questions 3.21 to 10.24
self-efficacy
Enhance
hazard 30 participants
Hardware: detection in with a mining One week (at Increased test
VR Immersive Serious Computer; and or gaming
[54] learning games least 30 min score from 7.22
Software: Unity knowledge of development per day) to 8.76
underground background
coal mines
Electronics 2024, 13, 890 12 of 24

Table 4. Cont.

Innovative Duration of
Work AR/VR/MR Learning Gaming Digital Tools Application Subjects Results
Study
Hardware: Average rating of
Oculus Enhance road Experienced playing and
Immersive Serious Rift/Quest and safety
[55] VR learning games 30 participants one virtual learning
computer; education and accident
awareness experience of 4.8
Software: Unity (out of 5)
Played the Increased
Enhance the average test
basic operation game once
Immersive Serious Hardware: HTC 93 participants, score from 1.7 to
[56] VR Vive; Software: steps for the and answered
learning games ages 21 to 61 pre-, post, and 4.4 (post-test)
Mammoth XR fire retention test and 3.7 (retention
extinguisher questions test)
Train the
earthquake Average ease of
Immersive Serious Hardware: response and 191 participants, Played the score of 3.64 (out
[57] VR learning games Oculus Rift; ages 11 to 53 of 4) in children
Software: Unity post- game once
and 2.45 (out of
earthquake 3)
evacuation
Evaluate risk Played the
aversion and game for Average points
Hardware: HTC safety 12 min and
VR Immersive Serious 20 participants, of 77.6 (post-test)
[58] learning games Vive; Software: awareness of ages 20 to 40 answered
Unity the miners in and 66 (retention
post- and test)
underground retention test
mines questions
Hardware: Played the Average score of
Head-mounted Training of game once
display, Xbox 2.91 (pre-test),
VR Immersive Serious 96 participants, and answered
[59] learning games 360, and aviation safety ages 18 to 36 4.08 (post-test),
pre-, post, and
computer; procedures retention test 4.39 (retention
Software: Unity questions test)

Hardware: Enhance the

Oculus Rift S understanding
and computer; Average
Immersive Serious of projectile
[60] VR learning games Software: 133 students 45–60 min immersion score
Unreal Engine kinematics (a of 4.52
Physics
v4.26 and
PhysX5 concept)

Hardware: HTC
Vive; Software: Enhanced
Cognitive Understand hemodynamic
VR Immersive Serious the DNA 100 participants Not response
[61] learning games Optical Brain replication applicable
Imaging compared with
process
Software lecture
v1.3.0.19
Hardware: HTC
Vive Pro and
computer;
Software: Unity,
Immersive Serious Photon Unity The design of Played the Average score of
[62] VR learning games Networking 2, Six participants
an Avatar game once 4.78 out of 7
Ready Player
Me, CC3 Base+,
MetaHumans,
and
MakeHuman
Hardware: Z800 Training of
3DVisor and collaborative
computer; Average
VR Immersive Serious manufacturing 30 participants Played the
[63] learning games Software: Unity, game once satisfaction score
tasks between of 4.02 (out of 5)
Rhinoceros, and humans and
3ds Max robots
Hardware: Played the
Computer; game once
Non- Train the skills 78 staff Increased
Serious Software: members in and answered
[64] VR immersive Adobe Fuse CC, for healthcare average score
learning games the hospital, pre-, and
Autodesk Revit, fire safety ages 24 to 64 from 4.55 to 7.23
3ds max, and post-test
Unity3D questions
Electronics 2024, 13, 890 13 of 24

Table 4. Cont.

Innovative Duration of
Work AR/VR/MR Learning Gaming Digital Tools Application Subjects Results
Study
Hardware:
Computer; Educate the Enhanced mean
Serious Software: 3ds learning 50 medical Played the score of learning
[65] VR E-learning games Max, V-Ray, approach to students game once outcome from 12
Blender, ZBrush, coma to 14.1
and Unity
Hardware:
Computer; Enhance the
mannequin- 36 participants Average post
Software: Unity training
VR Serious
[66] E-learning games and MedStar based training with a mean 3 months perception score
Digital of nurses and age of 32.8 of 3.41 (out of 5)
Simulation physicians
Platform
Hardware: Enhance
Head-mounted teaching and
display and learning for
Serious Only qualitative
[67] VR E-learning games smartphone; biomedical Nine participants 60 to 80 min
analysis
Software: laboratory
mStikk and science
wStikk education
Enhance the
teaching and 72% of
learning of respondents
VR Serious 143 participants Not
[68] E-learning games Unspecified medical applicable agreed the
knowledge, helpfulness of
skills, and VR
experience
Understand Only 17% of
the
expectations 372 students respondents
VR Serious Not
[69] E-learning games Unspecified and stressors with a mean applicable recognized
of teaching and age of 23.9 serious games
learning and VR

Hardware:
Apple
Macintosh,
Truevision3D, Visualize
and Surgical anatomical
Serious Theater Surgical Spaces for Not Only qualitative
[70] VR E-learning games Unspecified applicable
Planner; analysis
Pterygopala-
Software: tine Fossa
VMWare Fusion,
Adobe Flash,
and Autodesk
3D Studio Max
Enhance the
interactions in
Project- urban 133 participants Average bipolar
Serious Hardware: HTC planning, Played the
[71] VR based Vive; Software: with a mean laddering
games construction, game once assessment score
learning Unreal Engine 4 and age of 28.6
of 8.65
architecture
education
Hardware: VR Training of the Increased
VR Collaborative Serious headset; advanced 28 min correctness of
[72] learning games Software: 148 clinicians tasks from 39.4%
cardiac life
Unreal Engine support to 58.3%

E-learning Hardware:
Oculus Quest2 Enhance rescue 22 participants Reduced the
and Serious and computer; Played the mistake rate
[73] VR games skills in a with a mean
immersive confined space game once from 36% to
Software: age of 27.2 13.1%
learning 3DMax
Immersive Hardware: HTC VR system
learning Serious Vive, LiDAR, Train Average of
[74] VR construction 14 participants 66 s per VR achieved similar
and active games and computer; performance as
safety scene
learning Software: Unity sensor system
Electronics 2024, 13, 890 14 of 24

Table 4. Cont.

Innovative Duration of
Work AR/VR/MR Learning Gaming Digital Tools Application Subjects Results
Study
Integrating
Immersive Increase the educational
learning Hardware: engagement of Unspecified content into
VR Serious smartphones; Played the different games
[75] games the student number of game once
and active
learning Software: Unity learning students will further
process enhance the
performance
Enhance the
Immersive learning
learning Hardware: 41 teachers Only 61% of
Serious outcomes and Within participants
[76] VR and Computer cognitive ages 18 or
games one hour completed the
blended Software: Unity benefits of above
learning game
STEM
education
Hardware: VR
Immersive glasses and Enhance the
learning computers; security and 418 high school Average
VR Serious Played the assessment score
[77] and games Software: CAVE safety students age 17 game once
blended automatic to 23 of 3.29 (out of 5)
learning virtual education
environment
Study of the
Immersive
learning, Hardware: influence of
Samsung Gear eyestrain and Average
short-term apparatuses on
VR learning, Serious VR, smartphone, 42 participants, Average of improvement of
[78] games the quality of ages 18 to 39 34.3 min game score by
and and computer;
long-term experience and 6.40%
Software: Unity learning
learning
performance
Immersive
learning, Hardware: Increase
au- Oculus Touch students’ 77 students
VR tonomous Serious and computer; Played the Reduced error
[79] games learning and with a mean game once from 28% to 21%
learning, Software: age of 18.6
satisfaction
and online Blender
learning
Provide
interactive and
user-driven
Smart Serious learning Not Only qualitative
[80] MR learning games Unspecified Unspecified applicable
experiences for analysis
visitors at
cultural
heritage sites
Hardware: HTC Enhance the
VR and Immersive Serious Vive and teaching of More than Not Only qualitative
[81] MR learning games computer; 500 participants applicable
battery analysis
Software: Unity concepts

Hardware: HTC Enhance

AR and Active Serious construction Average of Average success
[82] learning games Vive; Software: 30 participants
VR Unity safety hazard 7.18 min rate of 33%
awareness
Enhanced
Hardware: average grade
AR and Serious Head-mounted 113 participants Two years from 3.78 to 4.13
[83] VR E-learning games device; Train cadets
(first year) and
Software: Unity 4.22
(second year)

E-learning Hardware:
Computer; Enhance skills Enhanced
AR and and Serious to manage Played the correctness of
[84] VR games Software: STOP 52 students game once questions from
blended Disaster online disaster events
learning 61% to 82.8%
video game
Evaluate and
quantify the
Hardware: parameters Played the Enhanced
Learning related to game once average score
Virtual Serious management learning 97 students and answered from 12 to 26.3
[85] environ- E-learning games system ages 19 to 39 pre-, post-, (post-test) and
ments success and
Software: Arctic motivation of and retention 25.7 (retention
Economy serious test questions test)
game-based
learning
Electronics 2024, 13, 890 15 of 24

Table 4. Cont.

Innovative Duration of
Work AR/VR/MR Learning Gaming Digital Tools Application Subjects Results
Study
Training of car-
Hardware: diopulmonary Enhanced
Virtual en- Serious resuscitation 109 nursing Played the average test
[86] E-learning Computer;
vironment games protocol for students game once score from 35.7
Software: Unity nursing to 47.5
education
Hardware:
E-learning Learning Enhance the
Virtual management monitoring of Only qualitative
and Serious system; Not
[87] environ- games the learning Unspecified applicable
ments blended Software: management analysis
learning SCORM and system
Reload Editor
Hybrid Hardware: Enhance the
Computer; Unspecified Ontology helped
learning Serious lean Not
[88] Virtualization games construction number of applicable virtualization of
and online Software: students games
learning LegoCAD education
Hardware: Experience in a
Computer; virtual 28 pre-service Only qualitative
Virtual Serious Not
[89] worlds E-learning games Software: environment applicable
for science teachers analysis
Virtual
Singapura education

4. Standards of AR/VR/MR
Standardization helps to enhance the reliability, quality, and safety of architecture,
systems, products, services, and processes [90]. It is often linked to compatibility and
standards. An illustrative explanation is that compatibility provides a mechanism for
different parties to work to accomplish standards jointly, whereas standards guarantee
compatibility [91]. Table 5 summarizes the 15 latest standards (two of them are under
development) of AR/VR/MR, where standards beyond the range can be referred to in
previous literature reviews [92–106]. Many standards organizations actively establish
AR/VR/MR standards. Examples include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engi-
neers (IEEE), the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), and
UL Solutions (UL).

Table 5. Standards of VR and AR.

Name of Standards Publication Year Descriptions of Standards

Standards for VR and AR (i) device taxonomy and definitions;
(ii) immersive video taxonomy and quality metrics;
(iii) immersive video file and stream formats; (iv) person
identity; (v) environment safety; (vi) immersive user interface;
IEEE P2048.1-IEEE P2048.12 [92] Under development (vii) map for virtual objects in the real world;
(viii) interoperability between virtual objects and the real world;
(ix) immersive audio taxonomy and quality metrics;
(x) immersive audio file and stream formats; (xi) in-vehicle
augmented reality; (xii) content ratings and descriptors
A standard specifies the overview, definitions, classifications,
IEEE P7030 [93] Under development
and ethics of extended reality.
A data compression standard for effective compressions,
IEEE 1857.9-2021 [94] Published in 2022
decompressions, and reconstructions of VR and AR contents.
A standard defines the representation of target
ISO/IEC 23488:2022 [95] Published in 2022 environments/objects using (3D) images for mixed reality
and AR.
The guidance specifies gesture sets’ design, selection, and
ISO/TS 9241-430:2021 [96] Published in 2021
optimization processes for VR and AR.
Electronics 2024, 13, 890 16 of 24

Table 5. Cont.

Name of Standards Publication Year Descriptions of Standards

A standard supplements the scenes and models for VR and AR
ISO/IEC TS 23884:2021 [97] Published in 2021 of various standards, e.g., ISO/IEC 3721-1 [107] and ISO/IEC
19775 [108]
ANSI/CAN/UL 8400 [98] Published in 2021 A standard specifies the safety regulation of VR and AR.
An interoperability standard for AR-related learning systems. It
IEEE 1589-2020 [99] Published in 2020 helps to establish online marketplaces and
experience repositories.
A standard specifies the architecture, information reference
ISO/IEC 18038:2020 [100] Published in 2020 model, system functions and integration, and exchange format
between mixed reality applications.
A standard defines a catalog model for efficiently searching VR
ISO/IEC TR 23843:2020 [101] Published in 2020
and AR in education.
A standard considers the training, education, and learning of
ISO/IEC TR 23842-1:2020 [102] Published in 2020
the VR content.
A standard provides mixed reality and AR definitions, terms,
ISO/IEC 18039:2019 [103] Published in 2019
concepts, and reference models.
A standard for representing and controlling live actors and
ISO/IEC 18040:2019 [104] Published in 2019 entities in mixed reality and AR scenes. The concepts, functions,
frameworks, models, and system integration are also defined.
A standard provides the benchmarking criteria and processes of
ISO/IEC 18520:2019 [105] Published in 2019 vision-based spatial registration and tracking approaches for
mixed reality and AR.
ISO/IEC 23000-13:2017 [106] Published in 2017 A standard describes the scene elements for AR content.

Data collection has played an important role (usually one of the very first steps)
in conducting research studies. Whenever it involves the recruitment or participation
of volunteers, cost and time concerns limit the continuity of data collection. Therefore,
researchers usually desire benchmark datasets ready to conduct research studies. Table 6
summarizes 15 benchmark datasets in descending order in publication year [109–123],
comprising VR [109,111,113,114,116,123] or AR [110,112,115,117–122] data for educational
research.

Table 6. VR and AR Datasets in Education.

Work Publication Year Accessibility Nature of Datasets Applications

447 samples of various hand Learning and interpreting
[109] 2023 Open access
gestures using VR sign languages
30 students participated in
A reasonable request to the Engagement detection of
[110] 2023 AR-based classroom
corresponding author STEM education
learning activities
177,238 education-related tweets
A reasonable request to the polarity analysis;
[111] 2022 using AR; 299,917 tweets
corresponding author emotional analysis
education-related tweets using VR
A reasonable request to the 4032 videos include 672 actions Hand action detection for
[112] 2022
corresponding author using AR piano training
Popularity, comfort rating, user
A reasonable request to the Analysis of educational
[113] 2022 rating, and price of 4687
corresponding author VR apps
educational VR apps
A reasonable request to the 3700 students learned martial arts
[114] 2022 VR martial arts education
corresponding author Taijiquan using VR
Electronics 2024, 13, 890 17 of 24

Table 6. Cont.

Work Publication Year Accessibility Nature of Datasets Applications

A request by returning a
22 students read books with Classifying the emotional
[115] 2022 completed form called an
AR devices states of students
end user license agreement
13 students adopted
A reasonable request to the VR-reconstructed operation Contextual substitution for
[116] 2022
corresponding author scenarios to study fieldwork in design education
interaction designs
35 students learned Mathematics
A reasonable request to the
[117] 2022 and Nature and Society lessons in Student engagement analysis
corresponding author
AR-based environments
143 students learned
A reasonable request to the Enhancement of student
[118] 2022 environmental awareness topics
corresponding author environmental awareness
via AR-based websites.
116 educational mobile AR apps
[119] 2021 Open access User feedback analysis
and 1752 user reviews
Logs of 20 users’ behaviors while
[120] 2021 Open access User behavior analysis
using AR apps
118,000 images inside a room Enhancement of the simulation
[121] 2020 Open access
using AR and mixed reality of indoor 3D scenes
19 drivers used an AR-based Driving training to improve
[122] 2018 Open access
driving simulator vehicle-pedestrian interactions
169 users contributed 1980 gazes automatic alignment of VR
[123] 2018 Open access
and head trajectories using VR video cuts

For datasets [120,121,123], although the applications are indirectly related to education,
the datasets can contribute to user behavior analysis [120], enhancement of the simulation
environment [121], and alignment of VR video cuts [123]. There are three types of accessibil-
ity for the benchmark datasets, namely open access [109,119–123], a reasonable request to
the corresponding author [110–114,116–118], and a request by returning a completed form
called an end user license agreement [115]. The first type best maximizes the download
rate, whereas the other types facilitate better interactions between researchers (data owners
and downloaders).

5. Conclusions
This paper explores the integration of serious games into education to enhance the
quality of learning. The post-pandemic era has facilitated the adoption of innovative
approaches to teaching and learning, including the use of gaming elements such as AR,
VR, and MR. While VR dominates (81.8% among three reality approaches) in the literature
review of 273 articles on developing serious games for innovative learning between 2007
and 27 July 2023, AR and MR possess unique characteristics that support different educa-
tional research. AR often provides extra information to users in real-world environments,
whereas MR considers the interactions between digital and physical elements. Interactions
between AR and MR enable the joint environment between computers, physical elements,
and humans [124]. However, this increases the computing load for realistic environment
simulation and deployment [125]. Our paper also provides an overview of typical guide-
lines and settings in software and hardware development for 15 AR/VR/MR standards
and 15 benchmark datasets (six open-access datasets and nine datasets with reasonable
requests to the corresponding authors) for conducting research studies. Although all au-
thors devoted total effort to preparing this article, we observe limitations of the review
processes, such as the search being restricted to the Scopus Database, only English articles
being included, and journal articles being thoroughly analyzed in Table 4. The presented
Electronics 2024, 13, 890 18 of 24

article is believed to provide a good systematic review of the latest developments in the
design of serious games for innovative learning using AR/VR/MR.
Last but not least, the authors suggest several future research directions: (i) Apart
from vision and hearing, consider the multisensory experiences (e.g., taste, smell, and
touch) of the virtual environments, which enhances participant engagement. A review
article of 105 articles revealed that 85% of them show a positive impact of multisensory VR
experiences [126]. Another work [127] compared the sense of presence between audiovisual-
and multisensory-based VR. The results found that multisensory experiences enhanced
the sense of presence (from 4.37 to 4.44), in a participant size of 80. In the multisensory
environment, the system complexity will be increased, and a larger space is required;
(ii) employ generative artificial intelligence (e.g., data generation algorithms) to synthesize
data and AR/VR/MR environments. This extends the data distribution from only ground
truth information. The generative adversarial network has been a leading approach for
data generation [128]. An augmented flow network was generated to support the AR- and
VR-based ceramic art exhibitions to enhance visitors’ experience [129]. It took advantage
of updating the design easily and frequently. It is a common issue of huge computational
power requirements to render AR and MR information. A deep learning-based 3D point
cloud generation was proposed to reduce the requirements [130]; (iii) enhance the learning
experience with personalization to customize the learning environments and systems
for individual users. One can consider balancing various factors, such as comfortability,
excitability, and durability. An immersive VR neuro-learning platform was proposed to
customize learning scenarios for medical education [131]. Both qualitative and quantitative
revealed the effectiveness. In one paper [132], customized VR-based exercises (based
on patients’ performance) were designed to enhance gait rehabilitation. The ease of the
system was confirmed by three experienced physiotherapists (15–33 years of experience);
and (iv) real-time interaction, engagement, and feedback between teachers and students
to support multi-user using the same AR/VR/MR environment. In one paper [133],
researchers studied the real-time interaction between teachers and students in construction
teaching using VR from a teaching perspective. Another work [134] also focused on
teaching perspective to design VR-based lectures to enhance teacher-student interaction
and after-class activities. Further work is required to analyze the interaction from a student
perspective.

Author Contributions: Formal analysis, L.-K.L., X.W., K.T.C., S.K.S.C., F.L.W., Y.-C.F., A.L., Y.K.H.,
T.H., L.H.U. and N.-I.W.; investigation, L.-K.L., X.W., K.T.C., S.K.S.C., F.L.W., Y.-C.F., A.L., Y.K.H., T.H.,
L.H.U. and N.-I.W.; visualization, L.-K.L. and K.T.C.; writing—original draft, L.-K.L., X.W., K.T.C.,
S.K.S.C., F.L.W., Y.-C.F., A.L., Y.K.H., T.H., L.H.U. and N.-I.W.; writing—review and editing, L.-K.L.,
X.W., K.T.C., S.K.S.C., F.L.W., Y.-C.F., A.L., Y.K.H., T.H., L.H.U. and N.-I.W.; funding acquisition, X.W.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China [Grant
No. 62067009].
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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