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 Series in Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering

Handbook of
Anatomical Models for
Radiation Dosimetry

Edited by
Xie George Xu
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Troy, New York, USA

Keith F. Eckerman
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Tennessee, USA

Boca Raton London New York

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Handbook of anatomical models for radiation dosimetry / editors, Xie George Xu and Keith F.
Eckerman.
p. ; cm. -- (Series in medical physics and biomedical engineering)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4200-5979-3 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Radiation dosimetry--Mathematical models. I. Xu, Xie George. II. Eckerman, K. F. III. Series:
Series in medical physics and biomedical engineering.
[DNLM: 1. Phantoms, Imaging. 2. Computer Simulation. 3. Models, Anatomic. 4. Radiation
Dosage. 5. Radiometry--instrumentation. WN 150 H236 2010]

R905.H36 2010
612’.014480287--dc22 2009012396

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Contents

Series Preface ..................................................................................................................................ix

Preface ..............................................................................................................................................xi
Editors .............................................................................................................................................xv
Contributors ................................................................................................................................ xvii

Part I Phantoms

1. Computational Phantoms for Radiation Dosimetry:

A 40-Year History of Evolution ............................................................................................3
X. George Xu

2. Stylized Computational Phantoms Developed at ORNL

and Elsewhere .......................................................................................................................43
Keith F. Eckerman, John W. Poston, Sr., Wesley E. Bolch, and X. George Xu

3. The GSF Voxel Computational Phantom Family ...........................................................65

Maria Zankl

4. The ADELAIDE Teenage Female Voxel Computational Phantom ............................87

Martin Caon, Giovanni Bibbo, and John E. Pattison

5. The MCAT, NCAT, XCAT, and MOBY Computational Human

and Mouse Phantoms ........................................................................................................105
W. Paul Segars and Benjamin M.W. Tsui

6. The 3D and 4D VIP-Man Computational Phantoms ..................................................135

X. George Xu, Tsi-Chian Ephraim Chao, Ahmet Bozkurt, Chengyu Shi,
and Juying Zhang

7. The FAX06 and the MAX06 Computational Voxel Phantoms ...................................163

Richard Kramer, Helen Jamil Khoury, José Wilson Vieira, Vanildo Júnior de Melo Lima,
Eduardo César de Miranda Loureiro, Gabriela Hoff, and Iwan Kawrakow

8. The University of Florida Pediatric Phantom Series ..................................................199

Choonsik Lee, Daniel L. Lodwick, Deanna Hasenauer Pafundi, Scott R. Whalen,
Jonathan L. Williams, and Wesley E. Bolch

9. Japanese Computational Phantoms: Otoko, Onago, JM, JM2, JF,

TARO, HANAKO, Pregnant Woman, and Deformable Child ..................................221
Kimiaki Saito, Kaoru Sato, Sakae Kinase, and Tomoaki Nagaoka

v
vi Contents

10. Korean Computational Phantoms: KMIRD, KORMAN,

KORWOMAN, KTMAN-1, KTMAN-2, and HDRK-Man .........................................255
Choonsik Lee and Chan Hyeong Kim

11. Chinese Voxel Computational Phantoms: CNMAN,

VCH, and CVP ....................................................................................................................279
Binquan Zhang, Jizeng Ma, Guozhi Zhang, Qian Liu, Rui Qiu, and Junli Li

12. Pregnant Female/Fetus Computational Phantoms and the Latest RPI-P

Series Representing 3, 6, and 9 Month Gestational Periods ......................................305
X. George Xu, Chengyu Shi, Michael G. Stabin, and Valery Taranenko

13. The Vanderbilt University Reference Adult and Pediatric

Phantom Series ...................................................................................................................337
Michael G. Stabin, Mary Ann Emmons-Keenan, W. Paul Segars, and Michael J. Fernald

14. Mesh-Based and Anatomically Adjustable Adult Phantoms and

a Case Study in Virtual Calibration of a Lung Counter for Female Workers ........347
Yong Hum Na, Juying Zhang, Aiping Ding, and X. George Xu

15. The ICRP Reference Computational Phantoms ...........................................................377

Maria Zankl, Keith F. Eckerman, and Wesley E. Bolch

16. Physical Phantoms for Experimental Radiation Dosimetry .....................................389

David E. Hintenlang, William E. Moloney, and James Winslow

Part II Applications

17. Applications to Environmental Exposures ...................................................................413

Nina Petoussi-Henss and Kimiaki Saito

18. Applications to External Radiation Exposures in Nuclear Power Plants ...............425

Warren Dan Reece, Chan Hyeong Kim, and X. George Xu

19. Applications to Bioassay for Internal Radiation Contamination .............................449

Gary H. Kramer

20. Applications to Nuclear Medicine ..................................................................................471

Michael G. Stabin and Manuel Bardiès

21. Applications to Computed Tomography for Pediatric Patients ................................487

Wesley E. Bolch, Choonsik Lee, Choonik Lee, Jorge Hurtado, and Jonathan L. Williams

22. Applications to Computed Tomography for Adult Patients ......................................511

John J. DeMarco and Michael McNitt-Gray
Contents vii

23. Applications to Optimization of X-Ray Radiographic Imaging ...............................525

Birsen Yazıcı, Il-Young Son, An Jin, and X. George Xu

24. Applications to Nuclear Medicine Imaging and Dosimetry

Involving MCAT, NCAT, and MOBY Phantoms .........................................................549
Benjamin M.W. Tsui and W. Paul Segars

25. Applications to Secondary Radiation Dosimetry in External

Beam Radiation Therapy ..................................................................................................567
Harald Paganetti

26. Applications to Image-Guided Radiation Treatment Planning ...............................591

Chengyu Shi, Martin Fuss, Niko Papanikolaou, and X. George Xu

27. Dose Calculations in Radiation Therapy Based on Patient Models

Using the Geant4 Monte Carlo Code ..............................................................................607
Harald Paganetti

28. Applications to Patient-Specific Voxel Computational Phantoms

in EGS Monte Carlo Codes for Radiation Treatment Involving
Photons and Electrons .......................................................................................................633
C.-M. Charlie Ma

29. Applications to Nonionizing Radiation Protection ....................................................655

Ji Chen, Wolfgang Kainz, and Dagang Wu

30. Summary and Future Needs Related to Computational Phantoms.........................679

X. George Xu, Michael G. Stabin, Wesley E. Bolch, and W. Paul Segars
About the Contributors ............................................................................................................685

Index .............................................................................................................................................705
Series Preface

The International Organization for Medical Physics

The International Organization for Medical Physics (IOMP), founded in 1963, is a scien-
tific, educational, and professional organization of 76 national adhering organizations,
more than 16,500 individual members, several corporate members, and four international
regional organizations.
The IOMP is administered by a council, which includes delegates from each of the
adhering national organizations. Regular meetings of the council are held electronically
as well as every three years at the World Congress on Medical Physics and Biomedical
Engineering. The president and other officers form the executive committee, and there
are also committees covering the main areas of activity, including education and training;
scientific, professional relations; and publications.
The objectives of the IOMP are

• To contribute to the advancement of medical physics in all its aspects

• To organize international cooperation in medical physics, especially in developing
countries
• To encourage and advise on the formation of national organizations of medical
physics in those countries that lack such organizations

Activities
The official journals of the IOMP are Physics in Medicine and Biology, Medical Physics, and
Physiological Measurement. The IOMP publishes a bulletin, Medical Physics World, twice a
year, which is distributed to all members.
A World Congress on Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering is held every
three years in cooperation with the International Federation for Medical and Biological
Engineering (IFMBE) through the International Union for Physics and Engineering
Sciences in Medicine. A regionally based International Conference on Medical Physics is
held between the World Congresses. The IOMP also sponsors international conferences,
workshops, and courses. IOMP representatives contribute to various international com-
mittees and working groups.
The IOMP has several programs to assist medical physicists in developing countries. The
joint IOMP Library program supports 69 active libraries in 42 developing countries and
the Used Equipment Program coordinates equipment donations. The Travel Assistance
Program provides a limited number of grants to enable physicists to attend the World
Congresses.
The IOMP Web site is being developed to include a scientific database of international
standards in medical physics and a virtual education and resource center.
Information on the activities of the IOMP can be found on its Web site at www.iomp.org.

ix
Preface

Since the 1960s, the radiological science community has developed and applied more than
90 computational models of the human body—often referred to as “phantoms”—for ion-
izing radiation dosimetry studies. Each of the models not only defines the exterior fea-
tures of the entire human body, but also includes extensive details on internal organs
such as volume, mass, shape, and tissue composition. These computational phantoms are
combined with Monte Carlo methods to precisely simulate complex radiation interactions
and energy depositions in the human body involving various particles such as photons
(x-rays and gamma rays), electrons, neutrons, and protons. Organ dose estimates, often
normalized by measurable parameters, have been calculated for different irradiation sce-
narios found in occupational radiation protection, nuclear medicine, diagnostic imaging,
and radiotherapy. Over the years, data derived from these computational phantoms have
been adopted into the recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological
Protection (ICRP) and other international and national bodies.
Anthropomorphic phantoms of adults and children of various ages, as well as pregnant
women, were depicted using increasingly sophisticated solid-geometry modeling tech-
niques over the past 40 years. Early computational phantoms were based on simple quad-
ric equations. Voxelized phantoms, which took advantage of medical imaging advances,
started to emerge 20 years ago. These image-based phantoms brought an excitement to
the research community because of their anatomical realism. In recent years, phantoms
involving advanced geometries, such as the nonuniform rational B-splines (NURBS) and
polygonal meshes, were reported with unprecedented capabilities such as deformable
anatomy and real-time cardiac and respiratory motion simulations. In addition, a num-
ber of computational phantoms have been developed for studies involving nonionizing
radiation—radio frequencies such as those emitted by electric power lines and wireless
cellular phone technologies. These nonionizing radiation phantoms have similar anatomi-
cal features, as well as technical challenges, as those used for ionizing radiation dosimetry.
Many such computational phantoms have been used for both fields of studies.
For the first time, this book provides a comprehensive review of the historical develop-
ment and application of a large number of important computational phantoms that have
been widely reported in the literature. The history of computational phantoms is clearly in
parallel with, and thus offers a unique perspective about, advances in computer technolo-
gies and medical imaging such as computed tomography and magnetic resonance imag-
ing. By reading this book, the reader can obtain a unique sense of the scientific process in
computational phantom development: the conception of an idea, the identification of origi-
nal anatomical data, solutions of various computing problems, ownership and sharing of
results, as well as the satisfaction and frustration associated with any scientific endeavor.
This handbook contains 30 chapters and is the result of several years of planning
and preparation involving ultimately 64 authors from 13 countries and regions. The
idea of this book was first conceived during the Monte Carlo 2005 Topical Meeting in
Chattanooga, Tennessee, April 17–21, 2005. A special session on “Tomographic Models
for Radiation Protection Dosimetry” was attended by more than a dozen invited speak-
ers worldwide. Recognizing the needs for research collaboration and dissemination, the
session attendees strongly suggested two actions. The first was to form the Consortium
of Computational Human Phantoms (CCHP) and a portal site for information related to

xi
xii Preface

computational human phantoms (www.virtualphantoms.org). The second was to initiate

this collaborative book project to document a 40-year history of research and development.
Previously, two workshops on “voxelized phantoms” were held: one at the National Board
Radiological Protection, U.K., by Peter Dimbylow in 1995 that resulted in a compilation of
presentations and the other at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory by Keith Eckerman in
2000. Despite the large number of phantoms that have been developed over the past four
decades, information has been scattered and often lacking in detail, and certain data from
the early work were difficult to locate. In the early 2000s, the ICRP decided to adopt voxel-
ized computational phantoms as standards for radiation protection purposes. As a result,
many colleagues had been actively involved for several years in activities associated with
the ICRP Reference Computational Phantoms. These experiences accelerated our plan for
this book, leading to the acceptance of the proposal by the publisher in 2007. It was clear
to us that this book should possess the necessary depth and breadth by considering as
broadly as possible phantoms that were historically important. At the same time, this book
should also include applications of these phantoms in diverse radiological studies. We are
extremely pleased that nearly all major phantom developers around the world accepted
our invitation to contribute, except for a few colleagues whose busy schedules prevented
them from participating—particularly Peter Dimbylow (for the NORMAN phantom) and
George Zubal (for the “Zubal” phantom). It is obvious that we were unable to extend our
invitation to many other researchers whose works are included in the tables of Chapter
1. Furthermore, there is a chance that we may have missed a few phantoms despite an
exhaustive literature search. If your work is not mentioned anywhere in this book, please
contact us so we can update our database that is maintained from the CCHP Web site.
This book is divided into two main parts: the phantoms and their applications. Part
I starts with Chapter 1, which provides a review of 40 years of research and develop-
ment in computational phantoms. This chapter includes a discussion on the classification
of phantoms and a comprehensive listing of computational and physical phantoms used
for a variety of ionizing and nonionizing radiation applications. Several rare phantoms
were included, such as the CAM phantom developed in 1973 for space radiation dosim-
etry. Chapters 2 through 15 provide detailed accounts for each of the well-known phan-
toms, such as the MIRD-5, GSF Voxel Family Phantoms, NCAT, the UF Hybrid Pediatric
Phantoms, VIP-Man, as well as the latest ICRP Reference Phantoms. Chapter 11, which was
contributed by three Chinese groups, details several phantoms, including one that, at the
time of writing, has the smallest voxel size (0.2 mm), developed from the Chinese Visible
Human Project. Chapter 16 is the final chapter in Part I, and it summarizes physical phan-
toms for experimental radiation dosimetry.
In Part II, Chapters 17, 18, and 19 cover applications for radiation protection dosimetry
involving environmental, nuclear power plant, and internal contamination exposures,
respectively. These are followed by medical applications in Chapters 20 through 28, cov-
ering topics such as nuclear medicine therapy, CT examinations of pediatric and adult
patients, x-ray radiological image optimization, nuclear medicine imaging, external pho-
ton and proton treatments, and management of respiration in modern image-guided
radiation treatment. Chapters 27 and 28 deal with patient-specific phantoms used for radi-
ation treatment planning involving two Monte Carlo code systems: GEANT4 and EGS,
respectively. Applications for nonionizing radiation are described in Chapter 29. Finally,
Chapter 30 discusses future needs for research and development. To supplement the infor-
mation in this book, the following related data sets can be downloaded from http://files.
virtualphantoms.org/public/FreeDownloads: (1) the VIP-Man image data; (2) Monte Carlo
Preface xiii

N-Particle (MCNP) input file for external photon beams source geometry using the VIP-
Man phantom; and (3) presentation slides.
An ambitious project like this is impossible without the generous support from the leading
contributors for each chapter. Their time, effort, and patience are greatly appreciated. The
field of computational phantoms has a long and rich history, and the research community
is deeply indebted to the visionary work by many pioneers. As editors, we would like to
thank Binquan Zhang, Juying Zhang, Matthew Mille, and Paul Booth from Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute, who provided valuable assistance in handling, reviewing, and formatting
the electronically submitted manuscripts.

X. George Xu
Keith F. Eckerman
Editors

Dr. X. George Xu is currently a professor of nuclear

engineering and biomedical engineering at Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute (RPI), Troy, New York. He received
his PhD in nuclear engineering/health physics from Texas
A&M University in 1994. His current research interests
include radiation dosimetry and anatomical modeling for
various applications in health physics, diagnostic imaging,
and radiotherapy. Dr. Xu directs the Rensselaer Radiation
Measurements and Dosimetry Group (http://RRMDG.rpi.
edu) and is also the founding director of the Center for
Engineering-Based Patient Modeling (http://CEPM.rpi.edu)
at RPI. In 2005, Dr. Xu cofounded the Consortium of Computational Human Phantoms
(http://www.virtualphantoms.org) which aims to promote international research collabo-
ration. He serves on several editorial boards and is involved in the technical committees
of various associations such as the American Association of Physicists in Medicine, the
American Nuclear Society, the Health Physics Society, the International Commission on
Radiological Protection, and the National Council on Radiation & Measurements; he is also
the past president of the Council on Ionizing Radiation Measurements and Standards.

Dr. Keith F. Eckerman received his PhD in environmental

health engineering from Northwestern University in 1972.
He has been the leader of the Dosimetry Research Team,
Environmental Science Division, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory (ORNL) since 1979. He is a member of the
International Commission on Radiological Protection
and the National Council on Radiation Protection and
Measurements. An internationally recognized author-
ity on internal dosimetry and biokinetic modeling,
Dr. Eckerman’s research covers radiation dosimetry; radio-
logical assessments; and applications of mathematical
models to radiation dosimetry, physiology, and metabolism. He has authored and coau-
thored more than 200 journal publications, book chapters, standards, and proceedings.
Dr. Eckerman has received numerous awards, including the DOE Award-Operation
Ivory Purpose in 1980, the Health Physics Society Distinguished Scientific Achievements
Award in 1995, the NRC Special Achievement Award in 1997, and the Society of Nuclear
Medicine Loevinger–Berman Award in 2001.

xv
Contributors

Manuel Bardiès Aiping Ding

Oncology Research Department Department of Nuclear Engineering
INSERM Rensselaer Polytechnique Institute
Nantes, France Troy, New York

Giovanni Bibbo Keith F. Eckerman

Division of Medical Imaging Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Women’s and Children’s Hospital Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

Wesley E. Bolch Mary Ann Emmons-Keenan

Department of Nuclear and Radiological Department of Radiology
Engineering Vanderbilt University
University of Florida Nashville, Tennessee
Gainesville, Florida
Michael J. Fernald
Ahmet Bozkurt RADAR Inc.
Department of Physics Nashville, Tennessee
Harran University
Sanliurfa, Turkey Martin Fuss
Department of Radiation Medicine
Martin Caon Oregon Health & Science University
School of Nursing and Midwifery Portland, Oregon
Flinders University
Adelaide, South Australia, Australia David E. Hintenlang
Department of Nuclear and Radiological
Tsi-Chian Ephraim Chao Engineering
Department of Medical Imaging University of Florida
and Radiological Sciences Gainesville, Florida
Chang Gung University
Taipei, Taiwan
Gabriela Hoff
Ji Chen Department of Physics
Department of Electrical and Computer Pontifical Catholic University of Rio
Engineering Grande do Sul
University of Houston Porto Alegre, Brazil
Houston, Texas
Jorge Hurtado
John J. DeMarco Department of Nuclear and Radiological
Department of Radiation Oncology Engineering
University of California University of Florida
Los Angeles, California Gainesville, Florida

xvii