Contents

Dedication 1
Introduction 2
1 What you will study 2
2 How you will be assessed 3
3 About this book 6

Case Study 1: Japanese expansion in Asia 1931–41 9

CHAPTER 1 Causes of expansion 10
1 Japanese nationalism and militarism 10
2 Militarism and foreign policy 15
3 Economic and political issues 31
4 Domestic instability and foreign affairs 37
Examination advice I 46
Examination practice I 48
Examination advice II 48
Examination practice II 52
Activities 53

CHAPTER 2 Japan’s expansion and the international response 54

1 The Manchurian Crisis 54
2 Key debate 62
3 Second Sino-Japanese War 1937–45 65
4 The route to Pearl Harbor 82
Examination advice 88
Examination practice for all questions 95
Activities 97
Case Study 1: Timeline 98

Case Study 2: Italian and German expansion 1933–40 99

CHAPTER 3 Interwar conditions in Europe and Italian foreign
policy 1933–6 100
1 The economic and political effects of the Great Depression 100
2 Mussolini and Fascist Italy 112
3 The Abyssinian Crisis 119
4 Italy 1939 130

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 Examination advice 136
Examination practice 139
Activities 140

CHAPTER 4 German foreign policy 1933–40 141

1 Hitler and Nazi Germany 1933–8 141
2 Germany’s foreign policy: 1933–5 149
3 Germany’s foreign policy: 1936–9 156
4 The final crises and outbreak of war 1939 171
5 Key debate 178
Examination advice 183
Examination practice for all questions 188
Activities 189
Case Study 2: Timeline 190

Glossary 191
Further reading 194
Internal assessment 198
Index 200

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 CHAPTER 1

Causes of expansion
This chapter explores Japan’s rapid progression in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries
from an isolated, undeveloped state to a significant political and military power, especially in Asia.
Much of this success was due to industrialization, a strong military and a tightly controlled political
system. There were, however, fundamental flaws in the system that would lead to increasing
military control of the state, the development of radical nationalism and calls for empire. You will
need to consider the following questions throughout this chapter:
★ How did Japan develop into an ultranationalist state with a strong military?
★ How successful was Japan in creating an Asian empire?
★ How did Japan’s economic and political issues affect Japan’s government?
★ How did instability contribute to Japan’s domestic and foreign policy?

1 Japanese nationalism and

militarism
Key question: How did Japan develop into an ultranationalist state
with a strong military?

Japan underwent major modernization in the late nineteenth century to

Ultranationalist A belief in become an ultranationalist state. The changes, part of the Meiji
which a person or state’s Restoration, were meant to protect Japan from foreign domination.
nationality is considered However, modernization placed great stress on Japanese society, especially
superior to that of all others
economic, and many Japanese people would eventually turn to the military
and usually involves racist and
discriminatory beliefs against
to control the state’s economy, government and all policies by the early
others not of the same 1930s.
nationality. SOURCE A
Meiji Restoration The Excerpt from the Meiji Constitution (1889), translated as part of the
creation of a new Hanover College Historical Texts Collection, USA, located at:
government of Japan after http://history.hanover.edu/texts/1889con.html.
centuries of military
government, in which Japan’s Chapter 1. The Emperor
Emperor held new powers Article 1. The Empire of Japan shall be reigned over and governed by a line of
and new, more modern Emperors unbroken for ages eternal.
systems of governance were
Article 2. The Imperial Throne shall be succeeded to by Imperial male
created; it is named after the
descendants, according to the provisions of the Imperial House Law.
ruling emperor of that
period. Article 3. The Emperor is sacred and inviolable.

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 Chapter 1: Causes of expansion

Article 4. The Emperor is the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights
of sovereignty, and exercises them, according to the provisions of the present
Constitution.
Article 5. The Emperor exercises the legislative power with the consent of the
Imperial Diet.
Article 6. The Emperor gives sanction to laws, and orders them to be promulgated
and executed. According to Source A, what
is the role of Japan’s Emperor
Article 7. The Emperor convokes the Imperial Diet, opens, closes, and prorogues in the government?
it, and dissolves the House of Representatives.

The Meiji Constitution How did the Meiji

Constitution organize
The Meiji Emperor of Japan reigned from 1867 to 1912. This was a period of
Japan’s government
tremendous reform in Japan, including the abolishment of feudalism, and for what reasons?
industrial development and the creation of a parliament and modern
governing systems. The Meiji Emperor declared Japan’s constitution, the first
such legal document for the country, in 1889.
The Meiji Constitution, the work of a special group called the Privy Council, Meiji Emperor Emperor of
stated clearly that the Emperor of Japan was the head of state and that he Japan between 1867 and
was a divine individual. Government authority came from the Emperor and 1912 in whose name
government ministers were responsible to him alone, not to the Diet, Japan’s modernizing reforms were
instituted.
newly created parliament. The military was allowed tremendous
independence in this document, reporting directly to the Emperor and Feudalism Form of
holding two cabinet positions in all governments. government in which nobility
and their associates, such as
The constitution required all laws and cabinet decisions to be agreed to by all warriors, hold substantial
ministers. This meant that if any one minister did not agree with a law or governing power.
decision, they could simply refuse to sign. This would cause the government Privy Council Small
to collapse and new ministers to be appointed, or a compromise would have government body of elites
to be reached to accommodate demands of opposing ministers. This whose approval was required
increased the power of the military in that they could essentially veto any for laws, major political
government decision and could threaten to dissolve a government unless appointees and more; they
their demands were met. controlled access to the
Emperor of Japan and were
The Diet heavily relied on by the
The constitution also created a parliament, called the Diet. This was Emperor owing to their
prestige and experience.
composed of two divisions: an elected House of Representatives and an
appointed House of Peers. The House of Peers was composed of nobility, Cabinet Ministers of a
high taxpayers, famous individuals and special appointments made by the government.
Emperor. The House of Representatives was elected by those with suffrage Suffrage The right to vote.
which would eventually include all men over 25 years old. The House of
Representatives could create and pass laws which then had to be approved
by the House of Peers. If approved, these laws went forward to the cabinet of
ministers for consideration. If the cabinet approved, the law went forward to
the Emperor and the Privy Council for consideration and possible approval.

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 How did the Education and loyalty to the state
education system
Modernized Japan required all citizens to attend school for four years; in 1903
promote nationalism
and loyalty to the this was expanded to six years. The stated purpose of compulsory education
state? was to teach practical skills and the ability to problem-solve, although what it
did achieve was increased literacy throughout the country. This led to people
reading books, newspapers and journals, including those that criticized the
state. Literacy was directly connected to increased awareness of government
and its policies, and people’s growing opposition to many of these.
SOURCE B

Excerpt from The Imperial Rescript on Education by the Roy Rosenzweig

Read Source B. What is the
Center for History and New Media, located at Children and Youth in
‘fundamental character’ of
History, https://chnm.gmu.edu/cyh/primary-sources/136.
the Japanese Empire?
Know ye [you], Our subjects:
Our Imperial Ancestors have founded Our [the Meiji Emperor’s] Empire on a
basis broad and everlasting, and have deeply and firmly implanted virtue; Our
subjects ever united in loyalty and filial piety [respect for elders and those in
authority] have from generation to generation illustrated the beauty thereof. This
is the glory of the fundamental character of Our Empire, and herein also lies the
source of Our education. Ye, Our subjects, be filial to your parents, affectionate to
your brothers and sisters; as husbands and wives be harmonious, as friends true;
bear yourselves in modesty and moderation; extend your benevolence to all;
pursue learning and cultivate arts, and thereby develop intellectual faculties and
perfect moral powers; furthermore, advance public good and promote common
interests; always respect the Constitution and observe the laws; should
emergency arise, offer yourselves courageously to the State; and thus guard and
Radical nationalism An maintain the prosperity of Our Imperial state; and thus guard and maintain the
extreme form of nationalism prosperity of Our Imperial Throne coeval with heaven and earth [for as long as
which can include racism and heaven and earth exist]. So shall ye not only be Our good and faithful subjects,
other forms of discrimination but render illustrious the best traditions of your forefathers.
and prejudice against those
not part of the nation, which The way here set forth is indeed the teaching bequeathed by Our Imperial
is usually narrowly defined; Ancestors, to be observed alike by Their Descendants and the subjects, infallible
this belief often justifies for all ages and true in all places. It is Our wish to lay it to heart in all reverence,
violence to achieve certain in common with you, Our subjects, that we may all attain to the same virtue.
goals. October 30, 1890
Fascism A term derived
from the Fascist Party of Italy. The Ministry of Education eventually altered the national curriculum, which
It refers to a governing now emphasized loyalty to the state, family and community. Students were
philosophy that glorifies the instructed to value Japan’s special institution, the Emperor, his divinity and
state, war and sacrificing other aspects of Japan’s history and culture. The emphasis on Japan’s
oneself for the state while
uniqueness was a huge factor in the development of ultranationalism, also
de-emphasizing individual
rights and freedoms. This called radical nationalism, which is closely related to fascism.
term is often used to refer to Offering oneself to the service of the state and protection of the Emperor
non-democratic, militaristic
was also encouraged. Teachers in training had to learn military drills as part
governments.
of their teaching skills and, by the 1920s, students throughout the country

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 Chapter 1: Causes of expansion

were also required to participate in these. The special connection between

the education system and the military would later greatly aid in the military’s
popularity and eventual control of the political system.

The rise of radical nationalism What factors may

have contributed to
Japan had a unique history and, alone among east Asian states, was never
the rise of radical
annexed to any European or American empire. These factors helped greatly nationalism?
in the creation and propagation of ultranationalism.

A special mission
Many politicians and philosophers believed that Japan was unique among
world states and, as such, had a special mission. Some of the things that
these individuals believed made Japan unique included:
● It had an Emperor who was divine and descended from the Sun Goddess.
● It had not been conquered by European powers or the USA.
● It had an ancient history of being independent.
● The vast majority of its people were Japanese and shared a common
culture and history.
● It was the only non-European state to defeat a European state in modern
war (see page 19).
● It was a major military and industrial power by 1920 and one of the most
important states at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, which dealt with
the results of the First World War.
SOURCE C

Excerpt from Fifty Years of Light and Dark: The Hirohito Era by the staff of
According to Source C, what
the Mainichi Daily News, The Mainichi Newspapers, Tokyo, Japan, 1975,
were Japan’s people not to
p. 11. Mainichi Shimbun, or Daily News, has been published since 1872 and
question?
is one of the largest media companies in contemporary Japan.
Hirohito was now the ‘God Emperor’ of the almost 2,600-year-old nation, being
the 124th in line from the Heaven-descended ancestor called [Emperor] Jimmu.
Although scholars found the early part of the Imperial lineage dubious, not a
single one of the ‘beloved subjects’ was expected to question the ‘established’
godliness of the new Ruler of Japan.

Philosophies developed that Japan not only was special compared to other
countries, but should also remove all non-Asian dominance from the region.
Since Japan was the only successful, independent modern state, then it was
the mission of the Japanese to use these qualities to lead the rest of Asia.
Nationalism developed into radical nationalism by the late 1920s. There were
many elements to radical nationalism but essentially proponents opposed
any policies or politicians that in their view weakened the Emperor and
therefore Japan. To this end, assassinations and assassination attempts were
a means of terrorizing officials into following and implementing their
philosophies. Radical nationalism led to outright racism towards other
non-Japanese in Japan’s Empire (see page 70).

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 SOURCE D

Excerpt from Emperor Hirohito and His Chief Aide-de-Camp: The Honjō
According to Source D, what
Diary, 1933–36 by Honjō Shigeru, translation and introduction by Mikiso
would free people from
Hane, published by University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, Japan, 1982, p. 25.
materialism and why?
Honjō was head of the Kwantung Army of Japan from 1931 to 1932 and
later served as the military’s liaison with Japan’s Emperor until 1936.
Mikiso Hane was an internationally renowned historian on Japanese
history and a professor at Knox College in the USA from 1961 to 1992.
[Ultranationalist ideologist] Ōkawa Shūmei placed the emperor system at the
core of his thinking, regarding it as the source of morality and religion. He
emphasized the ‘way of the Japanese’ and the ‘Japanese spirit,’ which embodies
‘statism, idealism, the principle of combat and spirituality.’ ‘The Japanese
spirit,’ in Ōkawa’s opinion was incompatible with ‘the Anglo-American
democratic spirit which is the product of individualism, utilitarianism,
hedonism, and materialism.’ A second Restoration was needed, Ōkawa asserted,
to free the people from the oppression of materialism and unite the people and
the Emperor. The uniqueness of Japan entitled it to become the leader of
Asia …

Growth of militarism
Closely connected to the philosophy that Japan had a special mission or
destiny was that of militarism. In order to protect Japan, secure its colonial
possession and dominate Asia, which might lead to confrontation with
Britain, France or the USA, a large navy and army were required. The
military had held a special place in Japanese society for centuries (see below),
so the idea of a strong military was not an unusual one. The Meiji
Constitution, for example, had also enshrined the special relationship
between the military and the Emperor, with the military reporting directly to
him (see page 11).
The military was a political force in Japan, holding cabinet positions in the
government (see page 11). In this way, the army and navy were able to affect
politics and ensure their growth and maintenance. In the late 1920s, as
economic crises continued to weaken the civilian government, militarism
became increasingly popular as it was tied to expanding the empire, which
many hoped would bring economic relief and new lands to settle peasants
(see pages 35 and 39).

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 Chapter 1: Causes of expansion

Special mission for Asia

and Japan in particular Semi-independent
military

Radical Unique Divine Meiji Two-house

nationalism history Emperor Constitution parliament

Powerful Privy
The Imperial Rescript Council
on Education

SUMMARY DIAGR AM
Japanese nationalism and
militarism

2 Militarism and foreign policy

Key question: How successful was Japan in creating an Asian empire?

Japan had a long history of militarism. The pre-modern government of Japan

had been a military dictatorship in which real authority rested with a
shōgun; the Emperor was a symbol of national unity and was involved Shōgun Hereditary military
primarily in religious rites, rather than having any power. Industrialization, governors of Japan from
including the development of factories, railways, ports and international 1192 to 1867.
trade, strengthened Japan, allowing, and perhaps requiring, it to expand its
empire to include neighbouring states and territories.

Militarism before the First World War What events resulted

from Japan’s
From the late nineteenth century, as Japan modernized and industrialized, its militarism in the early
power to dominate and intimidate other nations grew. It acted on long- twentieth century?
standing interests in countries such as Korea and engaged in other conflicts
with Russia, China and Taiwan. The First World War was its opportunity to
demonstrate its strength to the world, especially China and Germany.

Korea 1876–1905
Japan had long had economic and political interests in Korea, the closest
neighbouring state. The Mongol Empire launched attacks against Japan from
in the years 1274 and 1281, unsuccessfully. Japan invaded Korea in the late
sixteenth century but was forced out by Korean and Chinese armies. By 1876,
Japan had enough Western military technology and a new desire to export its
manufactured goods that it was able to force Korea to sign the Japan–Korea
Treaty (1876), also known as the Japan–Korea Treaty of Amity or the Treaty of
Ganghwa Island. This document stated:

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 ● Korea was no longer a tributary state to China.
● Japanese citizens could not be arrested or tried in Korean courts.
Tributary A state which ● Korea could not impose any restrictions on Japanese trade.
presents gifts or funds to a ● Japan was allowed the use of three ports for its exports.
stronger state for protection
and/or as a sign of loyalty, In 1884, supporters of Japan overthrew Korea’s government briefly in a coup
respect and subservience. d’état. A counter-coup was launched against this new government and
Coup d’état An overthrow supported by Chinese troops. It was clear to other states that Korea was
of a state’s government by unable to defend itself from other countries and, in 1885, Britain took control
individuals within that state. of a Korean port city. In 1894, a major peasant revolt erupted against the
Qing Dynasty of China Korean government, partly in response to the presence of Japan in the
The ethnic Manchu family of country’s affairs. When the Korean government asked China for assistance,
rulers of China from 1644 Japan declared that Korea had violated the Japan–Korea Treaty, and occupied
to 1911. the capital city with 8000 troops. It installed a government and assassinated
its main opposition leader, Empress Myeongseong, in 1895. Japanese
interference in Korean affairs led to war with China.

First Sino-Japanese War 1894–5

A long series of events, primarily over Japan’s interference in Korean affairs
but also including assassinations, bans on Japanese imports in China, and
other issues, caused increasing tensions between Japan and the Qing
Dynasty of China. Japan’s essential takeover of Korea in 1894 and the gain
of even more rights there caused the Qing Dynasty to declare war on Japan
in August 1894.

SOURCE E

Japanese engraving
How does the artist contrast depicting a scene from the
the soldiers of Japan and
First Sino-Japanese War by
China in Source E?
Suzuki Kwasson, Tokyo,
Japan, early twentieth
century. Suzuki (1860–
1919) was a prolific artist
who depicted battle scenes
from the war, along with a
variety of other topics and
themes.

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 Chapter 1: Causes of expansion

The war progressed rapidly for Japan, which had a modernized military,
complete with ironclad warships, pontoon (floating) bridges and modern
rifles. By October, Chinese troops had been driven out of Korea, and
Japan began the invasion of Manchuria, a huge province in northeastern
China and ancestral homeland of the Qing Emperors of China. Several
towns and cities were captured by Japanese troops before winter weather
slowed their invasion. In November, Japanese forces captured Port Arthur,
a major economic prize; by mid-February 1895, after a long siege, they
seized the port of Weihaiwei; then in March, they captured islands off
Taiwan.
China requested Japan’s terms for peace after suffering nothing but defeat
after defeat. The Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed by both countries in April
1895. This treaty:
● granted Korea full independence from China
● gave Taiwan and the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan
● required China to pay a large indemnity to Japan, approximately
13,600 tons of silver
● allowed Japanese ships to operate ships on the Yangtze River, and to have
factories in four Chinese ports that would now be completely open to
Japanese imports.
Immediately after the Treaty of Shimonoseki was announced, Russia,
Germany and France declared that the treaty had to be altered to
accommodate their desires. Although Japan clearly dominated China
during the war, it was in no way prepared to deal with three of the world’s
great military powers. In this Tripartite Intervention, as it became known,
Russia took control of the Liaodong Peninsula and Port Arthur, leasing them
from China. Germany would soon take control of part of the Shantung
Peninsula from the much-weakened Chinese government. Japan was
humiliated and embittered, but forced to submit to the European powers’
demands.
Although the Chinese government gave Taiwan to Japan, officials in
Taiwan resisted. On 23 May 1895, Taiwan declared itself the Republic of
Formosa, leading to a five-month war that ended with a Japanese victory
in October.

Russia
Russian control of the Liaodong Peninsula and Port Arthur in 1895 had
revealed that Japan needed more development if it was to protect itself and
its interests from European states. Japan’s industrialization continued at a
rapid rate, leading to increasing exports, increasing revenues to support
further military costs, and a larger, better armed military. Japan also sought
allies.

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 SOURCE F

Tripartite Intervention results, 1895.

According to Source F,
which country controlled SAKHALIN
more of China than any Sea of
other state as a result of the RUSSIA Okhoisk
Tripartite Intervention?

MANCHURIA
(Russia had some rights)
Vladivostok

Liaodong
Peninsula Sea of
(Russia) Japan

KOREA
(Japan)
Port Arthur Tokyo
(Russia) Seoul
er Weihaiwei
iv JAPAN
R Tsingtao
ll ow
Ye Yellow
Shantung Sea
Pacific
Peninsula Ocean
(Germany)
r
ve

Shanghai
Ri

N
zi
ng
Ya

CHINA

0 200 400 mls

Taipei

0 300 600 km
TAIWAN
(Japan)
Empire of Japan

SOURCE G

Excerpt from Japanese Diplomacy in a Dilemma: New Light on Japan’s

According to Source G, what China Policy, 1924–1929 by Nobuya Bamba, published by University of
was the purpose of much of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, Canada, 1972, p. 35. Bamba
Japan’s foreign policy? specializes in the diplomatic and intellectual history of Japan and is a
professor at Tsuda College, Tokyo, Japan.
To catch up to more advanced or superior ones and to supersede them was the
individual as well as national goal. Naturally, then, they [Japan] considered the
unequal treaties as great national humiliations, and to get rid of them became a

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 Chapter 1: Causes of expansion

major purpose of their diplomacy during the [Emperor] Meiji era. The whole of
the national energy was exerted to achieve this goal. Likewise, the people in Meiji
[Japan] felt the Triple [Tripartite] Intervention was a great national humiliation.
The entire country became enraged. ‘Gashin shōtan’ (endurance and hard work
for the achievement of future revenge) expressed Japan’s determination to wipe
out this humiliation … The Russo-Japanese War was Japan’s ‘revenge’ against
Russia. Russian ambitions toward Korea gave Japan an opportunity to act.

Anglo-Japanese Alliance 1902

Britain was also concerned with Russian expansion in Asia. Russia was
rapidly industrializing, clearly expanding towards China, had gained the
major port of Port Arthur, and was now building a railway to link the entire
Russian Empire with its Asian possessions. Britain had dominated China
economically through wars and lopsided treaties throughout the nineteenth
century. It had no intention of allowing Russia to expand without a
challenge. Unable to afford the expense of a large naval fleet or standing
army in China, Britain formed the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902 with
Japan. It was the first military alliance for Japan in modern times. Essentially:
● Japan and Britain would aid each other militarily if either was at war with
two or more countries.
● If either country was at war with only one other state, then the other
would remain neutral.
This alliance was clearly directed at Russia, and Russia’s only ally was France.
France had no intention of fighting a distant war in Asia since it was more
concerned with an increasingly aggressive Germany. The Alliance
guaranteed Japan that it needed to deal only with Russia in the case of war,
and it was determined to provoke a war and win.

Russo-Japanese War 1904–5

Tensions between Russia and Japan had increased between 1895 and 1904.
Russia, leasing Port Arthur and parts of the Liaodong Peninsula from China,
stationed a fleet of warships off Port Arthur in December 1897; the port was
soon fortified and construction started on railways that would eventually link
it to Russia through China’s Manchuria. Russia began to pressure Korea to
grant mining and forestry rights, further provoking Japan, which felt that
Korea was in its sphere of influence.
During the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1899 and 1900, approximately Boxer Rebellion An
200,000 Russian troops were stationed in Manchuria to protect the railway anti-foreign, anti-Christian
from Chinese rebels and soldiers. This was also done to prevent Japan from revolt in China that was
stationing troops there and interfering with Russia’s interests in the region. eventually joined by
government soldiers with
Once the Boxer Rebellion had been crushed, these troops were not
support from the Qing
withdrawn despite Russia’s promises to do so. Both Britain and Japan felt Dynasty. The revolt was put
that their interests in China and Korea were threatened by this force. down by foreign troops.
Japan initiated a series of diplomatic meetings with Russia to resolve the
crisis and to clarify the sphere of influence of each state towards Korea and

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 SOURCE H

‘Don’t twist in my hands! I want to see how your skin tears on my teeth!!’
How does Source H depict
Russian postcard from just before the Russo-Japanese War depicting a
the weakness of Japan?
Russian Cossack [warrior] eating a Japanese soldier for breakfast, about
1904.

China; Korea and China were too weak for either power to consider their
input or protests. Eventually, Japan proposed that Manchuria would be in
the Russian sphere of influence and Korea would be in Japan’s. Russia did
not respond and so in February 1904, Japan expelled Russia’s ambassador
and severed all relations with Russia. Many historians believe that Russia’s
government desired war with Japan due to a crippling political crisis in
Russia at the time, in which there were calls for a constitution and governing
reforms which were opposed by the Tsar (Russian Emperor). Tsar

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 Chapter 1: Causes of expansion

Nicholas II’s government hoped that an outpouring of nationalism at

Russia’s eventual victory over Japan would reinforce the Tsar’s popularity and
help suppress criticism of his government and its institutions.
Japan attacked the Russian navy at Port Arthur on 8 February 1904 and soon
afterwards launched an invasion of Korea. By the end of April:
● A Japanese army had entered Russian-controlled Manchuria.
● The Japanese navy had defeated the Port Arthur-based Russian navy.
● Port Arthur was under siege by land and sea.
SOURCE I

Excerpt from The Attack upon Port Arthur, 1905 by Lt. Tadayoshi Sakurai,
According to Source I, why
published by the Russo-Japanese War Research Society,
were Japanese troops
www.russojapanesewar.com/sakuri-1.html. Tadayoshi Sakurai was an
successful in the attack on
officer in the Japanese army and participated in Japan’s attack on Russian
Port Arthur?
troops at Port Arthur in 1905.
Our objective points were the Northern Fortress and Wang-tai Hill. There was a
fight with bombs at the enemy’s skirmish-trenches. The bombs sent from our side
exploded finely, and the place became at once a conflagration, boards were flung
about, sand-bags burst, heads flew around, legs were torn off. The flames mingled
with the smoke, lighted up our faces weirdly, with a red glare, and all at once the
battle-line became confused. Then the enemy, thinking it hopeless, left the place
and began to flee. ‘Forward! Forward! Now is the time to go forward! Forward!
Pursue! Capture it with one bound!’ And, proud of our victory, we went forward
courageously.

In December, Japanese artillery destroyed most of Russia’s navy that was

anchored at Port Arthur. The city itself surrendered in January 1905.
A Russian army hoping to relieve the siege had been forced to retreat to the
city of Mukden in Manchuria, ending all hopes of saving the port city.
Mukden fell to Japan in March after a massive battle involving around
500,000 soldiers, one of the largest battles of the twentieth century. Russia’s
European-based navy finally arrived in May 1905 after months at sea, only to
be annihilated in the Battle of Tsushima Straits. Japan then occupied
Sakhalin Island, on Russia’s Pacific Ocean coast. A revolution erupted in
Russia against its government and Russia sued for peace.
Treaty of Portsmouth 1905
Russia and Japan signed the Treaty of Portsmouth that brought the Russo-
Japanese War to a close. Negotiated by the USA, the treaty:
● required both Russia and Japan to remove all troops from Manchuria and
restore it to China’s control
● allowed Japan to lease the Liaodong Peninsula and Port Arthur from
China
● granted Japan the right to lease the Russian-built Southern Manchurian
Railway from China
● granted Japan the southern half of Sakhalin Island.

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 SOURCE J

A large Japanese hand crushing Port Arthur, 25 July 1904, from a series
How does Source J depict
entitled ‘Long Live Japan: One Hundred Victories, One Hundred Laughs’.
Russian weakness at Port
A Japanese poster by Kobayashi Kiyochika. Kiyochika was a famous
Arthur in 1904?
painter and print-maker, living from 1847 to 1915.

Japan acquired international respect and authority as the result of the

Russo-Japanese War, in addition to the treaty’s benefits. The USA agreed to
Japanese control over Korea in return for Japan allowing the US full
dominance of the Philippines, its large Asian colony. Britain extended the
Anglo-Japanese Alliance and recognized Japan’s control over Korea as
legitimate. The Japanese military’s prestige soared and it benefited from
increased government spending. Nevertheless, Japan believed that it should
have received:
● an indemnity from Russia to pay for the war
● all of Sakhalin Island
● outright control of Port Arthur, the Liaodong Peninsula and parts of
Manchuria, instead of having to lease them from China.

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 Chapter 1: Causes of expansion

SOURCE K

Map of the results of the Treaty of Portsmouth 1905.

What were the main results
SAKHALIN of the Treaty of Portsmouth
for Japan, according to
Sea of
RUSSIA Okhoisk Source K?

MANCHURIA
(Japan takes control of
South Manchurian Railway,
Russia keeps control of Vladivostok
Chinese Eastern Railway)

Liaodong
Peninsula Sea of
(Japan) Japan

KOREA
(Japan)
Port Arthur Tokyo
(Japan) Seoul
er Weihaiwei
iv JAPAN
R Tsingtao
ll ow
Ye Yellow
Shantung Sea
Pacific
Peninsula Ocean
(Germany)
r
ve

Shanghai N
Ri
zi
ng
Ya

CHINA

0 200 400 mls

Taipei
0 300 600 km
TAIWAN

Empire of Japan

While Japan was victorious, it seemed that the Great Powers were
determined to hinder Japanese growth whenever possible. Great Powers In this
period, primarily European
The First World War states such as Britain, France,
Germany and Russia, but
The First World War erupted in 1914 and allowed Japan an opportunity to sometimes meant to include
demonstrate its strength. This strength was directed at Germany and China, the USA, the Austro-
although China was ostensibly an ally of Japan during the war. Hungarian Empire and Italy.

23

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 SOURCE L

Excerpt from a Letter from US President Theodore Roosevelt to Senator

In Source L, what was Japan’s
Knox, 1909, Papers of Theodore Roosevelt, Library of Congress,
reaction to non-acceptance
Washington, DC, USA. Roosevelt negotiated the Treaty of Portsmouth
by European states and the
USA? that resolved the Russo-Japanese War in 1905. Senator Knox became US
secretary of state (minister of foreign affairs) in 1909 for US President
Taft.
But with Japan the case is different. She is a most formidable military power. Her
people have peculiar fighting capacity. They are very proud, very warlike, very
sensitive, and are influenced by two contradictory feelings; namely, a great
self-confidence, both ferocious and conceited, due to their victory over the mighty
empire of Russia; and a great touchiness because they would like to be considered
as on a full equality with, as one of the brotherhood of, Occidental [European
states and the US] nations, and have been bitterly humiliated to find that even
their allies, the English, and their friends, the Americans, won’t admit them to
association and citizenship, as they admit the least advanced or most decadent
European peoples. Moreover, Japan’s population is increasing rapidly and
demands an outlet; and the Japanese laborers, small farmers, and petty traders
would, if permitted, flock by the hundred thousand into the United States,
Canada, and Australia.

Shantung Peninsula 1914

Britain requested Japan’s assistance against Germany with the outbreak of
the First World War in August 1914, in line with its earlier treaty (see
page 19). Germany had leased Kiaochow on the Shantung Peninsula from
China in 1898 and soon built a fortified harbour at Tsingtao. Germany kept
several naval warships at Tsingtao but removed them when it was clear that
Japan would move against the port. Tsingtao surrendered in November 1914
after a two-month naval blockade and a month-long siege. During this
period, Japan took control of various German colonies in the Pacific,
including Palau and the archipelagos of the Marianas, the Marshalls and the
Carolines.

China 1915
While Europe was occupied with the war in Europe, Japan presented a
document known as the Twenty-One Demands to China in January 1915.
Among the various demands, Japan insisted that China:
● cease leasing territory to foreign countries other than Japan
● agree to Japanese control over the Shantung Peninsula and Manchuria
● allow Japanese ‘advisors’ to work with various Chinese government
officials on its policies
● agree to Japan building railways connecting various ports and areas under
its control
● extend Japan’s lease on the South Manchurian Railway and allow
Japanese citizens to purchase and lease land for economic and agricultural
purposes in Manchuria and other northern regions

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 Chapter 1: Causes of expansion

● allow Japanese citizens to enter and travel freely within Manchuria

without any interference from China
● agree to Japan opening mines in Manchuria
● allow Japan to construct its own hospitals, schools and temples anywhere
in China
● purchase any needed military equipment from Japan, from where all
military training must come.
China delayed responding to the Twenty-One Demands until May 1915,
when Japan threatened war unless China agreed. Japan eventually modified
the document, reducing the demands to thirteen. China, in no position to
resist Japan in the case of war, capitulated. Anti-Japanese and anti-
government riots erupted across the country, the first of many. The USA and
Britain, both allies of Japan, were now concerned about Japan’s aggression
towards China and worked to limit Japan’s control over it at the Paris Peace
Conference.

Paris Peace Conference 1919

League of Nations
Japan was one of the victorious powers that determined the nature of the
International organization
world’s peace after the First World War. Japan, like other participating states, that agreed to resolve
was primarily concerned with its own interests. international crises through
During the Conference, the League of Nations was formed and Japan was a diplomacy and not war that
also established groups to
founding member. Members of the League agreed to the concept of
address health issues,
collective security. This meant that a war with one member of the League refugees, workers’ rights and
was a war against all members of the League. League members agreed to more.
settle all disputes through negotiation and arbitration.
SOURCE M

Article 16 of the Covenant of the League of Nations as found in all Paris

Peace Conference treaties formulated in 1919 and 1920, located online at According to Source M, what
Yale University’s Lillian Goldman Law Library’s The Avalon Project: should occur when one
League of Nations member
Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/
declares war on another?
parti.asp.
Article 16
Should any Member of the League resort to war in disregard of its covenants
under Articles 12, 13 or 15, it shall ipso facto [in fact] be deemed to have
committed an act of war against all other Members of the League, which hereby
undertake immediately to subject it to the severance of all trade or financial
relations, the prohibition of all intercourse between their nationals and the
nationals of the covenant-breaking State, and the prevention of all financial,
commercial or personal intercourse between the nationals of the covenant-
breaking State and the nationals of any other State, whether a Member of the
League or not.

When the concept of the League of Nations was presented and various ideas
were debated, Japan and other non-European countries demanded a clause
against racial discrimination. The Japanese knew that they were considered

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 racially inferior by the leaders of many, perhaps most, states because they
were not European. China agreed with Japan and also demanded this clause.
In the end, other freedoms and rights were included in the document, such
as that of religion, but the USA insisted that any statement mentioning racial
equality could not be included. There was racial segregation and other forms
of discrimination in the USA and most European empires at the time, so
these powerful states were not interested in addressing this issue.
Japan wanted to keep Shantung Peninsula and Germany’s former island
Mandates Lands formerly empire in the Pacific. A system of League of Nations mandates was created
held by Germany and the to govern former territories and colonies of the defeated states of the First
Ottoman Empire that were World War. Japan was granted supervision, but not outright annexation, of
to be administered by Britain, the Mandate of the South Pacific, Germany’s islands. The Shantung
France, Belgium, Australia,
Peninsula created a problem since Japan occupied the region and China had
New Zealand and Japan after
the First World War for the agreed to allow Japan to control it. Now, however, China demanded its
League of Nations. return and the USA clearly wanted it to be part of China to limit Japan’s
ambitions in the region. In a system of compromises, Japan was able to
Annexed Acquired by force.
retain the Shantung Peninsula, but this lasted for only a few years.
Conscription Required
military service by a Despite not being able to achieve all its demands in Paris, Japan was now
government for a specific clearly an important military power. In a few short years, Russia had been
length of time and usually for defeated; Korea had been annexed; important ports in China, plus
men only. neighbouring territories, had been leased; German forces had been defeated;
and Japan now sat with the most powerful nations determining the world’s
future. To secure these new acquisitions and power, and to obtain more,
Japan instituted conscription and increased the size of its navy.

What were the Interwar treaties

purposes and results
Japan was one of the two most powerful states in the Pacific Ocean region.
of the treaties signed
after the First World The other was the USA. Both countries worked diplomatically to limit each
War by Japan? other’s military strength. Japan wanted security initially, and later empire, as
well as unrestricted access to US markets and products, especially oil and
metals. The USA had no desire for an expensive war in Asia, but also wanted
security for its main colony, the Philippines, and other territories such as
Hawaii and Guam. The USA wanted unfettered access to China’s markets as
well. Meanwhile, Japan’s government worked to not provoke the USA as any
economic response would devastate its economy. Yet Japan was also involved
in China, a politically unstable state, with many investments and military
units to protect them.

Japan’s interwar foreign policy

After the First World War there was pressure by Japan’s military to maintain
its strength and even expand its size. The military believed that Japan and its
newly annexed lands in Taiwan, Korea and the Shantung Peninsula, plus
islands that it now supervised as League of Nations mandates, should be
protected from foreign states. The military also believed that more lands
should be brought under Japan’s control and that this would help the

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 Chapter 1: Causes of expansion

SOURCE N

Map of the Japanese Empire in 1919.

What was Japan’s largest
SAKHALIN colonial acquisition by 1919,
according to Source N?
Sea of
RUSSIA/ SOVIET UNION Okhoisk

MANCHURIA
(Japan takes control of
South Manchurian Railway,
USSR (formerly Russia) keeps
control of Chinese Eastern Vladivostok
Railway, 1905)

Liaodong
Peninsula Sea of
(Japan) Japan

KOREA
Port Arthur Tokyo
(Japan) Seoul
er Weihaiwei
iv JAPAN
R Tsingtao
ll ow
Ye Yellow
Shantung Sea
Pacific
Peninsula Ocean
(Japan)
r
ve

Shanghai N
Ri
zi
ng
Ya

CHINA

0 200 400 mls

Taipei
0 300 600 km
TAIWAN

Empire of Japan

economy of the country. In some way, the army and navy had to be appeased
because they were members of the cabinet and could bring down a
government at will.
Civilian ministers understood that large militaries were expensive and Japan
was economically vulnerable. While many were not opposed to expanding
the empire, they were cautious about provoking the USA, Britain and other
states, especially over China, which was politically unstable and therefore

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 militarily vulnerable (see page 41). Any economic retaliation by the USA or a
European state would severely affect Japan’s economy, which relied on
exports. The government’s foreign policy, commonly referred to as the
Shidehara Diplomacy after Japanese Foreign Minister Kijūrō Shidehara of
the late 1920s and early 1930s, consisted of a balancing act in which the
military, especially the army, was well maintained and Japan’s government
worked to reassure foreign governments that Japan was not a threat to
China and had no desire for further expansion against it. Shidehara
Diplomacy would collapse with the Mukden Incident in 1931 (see page 55).

Washington Naval Conference and treaties 1921–2

There was a sharp reduction of armaments at the end of the First World War.
The USA, Japan and Britain had large fleets of warships as a result of the war.
Even so, the USA had no desire to continue building or maintaining
expensive ships to defend its trade and possessions in the Pacific, and invited
Japan and Britain to participate in discussions regarding naval limitations.
The Five-Power Treaty, also known as the Washington Naval Convention, did
several things:
● Large battleship construction was halted for ten years.
● Certain battleships and cruisers, a fast type of warship, were to be
Capital ships Large ships scrapped.
such as battleships and heavy ● For every five capital ships that Britain or the USA were allowed, Japan
cruisers. could have only three, only 60 per cent of the size of either the USA or
Britain.
● Britain and the USA agreed to build no fortifications in the Pacific except
for Pearl Harbor, Hawaii: the main naval base for the USA.
SOURCE O

Excerpt from The Autobiography of Ozaki Yukio: The Struggle for

According to Source O, why
Constitutional Government in Japan by Ozaki Yukio, published by
should Japan’s citizens be
Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA, 2001, pp. 341–2.
pleased with the results of
Ozaki was a member of Japan’s House of Representatives from 1889 to
the Washington Naval
Conference? 1953. The following passage concerns the treaties signed by Japan at the
Washington Naval Conference 1921–2.
Accordingly, Japan suspended the … fleet [construction] program and was thus
able to save the nation an annual naval shipbuilding cost of 500 million yen …
The most ironic part of it all was that both the government and the people, rather
than rejoicing that the naval agreement had enabled us to save an annual
national expenditure of 500 million yen, shouted ‘national crisis!’ and ‘national
shame!’ because we were limited to a ratio of three against the British and
United States shares of five. They called me by such abusive names as ‘traitor’
and ‘hireling of America.’ …
… With the country crying ‘national crisis!’ I published a booklet titled ‘Good
Fortune has Befallen our Nation,’ in which I explained that arms limitation was
the way to save Japan – that far from being a national crisis this was a most
felicitous turn of events.

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 Chapter 1: Causes of expansion

The Four-Power Treaty and Nine-Power Treaty (both 1922) were signed in
Washington, DC as well. The Four-Power Treaty ended the Anglo-Japanese
Alliance and required Japan, the USA, Britain and France to respect each
other’s territories. The Nine-Power Treaty required Japan to remove its
military from the Shantung Peninsula and called on all nations to respect
China’s independence and borders.
Japan’s military believed that a fleet 60 per cent of the size of the US navy
was inadequate for defence. However, the government was mostly relieved
at the decisions made in Washington. Japan’s economy could not support the
building and maintenance of a huge military in the post-First World War
economic crisis (see page 33). Japan’s government also believed that its
foreign policy would be more successful if it was conciliatory and worked
through negotiations and compromise during this period (see page 43). It
was not in Japan’s interest, the government believed, to antagonize its main
trading partners.

London Naval Conference 1930

Britain, the USA, Japan and other countries met in London in 1930 to review
their earlier naval agreements. All three countries were beginning to feel
great financial stress as a result of the Great Depression (see page 34) and Great Depression
none desired a renewed, expensive arms race in the form of ships. Japan’s A worldwide economic
navy, however, was now headed by a more aggressive faction than had depression that led to
existed earlier. The navy’s leadership insisted that Japan be allowed to have a massive unemployment,
political instability, hunger and
fleet that was 70 per cent of the tonnage of either the US or British fleet. In a
poverty, among other issues,
compromise, Japan achieved a 69.75 per cent ratio on battleships, but starting from late 1929 and
cruisers remained at 60 per cent. While the government of Japan supported ending by the early 1940s,
this, the navy objected and threatened to bring down the government. The depending on the country or
genrō Siaonji (see box) ordered the Privy Council (see page 11) to remove the region.
objecting ministers and to approve the treaty; this was done. In response to
the signing of the London Naval Treaty of 1930, Japan’s prime minister was
shot by an ultranationalist assassin. He initially survived, but died from his
wounds several months later.

Genrō is generally translated as ‘elder statesman.’ These men were initially

those that created the Meiji Constitution (see page 11). As they aged, they
appointed others. Siaonji was the last powerful genrō. It was Siaonji who
appointed prime ministers in the name of the Emperor and generally
supervised the state on the Emperor’s behalf. The genrō had direct access to
the Emperor and it was assumed by all that they spoke for the Emperor and
with his authority. This meant that they were extremely powerful and
provided a means to control the state according to their ideas. As Siaonji
aged, his participation in government declined and the military was able to
assume increasing control over the state until 1936, when most governmental
policy was determined according to the military and its needs.

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 To what extent did Military expansion
Japan’s budget
Japan’s army and navy were severely reduced during the 1920s, mainly
increase spending on
military affairs after because Japan suffered a series of economic crises (see page 33) throughout
1936? this time. By the end of the 1920s, various factions within the military and in
civilian political parties were calling for increased military spending for both
defence and offence. Japan wanted to defend its interests in Manchuria, yet
also wanted to expand to resolve some of its own domestic issues such as
lack of resources and food supply. This expansion would come at the expense
of the vast, but weak, neighbouring state of China.

Increased spending
Japan’s capital shipbuilding, including battleships, various types of cruisers
and aircraft carriers, was limited by the 1922 and 1930 naval treaties (see
pages 28 and 29). The army, however, had no limitations in terms of
international obligations. The only hindrance to increasing the military was
from within Japan’s government. The House of Representatives and various
ministers believed that a massive military was an expense that Japan could
not afford in light of its financial crises in the 1920s.
With the growth of military power in Japan’s government (see page 40),
army expenditure and expansion increased. Increased spending on the
military in the early 1930s was one way the government stimulated
economic recovery from the Great Depression (see page 36). Shipbuilding,
SUMMARY DIAGR AM steel and rubber, as well as other military-related industries, massively
Militarism and foreign increased production.
policy

Korea 1894–1905

Tripartite Intervention 1895

Treaty of Portsmouth 1905
Shantung Peninsula 1922 First Sino-Japanese
War 1894–5

Washington and London National humiliations

Naval Conferences, 1922 according to military and Military Russo-Japanese War
and 1930 their supporters successes 1904–5

First World War

Interwar foreign policy 1914–18
contradicted desires of Growing
military to grow and militarism
expand state

Increased military spending

and growing radical
nationalism

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 Chapter 1: Causes of expansion

3 Economic and political issues

Key question: How did Japan’s economic and political issues affect
Japan’s government?

Economics were a driving force in Japan’s domestic and foreign policies.

The economy seemed to go through rapid cycles of growth and contraction.
When the economy expanded, landless peasants, often women, moved to
the cities for factory work and wages. When the economy was less successful,
Monopolies Companies
there was mass unemployment and further rural poverty. Failure to stabilize
that control entire sections of
the system meant that monopolies expanded to control more of the the economy, such as steel
economy. It also encouraged political groups to try to change the political production or shipbuilding.
system.

Industrialization and foreign policy To what extent did

economics drive
With the end of the feudal system and the creation of a modern form of
Japan’s foreign policy?
government, there was a concerted, intentional effort to industrialize. This
would mean not only wealth for many, but also security for the nation,
especially protection from the empire-building Europe and the USA.
Countries that could build their own industries and export to other nations
to pay for needed imports were more independent than countries that could
not. This weakness was very clear in nearby China, where the government
was unable to prevent foreign powers dominating it, seeking its raw
materials and markets for their mass-produced goods created in modern
factories.
SOURCE P

Excerpt from A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa Times to the

What was the importance of
Present by Andrew Gordon, 2014, published by Oxford University Press,
China and Korea for Japan’s
Oxford, UK, pp. 95–6. Gordon is a professor of modern Japanese history
economy, according to
at Harvard University, USA.
Source P?
Industrialization was led by the textile industry. From the 1890s through 1913,
output of silk quadrupled. By the eve of World War I, three-fourths of these
threads were produced by machine, whereas earlier most silk had been reeled by
hand. In addition, about three-fourths of silk output was being exported each
year. Production of cotton thread increased at similar rates … about half of the
cotton output came to be exported, mainly to China and Korea.

Japan’s economy from the late nineteenth century through to the end of the
First World War was remarkable. Japan’s industrial output increased by
250 per cent between 1895 and 1915 while processing of minerals increased
by as much as 700 per cent at the end of the nineteenth century. By 1900, the
Ashio coppermine and its refinery were among the top producers of copper
in the world. Railways covered 5400 km (3400 miles) by 1900, vastly reducing
the costs of goods since transportation was faster and cheaper by rail.

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 Coalmines fuelled the factories and Japan’s merchant fleet delivered
products to ports throughout the Pacific.

Zaibatsu
Monopolies, called zaibatsu, began to form in the nineteenth century and
rapidly expanded in the twentieth century. These were enormous
corporations owned by individual families that had an impressive economic
reach. The zaibatsu Mitsui, for example, was involved with banking, mining,
paper, textiles and more. The financial strength of the zaibatsu meant that
large-scale industries could be established relatively quickly and integrated
into the economy; they had the capital to invest, and the experts and
engineers to design and create industries and ships and markets for
distribution. By 1918, the eight largest zaibatsu controlled twenty per cent of
all manufacturing, mining and trade in Japan.
Zaibatsu increased in size and power as the country suffered economic crises
in the late 1920s (see page 34), absorbing smaller companies and banks that
were unable to survive. Zaibatsu also worked to control the Diet, making
sure that economic policies that favoured them were maintained (see
Source Q).
SOURCE Q

Excerpt from Dilemmas of Growth in Pre-war Japan edited by James

According to Source Q, to
William Morley, published by Princeton University Press, Princeton, New
what extent did the zaibatsu
Jersey, USA, 1971, p. 281. Morley is professor emeritus of political science
work to control Japan’s Diet?
at Columbia University, New York City, USA.
Some thirty-seven lower house members, eight percent of the membership, held
positions with zaibatsu concerns. Another eighteen members had close relatives
who were employees of zaibatsu concerns. Thus twelve percent of the lower house
was connected with zaibatsu concerns either directly or through relatives … In
the House of Peers, eighty-three members, twenty-two percent of the membership,
currently held positions with zaibatsu concerns while another twenty-four
members had close relations so employed. Thus twenty-eight percent of the upper
house was connected with zaibatsu concerns either directly or through relatives.
… The zaibatsu with the most Diet members on its payroll was Mitsubishi …
[with] a grand total of sixty-six Diet members. After Mitsubishi came Mitsui,
which employed … a grand total of forty-eight.

Eventually, allying with other military factions for survival and business, the
zaibatsu came to be directly connected to Japan’s militarism (see page 40).

Social stresses and employment

Industrialization severely affected the vast majority of people. Impoverished,
usually landless, rural families sent their children to cities to work in
factories, as clerks, shipbuilders and other salaried jobs. This income allowed
many to support their rural families, buy more clothing and other
manufactures and increase their food intake. This stimulated the economy to
produce further goods and jobs.

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 Chapter 1: Causes of expansion

The First World War led to higher wages, due to demand for Japanese goods
in markets formerly dominated by the USA and European countries, that had
suddenly shifted to producing war goods such as weapons. Cotton textile
exports, for example, rose by 185 per cent between 1914 and 1918. This led to
a shortage of workers and therefore higher wages to attract and keep them.
More rural poor relocated to the cities for these factory jobs. In 1920, however,
the economy severely shrank as demand for Japanese exports diminished;
the USA and other countries resumed full production after the First World
War. This meant that millions were suddenly unemployed, reducing their
spending power and unable to send money to their rural relatives. Those
who owned farmland responded to the lack of demand for farm goods by
reducing farm labour. Since the majority of farmers owned no land or only
tiny plots, they were negatively affected by every economic downturn.
SOURCE R

Excerpt from Japanese Diplomacy in a Dilemma: New Light on Japan’s

Read Source R. What was
China Policy, 1924–1929 by Nobuya Bamba, published by University of
the effect of economic
British Columbia Press, Vancouver, Canada, 1972, pp. 61–2. Bamba
decline in Japan on
specializes in diplomatic and intellectual history of Japan and is a
agricultural workers?
professor at Tsuda College, Tokyo, Japan.
The effects of the depression were observed in villages as well as in cities. This
period is often called the period of ‘agrarian panic.’ Peasants suffered from the
steady decline of farm prices. The price of rice, for example, taking the average for
three years from 1911 to 1913 as 100, was 114 in 1925, but dropped to 98 in the
next year and to 87 in 1928. The general index of farm prices declined from 118
in 1925 to 93 in 1928. In terms of actual income, the average price of one sack of
rice cost only about 6–7 yen in 1928. This meant that about 40 percent of the
agrarian population earned less than 60 yen from the rice crop after having paid
rent to the landlord. This was worse than even the lowest income group of urban
workers.

An earthquake and fire destroyed most of Tokyo, Japan’s capital, in 1923. The
government encouraged banks to lend money at low interest for the
rebuilding of Tokyo and other cities. There were suddenly more jobs in
construction and factories. With more income, workers spent more on food,
clothing and luxuries.
This relative prosperity collapsed again in 1927 with bank failures that
resulted from the earlier low-interest loans of 1923. Many who had
borrowed to rebuild could not afford to pay the banks. Banks that did not
collapse mostly stopped loaning money, even to businesses that required
temporary loans for business operations. The economy rapidly contracted,
leading to huge numbers of unemployed workers and impoverished farmer
labourers. Skilled workers such as mechanics, electricians and carpenters
suffered approximately 7.5 per cent unemployment, while over 40 per cent
of unskilled workers were also unemployed. Japan’s government was unable
to address this economic crisis successfully. Then, in late 1929, the Great
Depression occurred.

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 What was the most The Great Depression
significant political
The Great Depression was a major economic downturn for much of the world.
result of the Great
Depression for Japan? It started in 1929 in the USA and soon spread to other countries. Many
countries raised trade barriers so that their factories would not compete
with those of other states. This meant that Japan, a country that relied on
exports, was practically shut off from the USA, its greatest trading partner.
SOURCE S

Excerpt from A Time of Crisis: Japan, the Great Depression and Rural
How did the Great
Revitalization by Kerry Smith, published by Harvard University Asia
Depression affect silk prices
according to Source S? Center, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, USA, 2001, pp. 51–2.
Smith is an associate professor of history at Brown University in the USA.
The textile industry was hit especially hard, and its experience offers one of the
clearest indications of the global market’s effects on the domestic economy and on
the countryside in particular. Japanese silk that had sold in New York for $5.25 a
Trade barriers Means of pound in September 1929 went for $2.50 thirteen months later. Producers kept
restricting trade with other on making the thread, and exporters kept on selling it abroad, but they made far
countries, usually by placing less money doing so than they had before the start of the America’s depression.
high taxes on foreign imports The dollar value of silk thread exports to the United States fell by almost a third
so that domestic goods can
between 1929 and 1931 and by 1934 was less than 25 percent of what it had
be sold more cheaply.
been five years before. Domestic prices for silk cocoons followed suit, with
Gross national product obviously consequences for the many Japanese farm households that relied on
(GNP) The value of all sericulture [silk production] for some or all of their income.
goods and services produced
by the citizens of a state over
Japan’s gross national product (GNP) declined by approximately
one year.
twenty per cent between 1929 and 1931 and stocks on the Tokyo Stock
Market lost half their value. Fifty per cent of small- and medium-sized
businesses closed permanently. Exports fell by over 40 per cent and
unemployment increased dramatically. With fewer consumers of agricultural
products, agriculture prices declined by 45 per cent between 1929 and 1931,
leaving farmers, most of whom did not own land, in worse conditions than
ever before. Landless farmers could not afford manufactured goods and
therefore factories remained closed or at severely reduced rates of
production.
Unemployment and hunger led to political unrest. There were strikes, riots
and a surge in popularity of communist (see page 38) and other groups that
demanded a restructuring of government and society. The government
crushed many strikes, arresting tens of thousands, but negotiated
compromises between striking or terminated workers and factory owners in
others. It was clear to most that the governing system simply did not
function for the majority of Japanese people: workers and landless farmers.
It did, however, function for the zaibatsu (see page 32). As banks and other
industries collapsed, their share of the economy increased, as it had during
earlier crises.

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 Chapter 1: Causes of expansion

SOURCE T

Japanese farmers’ annual income in yen. From Democratization and

Analyse Source T. How much
Expansionism: Historical Lessons, Contemporary Challenges, Masayo Ohara,
did farm incomes decline
published by Praeger, Westport, Connecticut, USA, 2001, p. 117. The
between 1926 and 1931 for
author is an assistant professor in the Department of International both those farmers who
Studies at Tokyo Jogakkhan College, Japan. owned land and those who
Year Owned land Rented land rented?
1926 1598 987
1927 1421 987
1928 1394 923
1929 1366 874
1930 837 579
1931 641 449
1932 703 538
1933 838 617
1934 837 612
1935 954 683

SOURCE U

Excerpt from Fifty Years of Light and Dark: The Hirohito Era by the staff of
According to Source U, why
the Mainichi Daily News, The Mainichi Newspapers, Tokyo, Japan, 1975,
were zaibatsu labelled as
p. 25. Mainichi Shimbun, or Daily News, has been published since 1872 and
traitors by some?
is one of the largest media companies in contemporary Japan.
[During the start of the Great Depression], the number of banks shrank from
1,300 to some 700. Big banks, including Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Daiichi
and Yasuda, strengthened their oligopolistic hold on Japan’s economy. The
formidable Zaibatsu were steadily solidifying their financial grip on the nation’s
economic world.
Suffering under persistent depression, the public found its target of patriotic
resentment in the large-scale ‘buy dollar’ policy pursued by Zaibatsu, especially
Mitsui, in the second half of 1931. The powerful industrial-financial concern,
anticipating the impending ban on gold export, went ahead to buy US dollars on
a grand scale … But patriots and patriotically-inclined press called the Zaibatsu
managers ‘traitors of the nation’ who had handed out national currencies en
masse ‘in exchange for white men’s money.’ The government collapsed in the face
of public outbursts …

Japan struggled to create a national policy to deal with the economic crisis.
There were efforts to reduce the debt of farmers and to spend government
funds in building infrastructure, so that workers would have salaries to
spend. There were even plans to send landless peasants and unemployed
workers in the cities to Manchuria. This last idea was not accomplished in
any magnitude until after 1936. Meanwhile, the government worked to
reduce spending to alleviate the tax burden on its citizens and to prevent

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 having to import products and raw materials that it simply could not afford.
This policy would change in 1936 with the assassination of the finance
minister responsible for this policy, in the 26 February Incident (see page 40);
he was replaced by a military appointee. Military needs came to dominate
the government.
The military-controlled government adopted a twelve-year plan in 1936 to
modernize and expand the armed forces. Spending would continue to
increase dramatically with the expansion of the military and further war (see
page 72). Military production put new stresses on Japan as the state had few
natural resources and exported fewer consumer products to pay for imported
materials. Eventually, there were labour shortages. Part of the solution to this
was to acquire more territory to supply the war economy. Acquiring more
territory led directly to more war.

SOURCE V

Military spending in billions of yen 1929–40. Information from the Dilemmas of Growth in Pre-war Japan
edited by James William Morley, published by Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1971,
p. 250. Morley is professor emeritus of political science at Columbia University, New York, USA.

14

12

10
Yen (billions)

1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940

Years

How much more was spent

on Japan’s military in 1940
than in 1930, according to
Source V?

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 Chapter 1: Causes of expansion

Post-First World War First World War

economic stress prosperity

Tokyo earthquake Economic cycles of

Economic weakness Rural poverty
and fire 1923 growth and collapse

1927 bank failures

Great Depression Zaibatsu

Strikes and calls Growth of

for new forms of zaibatsu
government

SUMMARY DIAGR AM
Economic and political
issues
4 Domestic instability and
foreign affairs
Key question: How did instability contribute to Japan’s domestic and
foreign policy?

Economic crises led to instability. The old governing system established by

the Meiji Constitution had simply not led to stable economic conditions for
the majority of Japan’s people. Additionally, the government was unable to
create policies to address the Great Depression. China’s instability and
Japanese interests in Manchuria and other areas meant that there was also a
struggle over foreign policy, which was tightly connected to Japan’s domestic
affairs.

Instability: domestic How did the

organization of the
Japan’s governing system was extremely complex. Some of those
Japanese government
complexities included: benefit the military?
● Military authorities had direct access to the Emperor.
● The cabinet worked for the Emperor and could not be removed by the
Diet.
● All ministers had to agree to a particular policy or the policy could not be
enacted.

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 ● The lower house of the Diet, the House of Representatives, was
responsible for taxation and budgets and could block funding if it
disagreed with policies.
● The House of Peers in the Diet often worked against the cabinet and
House of Representatives since many of its members were former cabinet
members that disagreed on policies.
● The Privy Council and its genrō (see page 29) had direct access to and
communicated for the Emperor; they had veto power over all government
issues.
There were also a great number and variety of political parties, ideologies
and even divisions within the army and navy. Much of this struggle centred
on social, economic and military policy. The one constant in the entire
system was the Emperor, who had ultimate authority, often exercised
through the genrō.
The diverse and complex government managed to survive throughout the
1920s. This was accomplished through compromise between political
factions, suppressing dissent through laws and prison terms, and occasional
economic growth. The Great Depression was the crisis that demonstrated
clearly that the system was unworkable.

Communism
Communism appealed to the millions of unemployed urban workers,
although actual Communist Party membership was very small. Communist,
or Marxist, political philosophy advocated the overthrow of all social and
economic classes, a complete reordering of society and an end to capitalism.
Under communism, all people should be completely equal, have the same
rights and receive the same of everything; all property should be owned
collectively by all the people. Under the Peace Protection Law of 1925, but
Socialists People who
amended in 1928 to allow for execution, the government could arrest anyone
believe that society should be
as equal as possible financially who wanted to change the governmental system. This clearly meant
and in terms of political rights. communists and related socialists; over 1000 Japanese advocates of
communism or socialism were arrested in 1928.
SOURCE W

Excerpt from Shōwa: An Inside History of Hirohito’s Japan by Tessa Morris-

According to Source W, how
Suzuki, published by Schocken Books, New York, USA, 1985, p. 166.
did government authorities
react to the increasing Morris-Suzuki is a professor in culture, history and language at Australian
popularity of left-wing National University, coordinator of the journal Asia Rights and past
political groups? president of the Asian Studies Association of Australia.
When the first election under the new system of [universal] manhood suffrage
was held in 1928, four left-wing [socialist or communist related] parties, one of
them closely linked to the Japanese Communist Party, put up candidates.
Between them, they won eight seats [in the Diet]: a result which was sufficient to
alarm the authorities into redoubling their efforts at suppression. Within a
month of the election, over one thousand left-wing sympathizers had been
arrested under the Peace Preservation Laws.

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 Chapter 1: Causes of expansion

From Russian Empire to Soviet Union

The Russian Empire collapsed in stages, starting in February 1917 as a result
of political, economic and social stresses from the First World War. The army
removed the Tsar in February and established a temporary government to
solve the country’s problems while it continued fighting the war. This
military-supported government was overthrown in October 1917 by a group
of communists known as the Bolsheviks, and soon the country was in civil
war. By 1921, the communists had won; the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics, or Soviet Union, had formed out of the former Russian Empire;
and at least 8 million people had died.
In the world’s first communist country, private ownership (of land, businesses
and housing, for example) was banned. The state theoretically controlled all
assets for the good of all. Millions of former landowners, educated
professionals, such as doctors, teachers, lawyers and engineers, government
workers and more were imprisoned, exiled or executed. Many countries were
alarmed as communist rebellions briefly erupted in Germany and Hungary
at the end of the First World War. The Soviet Union encouraged the spread of
communism through groups in Europe and Asia. Communism required a
complete overthrow of existing governing structures and economic systems,
and the destruction of religion. This caused world governments such as
Japan’s to see the Soviet Union as a major military threat.

Perhaps more importantly, the Soviet Union was the world’s only communist
state. It bordered Korea (which had been annexed to Japan in 1905; see
page 22) as well as the arguably more important Manchuria, where Japan
had many interests. Suppression of communism in Japan was part of a larger
policy to oppose the Soviet Union.

The Shōwa Restoration

Some conservative members of society wanted to give the Shōwa Emperor Shōwa Emperor Grandson
full power. They called for him to rule directly without a parliament, of the Meiji Emperor and
ministers, a Privy Council or even the zaibatsu. Without their influence on often called by his personal
policies, they would therefore lose control. This response to the economic name, Hirohito, outside
and governing crisis was popular with rural farmers, who suffered greatly in Japan. He was preceded by
the short reign of his mentally
times of economic crisis. They believed that the Emperor could and should
ill father, the Taishō Emperor.
remove corruption, zaibatsu, and anything else that kept the people from
being prosperous and safe. With many on the verge of starvation and
without the possibility of moving to cities for work, since there were no jobs
available, many joined the growing military. Once in the military, they were a
powerful, conservative force and were able to support young, ultranationalist
officers who held similar views.

Military factions
The military was internally divided. One group was called Tōseiha, or the
Control Faction, and they wanted to reform Japan’s government rather than
destroy it. These reforms would ally the army with the zaibatsu and

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 government officials, suppress political parties, have the government tightly
control the economy, and prepare the nation for eventual total war with
China and possibly other states.
More radical factions, including Sakurakai (the Cherry Blossom Society) and
Kōdōha (the Imperial Way Faction), wanted complete destruction of all
political parties, as well as the zaibatsu and the government generally, in line
with the idea of a Shōwa Restoration. They wanted direct rule from the
Emperor, which would destroy what they viewed as a corrupt and
incompetent governing system. They also wanted war with the Soviet Union
and elimination of socialist and communist groups. Communism was a huge
threat in their view as it advocated an end to the institution of Emperor,
religion and other aspects of Japanese society and culture. These radical
factions attempted a series of coups d’état:
● 1931: March Incident by Sakurakai; failed when the minister of war failed
to support the Sakurakai soldiers.
● 1931: October Incident by Sakurakai; failed when the plot was discovered
and the leaders were arrested.
● 1932: League of Blood Incident by radical nationalist civilians and young
naval officers; assassinated the leader of Mitsui zaibatsu and a former
finance minister.
● 1932: 15 May Incident by League of Blood members and sympathizers;
assassinated Prime Minister Inukai; attempted to kill other important
officials.
● 1935, August: Aizawa Incident of August 1935; anti-Kōdōha General
Nagata.
● 1936: 26 February Incident by Kōdōha and other young officers; attempted
to take control of the Emperor and have him abolish Japan’s government;
several high-ranking officials were killed; collapsed when the Emperor
refused to support them.
As a result of turmoil within the army, the government increasingly turned to
other army and naval officers. By turning to Tōseiha, the more radical
elements could be opposed. The Tōseiha faction – now supported by the
Emperor, the Privy Council, the cabinet, the Diet and the zaibatsu, mainly out
of fear of other, more radical army factions – essentially took control of the
government. This meant reorganization of the economy, suppression of
political parties and dissent, expansion of military spending (see page 36)
and war.
The government also worked to avoid any conflict with the Soviet Union.
An indication of the strengthening of the military’s political position is clear
in the appointment of prime ministers from the army and navy. Between
1932 and December 1941, Japan had nine different men serve as prime
ministers. Six of these were admirals or generals from the armed forces.

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 Chapter 1: Causes of expansion

SOURCE X

Excerpt from Emperor Hirohito and His Chief Aide-de-Camp: The Honjō
According to Source X, how
Diary, 1933–36 by Honjō Shigeru, translated by Mikiso Hane, published by
did Emperor Hirohito
University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, Japan, 1982, p. 173. Honjō was head of
attempt to limit military
the Kwantung Army of Japan from 1931 to 1932 and later served as the demands?
military’s liaison with Japan’s Emperor until 1936. Mikiso Hane was an
internationally renowned historian on Japanese history and was a
professor at Knox College in the USA from 1961 to 1992.
March 2 [1936]: His Majesty [Emperor Hirohito] summoned me after
11:00 a.m. and said, ‘Soon [genrō] Saionji will come to the capital, and a new
cabinet must be chosen. It seems that the army’s conditions concerning cabinet
members continue to be rigid. It appears to be aggressive about policy matters
too. Unless the military’s wishes are taken into consideration, another incident
like the recent [26 February] affair might break out again. For this reason, I
would like to take the army’s desires into careful consideration, but excessively
radical changes would conflict with the state of the society as a whole. We must
act with extreme caution. I, too, am pulled in two directions about this. The
military may justifiably demand a strong national defense program, but it steps
out of bounds when it moves into the area of national economy and calls for the
distribution of wealth. When you confer with the high-ranking army officers you
should keep this in mind.’

SOURCE Y

Excerpt from The Age of Hirohito: In Search of Modern Japan by Daikichi

Irokawa, published by The Free Press, New York, 1995, pp. 8–9. The According to Source Y, why
author is a professor at Tokyo Keizai University and has published books was the move by the military
to expand Japan’s Empire
on Japanese history and culture in the nineteenth and twentieth
popular with the poor?
centuries.
Because of such conditions at the lower levels of society, the military could take
advantage of the unemployed, impoverished youth and the spiritually exhausted
Japanese people to wage its aggressive adventures on the Asian continent. The
move to expand the empire also appealed to the struggling financial community,
which hoped new markets on the continent would end the Depression, and to an
ambitious group of politicians who aspired to a stronger power base.

Instability: foreign affairs How did China’s

internal problems
Although there was supposedly a national government in China, the reality
affect Japan’s foreign
was that regional warlords ran practically independent states within China’s affairs?
boundaries. This, of course, prevented a single national policy when a foreign
power threatened.

The Warlord Era

Between 1916 and 1928, China was in a state of civil war, as it was loosely
divided into regions controlled by warlords. In southern China, there were
seven major warlord groups, plus the Chinese Communist Party (CCP),
based primarily in the cities. In northern China, there were three major

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 groups that competed for power and territory. These groups were supported
and opposed by a host of smaller warlords, battling on and off throughout
these years. Eventually, the warlord Zhang Zoulin, based in Manchuria and
Inner Mongolia, would become the most powerful of these groups.

Manchuria
Under Zhang Zoulin’s rule, Manchuria declared independence in 1922 and
was relatively isolated from the wars that consumed other parts of China.
Zhang’s army was also substantial, bringing peace to the region. Eventually,
Zhang captured Beijing, the former capital of the Qing Dynasty, and other
Kwantung Army Japan’s areas in northern China. He allowed Japan to continue developing railways,
most elite military unit before
mills, mines and other businesses in Manchuria and in return Japan’s
the Second World War,
stationed in the Liaodong
government supported Zhang. Japan’s Kwantung Army officers, many of
Peninsula, next to Manchuria. whom advocated a Shōwa Restoration and were members of the Kōdōha
faction, decided that the government’s policy of allowing Zhang a large army
Kuomintang China’s main
and autonomy was wrong and assassinated Zhang in 1928. The army officers’
political group, also known as
the Guomindang, or motives were so popular with many in the military and civilian population
Nationalists. that the government was unable and unwilling to punish the army’s
insubordination (see page 44).
SOURCE Z

Excerpt from The Age of Hirohito: In Search of Modern Japan by Daikichi

According to Source Z, what
Irokawa, published by The Free Press, New York City, USA, 1995, p. 13.
did the zaibatsu hope to do
The author is a professor at Tokyo Keizai University and has published
with an Asian empire?
books on Japanese history and culture in the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries.
By cleverly making use of right-wing [Kōdōha] power in the military and
political arenas but keeping a safe distance from the extreme rightists, a group of
pragmatic military officers known as Tōseiha and government bureaucrats linked
with the new and old zaibatsu then seeking to make the Asian continent their
base of operations. This faction set out to free Japan from economic depression by
pursuing a course of aggression.
To further their objectives, they assassinated Zhang Zuolin, and in the same year
imprisoned several thousand communists and labor leaders.

Southern China and the end of the warlords

After years of war and division, the Kuomintang (KMT), or Nationalist,
political party was able to unite various factions by increasing Chinese
nationalism as the result of anti-Chinese discrimination by foreigners living
and working in China. At this time the KMT announced that it supported
the anti-foreign movement and, having made an earlier alliance with the
CCP, now had enough strength to defeat rival warlords. From 1926 until
1928, the KMT conquered various warlords, broke its alliance with the CCP
and attacked it. The Nationalists brought most of China under their control
through a military campaign called the Northern Expedition, which took
two-and-a-half years and involved over 1 million troops.

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 Chapter 1: Causes of expansion

The Japanese Kwantung Army officers who assassinated Zhang hoped to

weaken Manchuria’s administration to such an extent that they would have
to take control of the country to restore order. This would allow Japan to
annex Manchuria outright, a policy not supported by their government. It
had the opposite effect. Zhang’s successor, his son, soon allied himself with
the KMT and brought Manchuria officially back into a newly united China.

A newly united China

The results of the KMT’s Northern Expedition included the following:
● destruction of railways, bridges and other important components of
national infrastructure
● a famine in northwest China that killed between 3 million and 6 million
people
● isolation of China from a powerful potential ally, the communist Soviet
Union, by attacking the CCP, which was sponsored by the Soviets.
This basic unification meant that China could act as a single state. Chiang Chiang Kai-shek (1887–
Kai-shek became the Director of the State Council, the equivalent to the 1975) Leading military and
position of president. China was strengthened by economic and political political ruler of China after
1925, dominating the
reorganization, although these were put into disarray by Japan’s aggression
Kuomintang political party.
in early 1930s (see pages 56 and 65). Additionally, the CCP survived the
KMT’s attempt to destroy it, creating conditions for further internal conflict.

Japan’s foreign policy towards China up to To what extent did

1931 Japan’s policies
towards China change
Japan’s foreign policy after the First World War through to 1927 was based on by 1931?
negotiation and working within the confines of international diplomacy. As
such, Japan signed various treaties (see page 28) and worked to not
antagonize the USA or China. Japan stationed some troops to protect its
interests in Manchuria and in various port cities in China, but these had
been agreed to by treaties, even if they were unpopular in Japan. This was
known as the period of ‘Shidehara Diplomacy’, named after a Japanese
Foreign Minister, Kijūrō Shidehara, who promoted the use of diplomacy
instead of military actions.
In 1927, at the height of the Northern Expedition, this policy changed. Not
only did the Japanese prefer a weak, divided China, they were alarmed at the
rapid success of Chiang Kai-shek and the KMT. Troops were sent to occupy
the Shantung Peninsula, where Japan had long interests and investments
(see page 24). They were also there to support Zhang Zuolin, the soon-to-
be-assassinated warlord of Manchuria. It was hoped that a large Japanese
force on the Shantung Peninsula would prevent an invasion of Manchuria by
the KMT. With Zhang’s assassination, this no longer mattered.
The Positive Policy towards China was adopted by Japan’s government in
1927. Essentially, this meant that Japan would treat Manchuria as a special

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 case and not related to its other concerns in the rest of China. It also meant
that Japan was no longer interested in the international community’s input
regarding Manchuria because it was felt that their policies aimed to keep
Japan weak, and that foreign states simply could not comprehend Japan’s
needs and interests or its mission of leading Asia.
SOURCE AA

Excerpt from Emperor Hirohito and Shōwa Japan: A Political Biography by

According to Source AA,
Stephen S. Large, published by Routledge, New York, USA, 1992,
what did the Kwantung Army
pp. 35–6. Large is a historian whose books have concentrated on
and prime minister Tanaka
biographies of Japan’s recent emperors and socialist politics in Japan in
disagree about?
the early twentieth century.
The Emperor, Saionji and Shidehara were eager to prevent any further conflict in
north China which might spill over into Japan’s sphere of influence in south
Manchuria. [Prime Minister] Tanaka, it must be said, fully agreed with this and
accordingly urged Chang Tso-lin [Zhang Zuolin] to evacuate the region and
retire to Manchuria, his original power base, lest [he] become embroiled in a
military confrontation with Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalist [KMT] forces in
north China. Tanaka believed that Chang’s forces and Japanese interests could
co-exist in Manchuria.
But this was not the view of the Kwantung Army, which pressed Tanaka to
authorize at least the disarming of Chang’s troops as he moved north. When
Tanaka refused, Colonel Kōmoto Daisaku, a staff officer in the Kwantung Army,
and several associates, plotted Chang’s assassination which they would attribute
to Chinese ‘bandits’. They hoped that this course of action would stiffen the
Japanese government’s resolve to render Japan’s position in Manchuria
impregnable. In this, they were to be disappointed.

The Kwantung Army, Japan’s elite armed forces, was stationed in the
Liaodong Peninsula to safeguard Japan’s installations and investments there
as it bordered Korea, Japan’s colony. After Zhang’s assassination in 1928, this
army was increased in size as it was realized that a united China might
challenge Japan over aspects of Manchuria and the Liaodong Peninsula. The
insubordinate officers and others who supported them were not replaced.
They continued to believe that their policies and ideas regarding Manchuria
were essential for Japan’s long-term needs. Japan’s government decided to
replace the Kwantung Army’s leadership to bring this military unit under
government control. Hours before the new general was to take charge of the
Kwantung Army, the Manchurian Crisis occurred.

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 Chapter 1: Causes of expansion

Japan’s domestic instability Japan’s foreign policy Foreign affairs: China

towards China
• Shidehara Diplomacy
• 1927: Positive Policy
Warlord Era of China
Growth and fear of – Manchuria was a
Communism 1920s–1930s special case
• 1928: increased Kwantung
Army in Liaodong Warlord Zhang Zoulin
Peninsula ruled Manchuria;
1930s military factions Manchuria independent
from 1922

Tōseiha called for Japan’s Kwantung Army

Kōdōha called Many members of
reformed government, advocated Shōwa
for government Kwantung Army
increased power as Restoration;
overthrow and were members of
moderate faction that assassinated Zhang
Shōwa Restoration Kdōha
can oppose Kōdōha in 1928

Chinese Kuomintang
Multiple actions by military groups to (KMT)/Nationalist Army
control government through assassinations defeated warlords and
and coups broke alliance with CCP;
Northern Expedition

Military controlled governments

China now sole state
after 1932
under Chiang Kai-shek

SUMMARY DIAGR AM
Japan’s domestic
instability and foreign
affairs

poverty, the system became unworkable. By using the

Chapter summary Meiji Constitution, the military had direct access to the
Emperor and bypassed an increasingly weak civilian
government that was unable to manage the country’s
Causes of expansion crises. The military and their supporters believed that
solutions for Japan’s problems were not just military
In the nineteenth century, Japan underwent mass control over domestic politics, but also the creation of
industrialization and rapid modernization. By the early a larger empire at the expense of a weak China. The
twentieth century it was a major military and political main focus of Japan’s military and allied industrialists, the
power in global affairs. The political system created by zaibatsu, was increasingly the Chinese province of
the Meiji Constitution was relatively stable initially, but Manchuria.
with increasing economic problems, including rural

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 Examination advice I
Remember that questions Paper 1 Question 9: how to answer direct
for prescribed subject 3
will be numbered 9, 10, 11 questions
and 12 in the Paper 1
exam. Question 9 on the IB History Diploma examination is in two parts 9a and 9b.
Each part involves reading comprehension and simply asks you to tell the
examiner what the sources say. Each of the questions will ask only about one
source. You will often see questions that ask you to convey the message or
meaning of a source. This is asking you to explain what the source is saying.
Question 9 requires no prior knowledge, just the ability to read and
understand sources. When you start your examination, you will receive five
minutes of ‘reading time’ when you cannot actually touch your pen and start
writing. Use the time wisely and read Question 9a to see which source it is
asking about. Once you understand which source the question is about, read
the source and then think of your response. When the five minutes are up,
you may begin writing and you should be ready to answer the question
immediately.
Question 9 is worth 5 marks out of the total of 24 for all of Paper 1. This
means it is worth about twenty per cent of the overall mark. Answering
Questions 9a and 9b should take five minutes or less of the actual
examination time.

How to answer
In order to best answer the question, you first have to determine what the
question is asking you about the source and what type of source it is. The
vast majority of sources are fragments of speeches, quotes from various
historians or historical figures, or any other type of written source. However,
questions may also be asked about visual sources, such as photographs,
charts, maps, cartoons and diagrams.
When you start your answer, it is good practice to use the wording in the
question to help you focus your answer. For example:

Question Begin your answer with:

According to Source n, what is the The significance of the Washington
significance of the Washington Naval Naval Treaty, according to Source n,
Treaty for Japan? is …
What was the importance of the military The importance of the military, according
in Japanese politics, according to to Source n, was …
Source n?
What were Emperor Hirohito’s beliefs According to Source n, the Emperor
about the military’s role in government, believed the military ...
according to Source n?

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 Chapter 1: Causes of expansion

After starting your answer, understand that you should paraphrase what the
original source stated. This means you should explain what the source says,
but in your own words. Sometimes this is impossible because the words
used in the source may be so specific that there is no other way to restate
them. If this occurs, make sure you put quotation marks around the phrases
which you are copying from the source.
The total number of marks available for Question 9 is 5. One part is worth
3 marks and the other 2 and this will be clearly indicated on the
examination. If a question is worth 2 marks, try to have at least two specific
points to your answer. If a question is worth 3 marks, have at least three
points.

Example
This question uses Sources D (page 14) and I (page 21).

a) According to Source D, why was the Restoration needed in

Japan? (3 marks)
b) What is the message conveyed in Source I? (2 marks)

It has just been announced that your reading time has begun on the IB
History Paper 1 examination. Find the Paper 1 questions for the prescribed
subject ‘The move to global war’ and read Question 9a. It asks you to explain
what Source D indicates about the need for a ‘Restoration’. You cannot touch
your pen for several minutes, so go to Source D in the booklet and read it.
Once you are allowed to pick up your pen and start writing, do so. Below is a
good sample answer for the questions for 9a and 9b:

9a) According to Source D, the Res toration of the Emperor to full power Each answer repeats
part of the question,
was needed to change Japanese societ y. First, it would remove using phrases such as
‘materialism’, the desire to accumulate objects and wealth. Second, it ‘According to Source D’
would bring the people of Japan and the Emperor closer together. and ‘The message
conveyed in Source I is.’
This would, third, allow Japan to become Asia’s leader. This helps the answer
focus on the question.
9b) The message conveyed in Source I is to indicate the bravery of Japan’s
troops while depicting the enemy Russians as either cowards or Both sources are
paraphrased in the
overwhelmed by Japan’s expertly exploded bombs. answers.

Questions 9a and 9b are worth a combined 5 marks. Both answers indicate that Both questions are
the student read and understood what each source stated. Question 9a is worth answered in paragraph
3 marks. The answer for 9a contains at least three different points to address the form and not bullet
question. Question 9b is worth 2 marks. The answer has more than two points to points.
answer the question. Mark: 5/5.

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 Examination practice I
The following are exam-style questions for you to practise, using sources from the chapter. Sources can be found
on the following pages:

Source A: Page 10 Source Q: Page 32

Source E: Page 16 Source R: Page 33
Source H: Page 20 Source S: Page 34
Source L: Page 24 Source X: Page 41
Source O: Page 28 Source Y: Page 41
1 What, according to Source A, is the Emperor’s relationship to the Diet, Japan’s parliament?
2 What is the message of Source E?
3 What is the message of Source H?
4 According to Source L, why was Japan considered different from other modern states?
5 What, according to Source O, was the significance of the Washington Naval Conference?
6 How, according to Source Q, did the zaibatsu influence Japan’s government?
7 What, according to Source R, was the effect of the Great Depression on peasants?
8 How, according to Source S, was Japan’s silk production industry affected by the Great Depression?
9 What, according to Source X, concerned Emperor Hirohito with reference to the army?
10 Why, according to Source Y, were the military’s policies appealing to many?

Examination advice II
Remember that questions Paper 1 Question 10: value and limitations
for prescribed subject 3
will be numbered 9, 10, 11 based on origin, purpose and content
and 12 in the Paper 1
exam. Question 10 on the IB History Diploma examination requires to you to
discuss the origin and purpose of one source and then to use that information
to determine its potential value and limitations. The question always asks
you to refer to the origin, purpose and the content provided to assess its
value and limitations for historians. Some knowledge of the topic, value of
types of sources or historians can be useful, although this is not required.
Question 10 is worth 4 marks out of the 24 total for Paper 1. This means it is
worth seventeen per cent of your overall mark. Answering Question 10
should take approximately ten minutes of your examination time.

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How to answer
Read Question 10 carefully. You will notice that it is asking you to analyse the
value and limitations of a source for historians studying a particular event or
action in history. These are to be determined by referencing the origin, purpose
and content of the source. You should address Question 10 in a paragraph.
Structure will help you in answering the question. Incorporate the words
origin, purpose, content, value and limitation into your answer:
● ‘The origin of Source B is …’ ● ‘the content of Source B indicates …’
● ‘the purpose of Source B is …’ ● ‘a limitation of this source may
● ‘the value of this source is …’ be …’.

This keeps you focused on the task, making sure you cover all the required
elements, but also helps the examiner understand your answers by providing
a framework that they can follow.
It is important to remember that you are to use the origins, purpose and
content to determine the value and limitations of the named source for
historians studying something in particular.

Origin
The origin of a source is the author, the type of publication, the year it was
published, and sometimes the country it originates from. If there is
biographical information included as part of the source’s introduction, this
may also be used in addressing the source’s origin. If only the author is
stated, then the origin is simply the author or authors.

Purpose
The purpose of a source is usually indicated by the source’s title, the type of
source, the writer or speaker, if it is a speech, or the location of the source,
such as in a newspaper, an academic book or a journal. Purposes can range
from speeches (that try to convince certain groups or nations that what the
speaker is saying is the truth), to documents that explain the history of a
certain period. If a book’s title is The League of Nations’ Mandates and Japan,
the purpose of this particular source is likely to be to explain the League of
Nations and Japan’s mandates after the First World War. If you are making a
hypothesis regarding the purpose, use words such as ‘perhaps’, ‘likely’ or
‘possibly’ instead of stating your theory as a fact. The content may help
determine the purpose.

Content
The content of a source, especially if the source is a speech, a cartoon or an
official document of some sort, may help determine the purpose as well as
any value or limitation. An official statement by a prime minister of Japan
could potentially include important details for a historian studying Japan’s
economic crises during the 1920s, such as statistics, dates, locations and the
names of officials.

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 The content of larger works by historians may be more difficult to use to
determine the source’s value and limitations. Historians tend to discuss
historical events, emphasizing various pieces of evidence while ignoring or
explaining away other details. Use the content to help explain the value and
limitations of the source for historians, but do so with care. Use words like
‘possibly’ and ‘perhaps’ if you are not completely sure about your hypothesis.

Value
The value of a source flows naturally from the origins, purpose and content.
For instance, imagine there is a book called Japanese Militarism in the Late
1920s that was written by an army official who served during that period. The
value will be that the writer probably witnessed or participated in certain
events, perhaps supporting or resisting various military factions working to
control the government. This individual might have even met and spoken
with other participants, including those who made important decisions. This
would give the author first-hand knowledge regarding the establishment of
a military-dominated government by 1931.
If the author wrote the book 70 years later, rather than the 1920s, it could be
that this individual has access to records from that period. This would mean
that the author might have a less emotional and more objective view of
Japanese politics, economic crises and foreign policy, and therefore is better
able to determine the long-term effect of decisions and actions of the period.
Your answer will have to be determined by the origin, purpose and content
of the source you are asked to discuss. Do not state that primary sources
have more value than secondary sources; this is not necessarily true.

Limitation
The limitation of a source is determined in much the same way that you
determined the source’s value. If the writer of Japanese Militarism in the Late
1920s is Japanese, the writer is likely to have more access to Japanese sources
than a non-Japanese historian because of the language. Likewise, a Japanese
historian is unlikely to have easy or any access to Chinese or other archives.
This means that a Japanese historian’s views might be limited or unbalanced
as a result of this lack of access. Therefore, you can use the word ‘possibly’ in
trying to determine the limitation of a source, unless the source gives you
other information to clarify your theory.
There are other ways to determine possible limitations of a source:
● The title of the source may be of a limited nature or too broad for the topic.
● The date of publication, if given, may be limiting if it is too close to or far
from the historical events.
● A source that is political in nature may be trying to advocate a certain view
or policy instead of being objective.
● The content of the source may clearly indicate bias, such as advocating a
specific view while possibly attacking another potential view of the
historical event or individual.

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Do not state that sources are limited because they are secondary sources; this
may not always be true.

Visual images
Visual sources will have information explaining their origin; the content of a
photograph is critically important as well. Remember that photographs can
capture a single moment in time so that they can show exactly what
happened, but they can also be staged to send a particular message.
A photograph of smiling Manchurians standing with Japanese soldiers
captures a moment when they were either genuinely happy or told to smile,
perhaps not knowing even what they were smiling about. Cartoons, posters
and even photographs often have a political message. The purpose of any of
these could potentially be to convince the viewer of a certain point of view.
Another purpose could be to make fun of a particular idea or person for
some other reason. Further information on visual sources can be found on
page 88.

Example
This question uses Source O (see page 28).

With reference to its origins, purpose and content, analyse the

value and limitations of Source O for historians studying Japanese
militarism. (4 marks)

You will immediately turn to Source O and read that it is an excerpt from an
autobiographical book by Ozaki Yukio. There is no need to plan an outline for
this question because the structure of your answer is indicated by the
question, so get started.

The terms origin,

The value of Source O for historians studying militarism is that it is an purpose, content, value,
account written by someone personally involved in the struggle to and limitation are used
throughout.
maintain Japan’s constitutional government as indicated by the stated
origin and purpose. As such, he would have potentially witnessed and/or
Use of words such as
participated in events regarding the rising power of Japan’s military. The ‘potentially’, ‘perhaps’ and
content of the source clearly indicates that Mr Ozaki was crucially so forth indicate where
important to events as he is held personally responsible and called names, hypotheses are being
stated.
again meaning that he worked against Japanese militarism personally,
further indicating that this is indeed a valuable source for historians
There are two values
studying militarism in Japan. and they are connected
to the origin, purpose or
content.
A limitation of Source O for historians is that Mr Ozaki indicates in the
purpose of the source that it will be about the fight to maintain Japan’s
constitutional government. As such, he is unlikely to view militarism and

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 those who advocated it positively or objectively. The content supports this,
in which his opponents are depicted as irrational. The content of the
source implies that Mr Ozaki was not just present, but personally
There are two responsible for agreeing to naval limitations and responding to opposition;
limitations and they refer no others are given credit or mentioned. Again, Mr Ozaki’s objectivity
to the origin, purpose or
content.
could perhaps be called into ques tion by historians as it is highly unlikely
that a single individual would have that responsibility or authority in
Japan’s government of that period.

Question 10 is worth 4 marks. The answer indicates that values and limitations
have both been addressed using the origin, purpose and content of the source. There
are at least two values and two limitations discussed with reference to the
usefulness of the source for historians studying militarism. Mark: 4/4.

Examination practice II
The following are exam-style questions for you to practise, using sources from this chapter. Sources can be found
on the following pages:

Source D: page 14 Source X: page 41

Source R: page 33 Source Z: page 42
Source Q: page 32
1 With reference to its origin, purpose and content, assess the value and limitations of Source D for
historians studying the emergence of Japanese militarism.
2 With reference to its origin, purpose and content, assess the value and limitations of Source R for
historians studying economic stresses in Japan in the early twentieth century.
3 With reference to its origin, purpose and content, assess the value and limitations of Source Q for
historians studying the influence of the zaibatsu on Japan’s government.
4 With reference to its origin, purpose and content, assess the value and limitations of Source X for
historians studying the relationship between Japan’s Emperor and the military.
5 With reference to its origin, purpose and content, assess the value and limitations of Source Z for
historians studying the influence of Japan’s military on foreign policy before the Second World War.

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Activities
1 In groups, using paragraphs of this chapter as sources, create questions in the style of question 9a and
question 9b, assigning them either 2 or 3 marks. Use the paragraphs that focus on the Japanese
government’s struggle with the military and factions within the military. Vary your questions such as in
the examples above. Try to create at least two different questions per paragraph. Exchange your
questions with other groups, being sure to indicate the location of the paragraphs in the chapter, and
give yourselves approximately five minutes to answer the two questions. Once questions have been
answered, review the answers and assign marks. Be sure to indicate what was successful and
appropriate and what might be improved.
2 Collaboratively create a timeline. One part of the timeline will indicate major economic events in Japan’s
history as indicated in this chapter. In another colour or in parallel, create a timeline that plots actions by
Japan’s military, including actions by rival military factions. Finally, in another colour or in parallel, create a
timeline that deals with Japanese foreign policy events such as treaties or actions. What conclusions
might one be able to draw based on evidence presented in the timelines? Which events were the most
important and which led to military actions?
3 Create flashcards with important dates and personalities. For example, on one side of the card you will
have the date 1902. On the other side of the card, you will have Anglo-Japanese Alliance. Do this with
various dates and individuals mentioned throughout Chapter 1. You can use these for revision or to
create a game for class in which student teams compete to answer the questions correctly for points.
4 Divide the class into two groups. Each group in class will create governmental and economic solutions
for Japan’s problems in the early twentieth century. Create a Venn diagram on the board, indicating the
similarities and differences between the solutions proposed by each group. The class should discuss
each solution, debating the merits and weaknesses of each.

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