Dynamic Document to #R2AP1 Answer Writing (AW) Initiative of

Team Anthro

📢What is #R2AP1?
Race2Ace Paper 1:
*This initiative is a FREE of cost innovative initiative to instil the practice of
Determined, Effort and Focused answer writing among participating members.

Answers will be shared and reviewed within our group (@teamanthroanswers).

The core idea is to promote peer-based learning and to sharpen answer writing skills for
UPSC Mains 2023 Anthropology exam, while developing the critical faculty of assessing other
members' answers and learning from each other!!

The show stopper is super’5.

Where is this initiative?

Telegram group : https://t.me/teamanthroanswers (kindly join if you haven’t -
everything will happen here)

🚦Does this format work?

Yes! We have used this same format since 2018.
e.g. Team Anthro’s #Champ21 #Dare #WARA (write an answer read an answer) #QAD
(question a day) initiatives had hundreds of answers written and reviewed!

👬Who can participate?

 ● Everyone! The first answer you write, would be the worse and the worse your
answer is, the faster you will improve.
● Focus on improvement from your own answer review and also other answers
submitted.
● It is to learn how to write answers, take what you can from it, at whatever level
you are. Understanding will come gradually. Revisit the topics later when you
have a greater understanding :)

📝Will I get model answers?

● It's more than model answers and its multiple possible answers for the same
question, only possible because of one's participation.
● However, we will provide answer outlines and sources with each question
everyday, this will also be stored in the repository.
● We will also store all the #goodanswers as selected by members and admins in a
folder in the #R2AP1 master folder or Telegram repository channel -
https://t.me/TAgoodanswers

🎁Are there any rewards for aspirants?

● The best answer copy for the day will be declared as “Answer of the Day” for
future reference and there will be a 1-1 discussion with the aspirant at 8:30 pm.
(subjected to their will and availability)
● Those who top 2 Mini Tests along with Learning Tests consecutively will be
promoted to “Super’5”.

During DARWIN'S time change is important for Evolution. Evolution is now about cooperation
and not competition. Anthropology shows the way in overcoming our evolutionary tendencies of
trying to climb over each other to succeed.

Deriving inspiration from the glorious journey of 75 years of independence, let’s come together
and share knowledge, commit your time and efforts and get the same in return. Share without
desire or want of reciprocity. Take from Gandhian ideals and Ambedkar's wisdom that paves the
way for Kalam's vision of India. Let’s be part of the nation building in Amrut kal as the dreams
cherish and tribe flourish.

Help make this initiative a success so that we may grow together through syllabus, and not just
go through syllabus. Let this be a testimonial for generations to come that may benefit from
our efforts. Jai hind !

***

W1D1 - Twin and Co-twin Study (15m)

Introduction -
Elaborate on Francis Galton’s contribution to Twin Study and establish the relationship
with nature and nurture debate.

First presented in “History of twins” in an 1875 paper.

Body -
1. Importance/Types - Significance of MZ and DZ studies.
2. Nature vs Nurture.
3. Determination of zygosity.
4. Heritability -
a. Concordance and Discordance studies to explain discrete traits. Eg - Impact
of environment - hair colour, eye colour, height.
b. Rearing studies to explain continuous traits in case of MZ twins. Eg -
Intelligence .
5. Limitations -
a. Role of environment - location.
b. Evidence to substantiate Twin studies.
c. Analysis of congenital malformations.
6. Applications - Siemans work
-Behavioral Genetics and Diagnosis of diseases etc.

Value Addition -
Case studies:
1. Thomas Buchard’s work on MZ twins.
2. Walter Jabolonski’s work on Refraction of the eye.
Example:GeneX environment interactions (GxE) studies are proband wise for more
realistic concordance rate. Eg - Height of one inch increase in high nutrient
environment but only half an inch in low nutrient environment.

Conclusion -
Influence of nature-nurture on the basis of Twin studies.

Sources - https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/41426/1/MANI-002B5E.pdf

Link - (twin and adoption studies) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=usnv1_xRCvs

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Werner_Siemens

W1D2 - Briefly discuss the various methods used in genetic study of man (20M):

Introduction -
Write on how Human genetic studies employ various methods to investigate the hereditary
problems and the importance of the same in prevention and treatment for greater good.

Significant studies:
For eg: Twin - Binge eating disorder (EBD) etc..
Cotwin - Schizophrenia

Body -
Enumerate the various methods used in studying human genetics.
1. Pedigree Analysis - family studies
2. Twin and Co-twin Study - nurture vs nature
3. Foster child - Chicago IQ studies, Minnesota studies(interchanging children from
managerial and labour class to analyze IQ variation) - Osborne (1951) - adoption
studies
4. Cytogenetics - role of chromosomes in transmission of disease
 a. Short note on traditional methods (karyotyping), chromosomal banding
(Q,G,C,R), FISH, etc.
b. Significance of chromosomal studies -eg: evolutionary past and mapping
genes location etc..
5. Bio-chemical methods - Metabolic pathways and its effects eg: G6PD,
Haemoglobins.
6. Immunological methods - Auto-immune diseases, Antigen- antibodies techniques.
7. Recombinant DNA - Sequencing of DNA (RFLP and VNTR), blotting techniques,
vaccines,MABs(mono-clonal antibodies) etc..

Value Addition -
1. How the above methods and technology have given headwind to Covid-19 studies
and development of vaccines - https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/how-
immunity-is-developed-coronavirus-vaccine-6506182/

2. Foster child method:

https://www.sleepybear.in/Anthropology/p1_physical/Foster%20child%20method
%202-1.html

3. The heritability of Eating Disorders: methods and current findings.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3599773/

Conclusion -
The role of methods in understanding traits and heritability and uses of methods and
techniques to study the effect of human genetics.
Sources - P Nath

Links - https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/41426/1/MANI-002B5E.pdf
Video links -
(Karyotyping) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MP3mm04OrQg ,
(rDNA) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ffl-0OYVQU,
(Pedigree Analysis) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=11s5Biyi9q4,
(Twin and Adoption Studies) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=usnv1_xRCvs
W1D3 - recombinantDNA Technology (10M)

Introduction -
Explain what is rDNA technology and its application.

The Asilomar conference (1975) - regulation and safe use of rDNA Technology was
discussed.
Body -
1. Principle behind rDNA technology/genetic engineering
2. Mechanism - Steps involved in the process
3. Diagrammatic/Flow Chart representation can be used.
4. Advantages & Disadvantages
a. Therapeutic productions - vaccines, Growth Hormones, anticancer drugs,
recombinant drugs etc..
b. Diagnosis - Gene Therapy, CRISPR etc..
5. Applications with recent examples (Crispr-Cas9), examples (Insulin, Sputnik V)

Conclusion -
Emphasize on manipulating DNA strands and the role of rDNA in improving human life.

Sources - Telugu Academy, IGNOU

Links - rDNA and its role in human life:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5178364/
Video links -
(rDNA) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OpU_CQ0pFyQ ,
(Insulin) https://youtu.be/y4AMgE6B5jI,
(CRISPR-Cas9)https://youtu.be/4YKFw2KZA5o
W2D1 -Discuss polygenic inheritance in man, citing suitable examples. (15m):

Introduction -
Elaborate on Quantitative Genetics which is the discipline that deals with complex traits
and multifactor hypothesis.

Body -
1. R.A.Fisher - additive effect of genes and impact of environmental factors.
2. Multifactor hypothesis - Three features of quantitative traits.
3. H.Nilsson - Ehle (1909) - Multi gene hypothesis - kernel color in wheat.
4. C.B.Davenport (1913) - Skin color in Man eg: Mullatoes.
5. Characteristics of polygenic inheritance.
6. Polygenic traits as basis for racial classification. Eg: Skin color, hair color, eye color,
weight, shape of face, fingerprints and IQ.
7. Application - physical anthropologists treat polygenic characteristics statistically
and compare populations.
8. Influence of genetic and environmental factors in polygenic traits. eg: Froelich, 1970
study on diet change

Conclusion -
Conclude based on multiple factors in the genetic variations in the characters and their
heritability in phenotypic variations.

Sources - https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/S000001AN/
P001121/M013370/ET/14580272326ET.pdf ,Telugu Academy, P Nath

Value addition:
Gene–environment correlations affect associations between genetic variants and complex
traits in genome-wide association studies (GWASs ) 43,516 British siblings that educational
attainment polygenic scores capture gene–environment correlations, and that migration
extends these gene–environment correlations beyond the family to broader geographic
regions.
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41588-022-01158-0

W2D1- What are lethal and sublethal genes? Explain. (10m)

Introduction:
Explain what are lethal and sublethal genes, theories and classification related to it.

Body:
1. Explain Pleiotropic effect of lethal genes - concept of lethal genes.
2. Theories - Schools of Dobzhansky and Muller.
3. Classification -
a. Based on the nature of the lethals with examples.
b. Based on zygosity with examples.
c. Super vital genes - environment
4. Case study - L. Cuenot (1905) and E. Baur(1907).
5. Any recent examples - favism.

Conclusion:
Establish the relationship between natural selection and lethal genes.
Sources: P Nath, Telugu Academy
Links :
Mendelian Ratios and Lethal Genes:
https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/mendelian-ratios-and-lethal-genes-557/

Application based question.

W2D2- Enumerate the practices that stem from man-family studies which seek for
betterment of human life in various ways. (15M)

Introduction:
Write a note on inheritance and its role for the betterment to enhance the quality of life and
lifespan.

Body: 0
1. Emphasize on Francis Galton’s work- eg: case study etc..
2. Anthropometry - eg: defense sector etc...
3. Fingerprinting.
4. Explain Eugenics.
a. Positive Eugenics
b. Negative Eugenics
c. Selective Mating
d. Sperm bank or Germinal Choice
e. Cloning
f. Parthenogenesis
5. Explain Euphenics.
a. At Genotypic level
b. At Phenotypic level
6. Explain Euthenics.

Conclusion:
Write a conclusion highlighting the importance of the above practices.

Sources: P Nath, Telugu Academy, Internet.

W2D3- Define genetic polymorphism. Give details of its types with suitable examples.
(15m)

Introduction:
Definition and its relationship with selection.
1. Source of Genetic polymorphism - Mutation.
2. Features of Genetic Polymorphism -
a. Monomorphism and Stabilizing Selection with examples
 b. Transient Polymorphism and Directional Selection with examples
c. Balanced Polymorphism and Heterozygote Selection with examples
3. Single nucleotide polymorphism.
4. Insertion and Deletion polymorphism (Indel).
5. Microsatellite variation.
6. Present an example at cell level. eg: RBC how antigen present on the surface varies
in different individuals of a population - Rh(c1), MN (c9), Duffy, Kidd(c1), Lutheran
and Lewis(c22) and HLA system.
7. Genetic polymorphism at the level of DNA - RFLP, VNTR.
8. ACE2 genetic polymorphisms.

Conclusion:
Genetic polymorphism and its role in determining genetic diversity and getting adoptive
success showing potential solutions for the future environment.

Sources: P Nath, Telugu Academy

Links:

IL-18 Genetic polymorphism.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378111918308503

ACE2 genetic polymorphism.

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-16442-6

W2D4- Genetic load. (15m)

Introduction:
Explain what is genetic load or definition.
H.J.Muller - Deleterious effect in “Our load of mutation” (1950).
Body:
1. Sources of genetic load
● Mutation,
● Natural Selection - Carrying capacity of environment.
● Inbreeding
● Sexual reproduction
● Migration
2. Types of genetic load -
a. Mutational - Reduction in variability - Genetic burden
b. Segregational - Heterozygous (more successful) and Homozygous (inferior)
c. Incompatibility - Rh +ve and Rh -ve
3. Effects of genetic load - Extinction, disease and sex linked lethals sex ratio.

Value Addition -

1. J.B.S. Haldane’s “The Effect of Variation on Fitness” (1837) - Haldane discussed such
an equilibrium situation and enquired into the effect of fitness of recurrent
deleterious mutations and inferior homozygotes that arise by Mendelian
segregation from better adapted heterozygotes.

Conclusion:
Conclude according to the classical theory of genetic load.
Note - In the view of classical theory, genetic load is reduction in the observed fitness from
that produced by optimum genotype.

Sources: P Nath, Telugu Academy

Chapter : 9.4, Paper1 -9/5/2022

W3D1- How many numerical aberrations in sex chromosomes lead to genetic

disorders? (15M)

Introduction:
Explain how misdivision (non-disjunction) or numerical changes in the number of
chromosomes may lead to aberrations in sex chromosomes leading to genetic disorders -
Trisomics.

Briefly about role of mutagens resulting in various numerical aberrations -

1. Physical - X-rays, Cosmic rays, UV rays and extreme temperatures
2. Chemical - Alkylating agents, Mustard gas, Acridine dyes
3. Biological - Herpes and Rubella Viruses

Body:
1. Klinefelter’s Syndrome
2. Turner’s Syndrome
3. Triple X Syndrome
Give general features (symptoms), health and life expectancy, frequency for the above.
4. Use Diagrams for good presentation - like karyotype etc..

Value Addition:
1. FMR1 (Fragile X premutation)
2. Primary Ovarian Insufficiency - Turner

Conclusion:
With the advancements of steroid and hormonal therapies, apart from genetic counselling,
is the way out to treat the sexual chromosomal disorders.

Sources: IGNOU, Telugu Academy

W3D2- Down Syndrome. (10M)

Introduction:
Describe down syndrome as a trisomy of 21 in the autosomal aberrations which is named
after J. Langdon Down in 1866, who first described the down syndrome.
Later Studies -
In 1959, Lejeune et al. demonstrated that infant Mongolians have 47 chromosomes instead
of 46 in the human body cells.

Body:
Origin : Nondisjunction of 21 chromosomes during paternal meiosis. Chromosome
analysis has shown that ovum as the source for additional chromosomes in 95% of cases.
1. Symptoms -
a. Palm
b. Face
c. Foot
d. Health and Life Expectancy
e. Gene HMG1 - Leukemia incidence.
f. Intelligence Level
g. Frequency
2. Diagnosis - a.characteristic symptoms and their correlation with mother.
b.CVS - Chorionic Villus Sampling or Amniocentesis for carrying out Karyotype
Analysis
3. Prevention - Genetic counseling early in pregnancy serves 2 purposes -
a. Probability and Preparedness - Example - Awareness programme by an
Indian influencer organized by National Down Syndrome Society (2022)
b. As per CVS report - Therapeutic abortion.

Conclusion:
Establish a correlation between sub lethality of Down Syndrome and its frequency which
leads to the awareness and also helps in taking genetic counseling as a preventive step.

Value addition:
1. According to a recent study (2022) at the University of Lausanne, people affected
Down’s syndrome with a pump that provided a dose of GnRH, a gonadotropin-
releasing hormone, every two hours for six months.

2. Link that established blood cancer with Down’s syndrome.

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2022-08-gene-therapy-leukemia-
syndrome-children.html

W3D3- Genetic Counselling.(10M)

Introduction:
Define Genetic counseling.
Sheldon Clark Reed coined the term “Genetic counseling” (1947) and published the book
“Counseling in Medical Genetics” in 1955

Body:
1. Steps involved -
a. History and Pedigree Construction - Bateson
b. Genetic Screening - Biochemical and molecular tests.
c. Prognosis and Diagnosis - inheritance pattern.
d. Counseling Interview - result and associated consequences.
e. Treatment and Checking- treatment prescription.
2. Examples - Prenatal Genetics, Cleft lip, Cardiovascular diseases, Neurogenetics etc.

Value Addition:
1. Global genetic counseling community.
2. The European Board of Medical Genetics has set standards for practices for genetic
counseling in EU nations.

Conclusion:
Genetic counseling is a communication process empowering patients and families to make
autonomous decisions by using effective genetic information and employing CRISPR cas9
technology which has multiplied the scope for a bright future.

Sources: P Nath, Telugu Academy

Links : Genetic counseling in the era of genomic medicine.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5998955/

W3D4- Racial Criteria. (15m)

Introduction:
Linking Race to morphological and genetic criteria.

Body:
1. Morphological criteria -
a. Morphometric - Measurements by instruments
i. Cephalic Index
ii. Facial Index
iii. Nasal Index
iv. Stature Index
b. Morphoscopic - Can’t be measured but visually described
i. Skin colour
ii. Hair colour
iii. Body build
iv. Eye shape and colour
2. Genetic criteria -
a. Serological - blood groups, HLA system, serum proteins, isoenzymes
b. Non-serological - PTC, Secretor Status
c. Chromosomes and DNA polymorphism
d. Dermatoglyphics (Purkinje) - finger pattern (Henry), palm - main line
formula (Wilder)

Conclusion:
Write on the lines of - Based on the above racial criteria, humans are classified into major
racial groups across the globe.

Sources: IGNOU, P Nath, Telugu Academy

W3D5- Race crossing. (15M)

Introduction:
Explain race crossing.
Race crossing in Jamaica - CB Devenport.
Examples : Mulattoes, Zanbos, Mestizos.
Body:
1. Causes of Race Crossing
a. Historical causes - trade, war, migration, expedition, marriage alliances
b. Colonization - racial admixture - ind0-americans, anglo-indians.
c. Modern-day causes - globalization, industrialization, westernization,
foreign education and settlement
2. Debates and Studies
a. European and American Expeditions, Civil Wars - slavery in USA and
European imperialistic activities in Africa and Asia
b. Ashley Montagu - microevolutionary forces.
c. Galton, Davenport studies.
d. Dobzhansky, Leslie
e. Franz Boas
Anti-Racist studies -
a. Julian Huxley and Haddon
3. Significance of Race Crossing - cultural exchange, intermixing, evolutionary value,
formation of new races
4. UNESCO’s Race Question (1951-52)

Value addition:
There is no pure group that is racially pure in current times.
Jewish race in : 1. Spain - Dolichocephalic 2. Russia - Brachiocephalic.
Conclusion:
India is a melting pot of races - DN Majumdar as an example.

Sources: Internet

W4D1- Why are blood groups considered as genetic markers? Illustrate with examples.
(15M)

Introduction:
Define genetic markers in blood - Crawford (1973)

Highlight use of blood groups as genetic markers.

Body:
Genetic markers in Blood Groups.
1. RBC antigens -
a. ABO System - Karl Landsteiner (1901), Bernstein (1924), McArthur Penrose
(1951) and Seymour et al., (2004)
b. MNS System - Anna Elvira (2011) - Philippine studies.
c. Rh System.
Example - Distribution of blood groups - ABO blood group

Impact of Natural selection effect on ABO grouping - Sewall Wright studies.

Conclusion:
Conclude on the lines of importance of blood grouping based on genetic markers.

Sources: Telugu Academy, IGNOU and internet.

Link: https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/anthropological-genetics/molecular-
markers-in-anthropological-genetic-studies/11D5DC63B3501A9BBDED4EA4D7CB64F2
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1691687/

W4D2- Genetics of HLA and organ transplantation. (10M)

Introduction:
Explain HLA system and its histocompatibility in organ transplantation.

Body:
1. HLA genes - Population variations.
Eg: HLA-A, HlA-B, HLA-DR - Major transplantation genes.
2. Causes
3. Functions
4. Role in organ transplantation -Major histocompatibility complex (MHC).
A.Allogeneic HSC is used to treat hematological malignancy.
B. Graft versus host diseases.
Value Addition -
Pig - kidney transplant to humans:
https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-01418-3

https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/pvt-hospital-conducts-goas-first-
incompatible-kidney-transplant/articleshow/93889636.cms - Chronic Glomerulonephritis

Conclusion:
The HLA system is studied to improve the graft tolerance by matching antigens of the
donor and recipient and recent studies of Genetically modified organs for betterment of
humankind.

Sources: Telugu Academy, Internet

W4D3-Respiratory functions. (10M)

Introduction:
Pulmonary functions have been shown to correlate negatively with age while a highly
positive correlation has been recorded in relation to height in both the sexes.

Body:
Factors causing respiratory diseases - Aging and lifestyle affect lung volumes and study of
the same will give insights into respiratory disorders.
Respiratory function is an exothermic, metabolic, oxidative exchange in lungs.
Variations in respiratory functions -
1. Age-level (Inspiratory Capacity (IC) Expiratory Reserve (ERV)- Cotes, 2006)
a. In childhood, the respiratory capacity gets affected independent of body size.
b. In old age, older people witness respiratory issues due to reduced efficiency.
2. Gender - Females have lower RBC count than males. In a study by Gomzi et al., 1983
it is observed that in males, a positive correlation has been recorded in relation to
arm and leg length whereas in females it is negatively correlated with body
circumference (Gomzi et al., 1983, Pavlica, 1996), skinfold and weight.
3. Environment - Under hot conditions, rate of respiration declines. But, it increases
in colder and high-latitude environments.
4. Occupation and Commerce - Stone-cutters and construction workers have reduced
respiratory capacity as dust particles block the lung pathway.
5. Genetic adaptations - Tibetans have unique gene variants of EPAS1 gene and EGLN1
gene - two key genes in the oxygen homeostasis system. Thus, their rate of
respiration is stable even at high altitudes.
6. Obesity and Respiration - Although obesity was found to be associated with severe
impairment of ventilation, most of the study population has been morbidly obese
adults. (Salome et al., 2010)
Value addition:
Covid 19 and its impact.
https://www.who.int/news/item/13-10-2020-impact-of-covid-19-on-people's-livelihoods-
their-health-and-our-food-systems#:~:text=The%20economic%20and%20social
%20disruption,the%20end%20of%20the%20year.
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/tswj/2022/5578284/

Conclusion:
Although the effects of aging, gender, environment, occupation etc. on pulmonary
functions have been studied which are insignificant to establish a direct relation, however,
few studies have considered the influence of the body compartments on respiratory
functions.

Sources: Telugu Academy, IGNOU, Internet.

W4D4-Ecological Anthropology.(10m)

Introduction:
Explain what is Ecological anthropology.

Body:
The term ecology was coined in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel.
1. Broadly 2 perspectives - cultural and biological.
2. Cultural Ecology -
a. Julian Steward is considered as the founder of cultural ecology. His
multilinear theory of cultural evolution emphasizes that cultural change is
induced by adaptation to the environment.
3. Biological Adaptation -
a. Knowledge of anthropology can be used to understand the existence of
people in different climates.
b. E.g. Roy F. Ellen’s work with the Nuaulu in West Java has led him to develop
awareness concepts concerning indigenous peoples and their
understandings of the environment (Ellen, 1993).
4. Ethno-Ecology -
 a. How people preserve and understand nature around them, emphasizing the
importance of knowledge to know about the surroundings.
b. E.g. - Indigenous knowledge for sustainable agriculture
5. Biotic and Abiotic factor - Influence of man on environment -
a. E.g. climate change, ozone depletion, deforestation

Relevance -
Ecology of the mind - The environmental insights of nonwestern societies -
https://news.yale.edu/2022/03/28/ecology-mind-environmental-insights-nonwestern-
societies

Conclusion:
With impending threats of population explosion resulting in malnutrition and climate
change, ecological anthropologists are working on finding ways for humans to adapt to the
environmental changes and ensure sustenance.

Source:
P Nath, Internet
https://anthropology.ua.edu/theory/ecological-anthropology/

W4D5-Discuss the responses and acclimatization to high altitude stresses. (15m)

Introduction:
Responses to stressful conditions such as high altitude by humans take place at various
levels - physiological, natural and cultural. At high altitudes humans face the stress of
hypoxia which means to adjust with low oxygen levels or PO2 (Partial pressure of oxygen)
through responses like hyperventilation.

Acclimatization: it refers to changes in Body tissues in response to long term exposure to

high altitude hypoxia.
Body:
After several days at High altitude, Acclimatization starts to occur and thus leading into
other changes such as:

Primary response of body-

1. Loss of Appetite
2. Vomiting
3. Headache and dizziness
4. Nose bleeds
5. Swelling of face and limbs.

Adverse response:
1. The adverse conditions which typically occurs above 2500 metres can induce
modifications in normal physiological functions:
2. Sustained energy deficits.
3. Metabolic disasters- (Sherpa et al., 2013)
4. AMC - "Tight fit theory" - acute mountain sickness.
5. HAPE high altitude pulmonary edema with associated shortness of breath.
6. HACE - high altitude cerebral edema.
7. Ventricular hypertrophy.

Altitude Acclimatization:
1. Hypoxic condition CNS - stimulates medulla oblongata (respiratory centre) -
increase in breathing rate - increase in PO2 - normalization of Oxygen levels present
a Flowchart or a graph.
5000 feet - no effects
15000 feet - moderate hypoxia with CVS along with respiratory symptoms.
18000 feet - severe hypoxia
20,000 feet and above- Hb levels falls below 60% and start of high altitude illness.
2. Cardio-acceleration
3. Vasoconstriction may be an adaptation intended to protect lung vessels.
4. Increase in number of RBC and Hb - hypoxic - Kidney - Erythropoietin - Increase in
RBC and Hb
 5. Increased lung surface
6. Increased tissue blood

Natural Acclimatization- mechanism- 2,3-BPG levels present a curve.

1. Climb high and sleep low - sleeping altitude should be less than hiking above 3000m.
2. Acclimatization walks - ascend walks.
3. Expose ears -Ears sense cold easily and pressure naturally.
Eg: Bodos of ladakh, Sherpas of Nepal, Himalayan Tibetans are examples of
acclimatization and gradual adaptation.

Cultural changes that can help to get acclimatized:

Eg: Food - Garlic soups and clothing etc.

Conclusion:
Humans can acclimatize to a wide range of temperatures and humidity particularly when
traveling to high altitudes, our body adjusts to environmental stresses how and why studies
are still in nascent studies to understand the magical changes in human body.

Value addition
HAPE and pathophysiology:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430819/

Sources:
P Nath, IGNOU
Links:
Respiratory change to high altitude:
https://youtu.be/r-16hB76Ark

Alternative treatment to altitude sickness for better understanding:

https://youtu.be/aIOaYh9Bkds

Tibetans -
https://www.science.org/content/article/tibetans-inherited-high-altitude-gene-ancient-
human

W5D1-Epidemiological Anthropology (15M)

Introduction:
Define and elaborate on the scope of Epidemiological anthropology.

Historical evolution:
Hippocrates - 1st epidemiologist
John Snow - Cholera epidemic - father of modern epidemiology
James A. Trostle - integrated Approach in Anthropology and Epidemiology.

Body:
Approaches:
1. Ecological or Environmental Approach
Eg : China's hookworm infection
2. Evolutionary Approach - defense vs defect debate Eg: Ethnomedicine.
3. Interpretative Approach- symbolic meaning of health and diseases. eg: Claude Levi-
strauss (1967) Psychoanalysis work on Cuna Indians of Panama, Shaman begins a
chant- recitation which helps a woman during labour.
4. Critical Medical Approach- prescriptions a pill is not a pious solution for every
disease. Eg: Biomedical healing vs Traditional Ethnogeriatrics.
Scope:
1. Public policy- eg: one health
2. Health care systems - eg: PHC
3. Factors and causes of a particular disease.
4. Occupational hazards
5. Agrarian disasters and suicides
6. Ethno medicine
7. Lifestyle diseases
8. Mother child health care
 9. Vaccinations and prevention -eg: covid 19
10. Case control studies etc.

Value addition:
https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/how-sierra-leones-fight-against-ebola-tested-cultural-
traditions (Amy Maxmen, 2015)

Conclusion:
Epidemiological anthropology confers the detection, determination, manifestation and
distribution of certain diseases. The spectrum of disease causing factors ranging from
genetic to environment in the backdrop of socio-cultural background will pave the way to
contain and evolve as a human race.

Sources: Telugu Academy, IGNOU and internet.

Link - https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/41434/1/Unit-3.pdf

W5D2-Describe the scope of epidemiological anthropology in the study of infectious

and non-infectious diseases. [20m]

Introduction:
Write about scope and of epidemiological anthropology of infectious and non-infectious
diseases.

Arthur Kleinman - concept of illness (cultural- emic) and disease (natural - etic).

Body:
Scope of Epidemiological anthropology:
1. Epidemiological anthropology elucidates etiological factors involved in the disease
incidence and emphasis on population variation in incidence and occurrence which
is a cornerstone method of public health research and policy formulation.
 2. The scope extends to better targeting of preventive medicine and evidence based
medicine.
3. It includes various factors like:
a. Exogenous factors like biotic and non-biotic
b. Endogenous factors - genetic
c. Demographic
d. Behavioural - social, cultural, psychological
4. Health is more than physical fitness which involves social, mental and emotional
well being.
5. Disease - biomedical deviance from normal functioning whereas illness is a
subjective and social experience of disease which implies discomfort and ability to
function optimally.

General socio-economic, ecological, cultural and environmental conditions - Dahlgren and

Whitehead (1991) the Rainbow model :

Diseases:
Classification of Diseases -
 1. Topographic - By bodily region - E.g. gastrointestinal
2. Anatomic - By organ (E.g. heart) or tissue (E.g. liver)
3. Physiological - By function (E.g. metabolic) or effect (E.g. respiration)
4. Pathological - By nature of disease - Neoplastic (tumours, cancers) or Inflammatory
(Cerebral edema)
5. Etiological - Causal factors (Bacterial, viral, fungal)
6. Epidemiological - By distribution and incidence

Epidemiological anthropology in the study of infectious diseases.

Infectious diseases - Any disease caused by the presence of pathogens is called an

infectious disease. They are also known as transmissible and communicable diseases,
consisting of clinically evident illness resulting from infection.

Classification of infectious diseases based on pathogens.

1. Bacteria - eg: TB, Typhoid, Cholera, diphtheria etc..
2. Virus - common cold, Herpes, AIDS, chickenpox and smallpox etc…
3. Fungi - Ring form, candidiasis, athletes foot, histoplasmosis etc..
4. Protozoa- leishmaniasis, chagas disease, giardiasis, sleeping sickness etc..
5. Multicellular parasites- roundworm and tapeworm Infections.

Mechanism: invasion and destruction of host cells by producing toxins or cell killer
proteins.

Sources:
The main sources and ecological aspects of disease can be revealed in two ways which
includes physical environment and biotic components.
1. Biotic component of environment - E.g. pathogens
2. Social habits- E.g. open defecation
3. Family patterns - E.g. genetic history, lifestyle and diet
4. Occupation and Commerce - E.g. Byssinosis
5. Temperature and Humidity - ideal conditions for pathogens.
6. Migration - E.g. Measles in Faroe Islands
 7. Population density - E.g. Covid-19
8. Climate - E.g. Yaws

Epidemiological anthropology in the study of non infectious diseases.

Non-infectious diseases -
1. Regional variation - Negroes are more susceptible to frostbite than Eskimos (or)
North American Indians which may be attributed to both the lack of acclimatization
and genetic susceptibility.
2. Racial pathology - Among Africans, primary cancer of the liver is a sequel of the
widely prevalent liver cirrhosis. It is caused by consumption of a low protein and
high carbohydrate diet since infancy.
3. Racial differences - Incidence of coronary disease is associated with the diets - high
and fat.
4. Lifestyle choices - Smoking, poor nutrition, lack of physical activity, etc. causes
cancer, lung diseases.
5. Genetic diseases - Thalassaemia, Sickle cell anaemia
6. Rhesus incompatibility - Haemolytic disease of newborn is a characteristic of
European but not of most Mongoloid or Amerindian populations, since they are
devoid of Rh-ve individuals.

Value addition
30 years of Dahlgren and Whitehead (1991) the Rainbow model :
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S003335062100336X

Anthropology of infectious diseases:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4593459/

WHO research of Infectious diseases, lessons from Indian context:

https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/vbz.2020.2661

Conclusion:
Thus, by its holistic outlook, epidemiological anthropology helps design adequate
biological, cultural and behavioural interventions to fight such diseases.

Sources: Telugu Academy, IGNOU

Link: https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/41434/1/Unit-3.pdf

W5D3-What are the different stages of growth? Describe any one of them in detail.
(20m)

Introduction:
According to Robert M. Malina growth is an increase in the size of the body as a whole or
the size attained by specific parts of the body. Human growth and development can be
studied under different stages of prenatal and natal growth.

Body:
Different Stages of growth - Growth is defined as increase in the size of the mass of tissues
and it includes the process of multiplication of cells and increase in intracellular substances
which reflects quantitative aspects like height, weight.

Stages of growth -
1. Prenatal
2. Post natal

Various phases of Prenatal Growth:

a. Period of ovum (or) Period of implantation (Germinal Stage) - fertilization happens
in fallopian tube, formation of blastula followed by formation of 3 primary germ
layers along with growth in extra embryonic membranes such as placenta, umbilical
cord, amnion, chorion, etc.
b. Period of embryo - Histogenesis (2 weeks to 8 weeks) -
 i. Ectoderm will develop into nails, hair, teeth, sensory organs, skin and
nervous system including brain and spinal cord.
ii. Endoderm produces digestive system, liver, pancreas, salivary glands and
respiratory system.
iii. Mesoderm will differentiate into muscles, skeleton, inner layer of the skin,
excretory and circulatory system. (Organogenesis)
iv. Sexual determination (5th week) and “morphogenesis”.
v. Apart from growth, to protect the embryo from various diseases, the
placenta produces progesterone to support pregnancy and prolactin to
prepare the mother for the lactation and oxytocin to stimulate uterine
contraction.
c. Period of foetus (8-12 weeks to birth)
i. The peak velocity of length (Spurt in height) is reached at 18 weeks and peak
growth in weight (Spurt in weight) of the foetus is obtained at 34th post
menstrual week.
ii. From 36 to 40 weeks, the maternal uterus is fully occupied with a fully grown
foetus.
iii. The foetus will alternate between the periods of activity and periods of quiet.
iv. The organs increase their activity, the foetal heart rate increases rapidly.
v. Birth usually occurs approximately 280 days after the first day of the mothers
last menstrual period.
Value Addition:
Fetal growth and newborn length are similar across diverse geographical settings when
mothers' nutritional and health needs are met,and environmental constraints on growth
are low.(Jose Villar et al., 2014)
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25009082/

Fetal growth in different racial groups - https://europepmc.org/article/med/626515

Conclusion:
Growth refers to increase in size, number of cells and a quantitative improvement of the
human body and prenatal development comes to an end with onset of birth which can be
normal or assisted.

Sources: Telugu Academy, P Nath.

Link: https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/17134/1/Unit-3.pdf
https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Growth_Maturation_and_Physical_Activity/
VqFcFsykj6EC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=malina+growth&printsec=frontcover (Robert M.
Malina)

W5D4-Genetico-environmental factors affecting human growth. (20m)

Introduction:
Normal physical growth and development in humans are influenced by both genetic and
environmental factors. Growth refers to the quantitative changes in the body and its parts.

Body:
Genetic factors-
1. Genetic control of growth and development occurs as a result of coordinated events
largely controlled by genes.
a. Housekeeping genes - synthesize proteins required by all the cells.
E.g. cell membrane protein
b. Luxury genes - proteins of specific function and are activated only in certain
cells.
E.g. insulin gene
2. Central dogma of cell growth and division
a. Duplication of DNA for cell division
b. Transcription - synthesis of mRNA
c. Translation - synthesis of protein
With all this, cells increase either in number or in size.
3. Homeotic genes - Differential expression of different genes in different stages of
development leads to organ and tissue differentiation.
 4. Genetic abnormalities on growth - Genetic disorders occur when there are gene
abnormalities like mutation or chromosomal aberrations. E.g. Down’s syndrome.

Heredity -
1. Phenotypes - is influenced by genetic constitution apart from environment.
E.g. Height
2. Race - growth patterns differ in terms of races.
E.g. Caucasoid registers faster growth while Negroids and Mongoloids record
medium and lowest growth respectively.
5. Sex - Boys are longer than girls by birth but the growth spurt is more in girls as
compared to boys.
6. Biorhythm and maturation - Girls show similarities with their mother in relation to
age of menarche and length of menstrual cycle.

Environmental factors - Natural resources will aid in development and interplay with
heredity influencing human growth - Nature vs Nurture debate.
1. Natural Resources - Better socio-economic conditions and better resources
guarantee better growth and development.
2. Environmental stress - Allen’s rule and Bergmann’s rule
3. Prenatal - IUGR (Intrauterine growth retardation), drugs and hormonal influence
4. Postnatal - Nutrition - Infant mortality, Nutritional deficiency diseases
5. Infections and infestations - E.g. Covid-19
6. Emotional factor - Widdowson Case Study - children’s growth shows positive
correlation with the behaviour of the sister-in-charge
7. Migration - Japanese migrants to Hawaii showed increase in height and weight due
to the new environment of USA
8. Pollutants - Mothers and children's environmental health study investigating effects
of various pollutants like heavy metals, air pollutants on growth. (Surabhi Shah et
al., 2020)

Value Addition:
Environmental pollutants affecting children's growth and development:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412019333409

Conclusion:
The impact of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) on human growth and
development is equally essential. Heredity begins with a moment an egg is fertilized while
the role of environment begins with the birth of a child and both play their roles throughout
the life of a child.

Sources: P Nath, Telugu Academy

Link: https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/41690/1/MANE-002-B4.pdf

W5D5-Discuss the physiological and evolutionary theories of aging. (15m)

Introduction:
Perspectives of physiological and evolutionary theories of aging have attained increased
importance over the later half of the 20th century. Aging is a natural process that begins at
birth and progresses throughout one’s life and ends at only death.

Body:
Physiological theories of aging
1. Wear and tear theory - Vital parts in our cells and tissues wear out resulting in
aging.
2. Running down theory (or) Death gene theory - Aging is genetically programmed by
one or more harmful genes.
3. Free radical theory - Superoxide and other free radicals cause damages to
macromolecular components of the cell and eventually organs leading to
malfunctioning (Denham Harman, 1956)
4. Error theory - Emphasizes on environmental hazards to living organisms which
induce cumulative damage at various levels as the cause of aging.
Two categories -
● Non-programmed aging - based on evolutionary fitness
● Programmed aging - causes deterioration and death after optimum lifespan
 5. Histone theory - Histone binding to DNA becomes tighter in aging leading to
decrease in gene expression.
6. DNA damage and repair theory - DNA damage can contribute to aging either
indirectly by increasing apoptosis or directly by increasing cell dysfunction.
7. Collagen cross-linkage theory - Proteins, structural molecules develop detrimental
chemical bonds (cross links) to each other, resulting in increased tissue stiffness.
8. Rate of living theory - It is perhaps the oldest explanation of aging which is based on
metabolic rate.

Can innovate with flowcharts and diagrams:

Evolutionary theories of aging

1. Programmed death theory - Imply that aging follows a biological timetable.
2. Mutation accumulation theory - Gradual accumulation of mutation due to mutated
DNA polymerase impairing the functional capacities of tissues.
3. Antagonistic pleiotropy theory - It is the best accepted theory for the evolutionary
origin of aging according to which aging is a side effect of genes that are selected for
their contribution to fertility and other essential components of individual fitness.
Conclusion:
According to Hendricks (1995), gerontology has evolved considerably in the last 3-4 decades.
However, there is an imbalance between research data and development of theories at the
global level as well in the Indian context.

Sources: IGNOU, Telugu Academy, Internet

W6D1-Why Heath and Carter used anthropometric measurements instead of

photographs of an individual to assess the somatotype? Elaborate their method. (20m)

Introduction:
Anthropometry is the means of quantifying variation in body size, shape and is universally
accepted and applicable across fields. Heath and Carter developed their own somatotyping
system in 1967.

Body:
Sheldon’s method (1940’s) - determined that each person was a mix of endomorphy,
mesomorphy and ectomorphy of physique rather than belonging to a single form. He used
photographing techniques with a special attention for analysing 4000 male college students
to determine the spectrum of human physique variation.

Heath and Carter’s method varies from Sheldon’s method in that it assesses the body shape
or physique at a given time as opposed to Sheldon’s unchanging somatotype.

In Heath and Carter method, there are 3 ways to obtain the somatotype.
1. Anthropometric method, where the anthropometric measurements are used to
predict the somatotype criteria.
2. Photoscopic method, where to obtain the ratings, standard photographs are used.
3. Anthropometric plus photoscopic, where the combination of both develops a
criterion method.
Somatotype described by Heath and Carter’s method is a quantitative description of the
CURRENT shape and composition of the human body.

Heath-Carter Anthropometric Protocol to determine each measurement -

1. Endomorphy, is described as a total of 3 skinfolds - triceps, subscapular, suprailiac.
It refers to a person’s physique relative fatness.
2. Mesomorphy - calculates relative musculo-skeletal robustness using skin fold
thickness, calf circumference, etc.
3. Ectomorphy - reflects relative linearity or slenderness of the build. It is based on the
evaluation of the form and degree of longitudinal distribution of the first and
second components.

Methodology:
The ratings of the 3 components are based on various anthropometric measurements like
height, weight, triceps, skin fold, etc.
1. Endomorphy - 1-15
2. Mesomorphy - 1-12
3. Ectomorphy - 0.5-9

Evaluation and assessment:

1. It is highly objective as the results are dependent on the accuracy of measurements
taken.
2. Useful to explore spatial and temporal variation in body forms.
3. Females can also be subjected to measurements.
4. Can be increasingly used in ergonomics, design, defence equipment, and
kinanthropometry.

Limitations:
1. Endomorphy signifies fat free mass.
2. This method correlates ideally in terms of body fat, though fat free mass links poorly
with mesomorphy.
3. The variation in the duplicability of the somatotype components is directed by intra
and inter observer measurements.
 4. It is not proven to be effective or valid for children 6 years and below.

Conclusion:
Heath-Carter somatotyping has a wide range of applications in sports, sciences,
anthropology, human biology, child development and other fields because of which it is
commonly used across the world recently.

Sources: IGNOU, Internet

W6D2-Age at Menarche. (15m)

Introduction -
Menarche is the first menstrual cycle or first menstrual bleeding in females and also in
social and medical perspectives, it is often considered the central event of female puberty,
as it signals the possibility of fertility.

Body:
Age at Menarche
- Different ages ranging from 9-16 in the West considered as normal
- Asian population - 12.7 years
- Canada - 12.72 years
- US - 12.5 years
- UK - 12.9 years
- Istanbul, Turkey - 12.7 years

Menarche is the culmination of a series of physiological and anatomic processes of puberty.

1. Onset - estrogen induced growth of the uterus, especially the endometrium and the
outflow tract from the uterus leading to bleeding
E.g. Isolated premature menarche
2. Delay - primary amenorrhea

Factors influencing timing of menarche -

1. Genetic -
 a. similar menarche age of mother and daughter. E.g. Assamese girl - 13.2 years
b. Identical twin studies - variability of age at menarche in population is due to
genetic causes
c. Inheritance of menarche age - polygenic like height
2. Social Environment -
a. Low birth weight
b. Childhood obesity
c. Lack of physical exercise in childhood
d. Pre-eclampsia in the womb
3. Nutrition - the role of nutrition in puberty with respect to Indian states.
4. Climatic - less affected.
E.g. Nigerian girls - 14.3 years and Eskimo girls - 14.4 years.

Case study: A.M.Tripathi in 1987 - Surveyed from 1951-1985 - the lowest age of
menarche is found in the girls of Delhi - 11.2 years, Calcutta - 12.5 years, UP - 12.8
years. Highest age in Gujarat - 14.8 years Shukla et al, (1994) also found a similar
situation in rural and urban sports women.

Relation of menarche to fertility

1. Ovulation and Nubility
2. Anovulatory - 80% in the first year after menarche, 50% in the third and 10% in the
sixth
3. Early menarche - longer window of fertility
4. Late menarche - shorter window of fertility

Chronic illness
Early menarche may result in breast cancer and endometrial cancer.
Celiac diseases (reaction to gluten) may result in Late menarche.

Value Addition
https://www.healio.com/news/endocrinology/20220830/high-dheas-levels-linked-to-
more-advanced-pubertal-development-in-girls-but-not-boys
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-08577-3

Conclusion:
The timing of menarche is an important determinant of fertility and other chronic
outcomes based on the factors that influence onset of the menstrual cycle.

Sources: IGNOU, Internet

W6D3-Discuss the bio-social determinants of fertility and fecundity. (20m)

Introduction:
Fertility in demography refers to the actual birth performance of a group of women (or) to
the relative frequency with which the births occur in total population (or) in the population
exposed to it. Fecundity is the physiological capacity to reproduce.

Body:
Biological -
1. Age and proportion married - Young population is likely to have higher fertility (E.g.
UP) however the current trends of marriage age of girls is increasing, resulting in
low fertility (E.g. Kerala)
2. Sex - Frequency of sexual intercourse and Vitamin D helps in higher fertility.
3. Contraception - Measures which prevent fertilization such as use of contraceptive
pills or surgical interventions reduce fertility.
4. Induced abortion - Methods which cause termination of pregnancy in turn resulting
in reduced fertility.
5. Duration of fertile period ranges from menarche to menopause has a bearing of
fecundity of a woman.
6. Sterility - Males azoospermia, non-motility of sperm, low sperm count. Females -
amenorrhea, construction of oviducal funnel and fallopian tube along with physical
(or) psychological trauma.
 7. Intrauterine Mortality - Blood group incompatibilities.
8. Chromosomal Changes - Structural or numerical aberrations.

Social factors -
1. Age at marriage - Marriages of women in different societies - In Kerala and West
Bengal low, UP and Bihar high, results in low and high fertility respectively.
2. Polygamy - Is present in many societies
a. Polygyny - Naga, Gond, Baiga, Toda
b. Polyandry - Todas, Nayars, Nanjanad of Travancore, Thiyyas, Ezhavas,
Kammalars
3. Separation and Divorce - Psychological conflicts increase in divorce rates are greatly
affecting fertility.
4. Widowhood - Fertility is affected by the death of the husband of a woman.
5. Celibacy - Any woman either do not marry or perform homosexual acts thus
affecting fertility.
6. Postpartum abstinence - Wife and husband are separated for a longer period after
the birth of the child. Customs related to it also affect fertility.
7. Spacing practices - Children up to 3 years need constant attention which can be
achieved by spacing the pregnancy. Abstinence during the ovulation period will also
result in low fertility.
8. Family System - In joint families, fertility is generally high because there is always a
sufficient number of persons who can look after 2 or more children at a time.
9. Social customs and beliefs - Son Meta-preference is a custom in many societies due
to funeral pyre and other rituals related to the final rest of the soul which results in
more children notwithstanding the number of female children.
10. Higher desire for social capillarity - Dumont's hypothesis - as women are getting
educated, they aim for higher independent social status and avoid wasting time in
repeated pregnancies.
11. Rational approach - Parents verify their potentiality and ability to satisfy physical
and emotional needs of children and consequently decide the number of children.
12. Nutrition - Chronic malnutrition in Saharia, MP has led to early menopause and
thus lower fertility.
 13. Illiteracy and Superstitions - Children are viewed as a gift of God and hence many
neither use any contraceptive mechanism nor opt for termination of pregnancy.
14. High infant mortality rate in poor societies leads to high fertility to compensate for
the loss of 2 working hands.

Fecundity -
Fecundity is defined in 2 ways - it is the potential for reproduction in human demography
while in population biology, it is considered similar to fertility.

Deep insights from earlier studies:

Charles Darwin formulated a theory of Fecundity selection between 1871-1874 to explain the
widespread evolution of sexual sized dimorphism where females were larger than males.
Predictions -
1. Fecundity depends on variation in female size, which is associated with fitness.
2. Strong fecundity selection favours large female size which creates asymmetrical
female biased sexual dimorphism.

A lack of fertility is called infertility while a lack of fecundity would be called sterility.

Fecundity is important and well studied in the field of population ecology, though it is
studied from a neutral perspective. E.g. fecundity can increase or decrease the population
according to current conditions and certain social factors.

Conclusion:
With lifestyle changes like smoking and stressful life, it has become more important to
exhaustively study these two concepts.

Sources: P Nath, IGNOU, Internet

Link: https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/43759/1/Unit-3.pdf
Mini Test 5 - Structures
1. Ageing and Senescence (10m)
● Define ageing. E.g. Rockstein, 1977
● Senescence - Strehler (1962)
● Types of Ageing -
○ Cellular ageing
○ Hormonal ageing
○ Wear and tear ageing
○ Metabolic ageing
● Senescence and Causes
● Value Addition -
Ageing https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-
69892-2_29-1

Senescence
https://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/17/us/bernard-strehler-76-studied-the-
causes-of-aging.html
● Conclusion based on theories like disengagement, activity and continuity
theory.

2. Human adolescent growth spurt (10m)

● Robert M. Malina’s growth definition
● Brief stages of growth
● Highlight stage of adolescence (11-19)
● Height - spurt in boys - 10cm per year and spurt in girls - 8cm per year
● Puberty - girls (10-12); boys (12-14)
● Hormonal changes - thyroid hormones, androgens
● Development of secondary sexual characteristics - mammary gland,
menarche, etc. in females, hair on chest, face, change of voice, etc. in males
● Development of sex organs
● Value Addition - Adolescent growth spurt of height
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03014468900000422
3. Differentiate between child growth and development (10m)
● Tabulate differences between child growth and child development
● Factors -
○ Definition
○ Anatomical changes
○ Quantitative Vs. Qualitative changes
○ Growth and Development relationship
○ Psychological development - Jeremy Griffith
○ Social development - sense of identity
○ Sexual orientation - self care and self concept - cognitive development
○ Criticism - Robert Epstein - who states that an underdeveloped brain
is not the main cause of teenagers' turmoils.

4. Menopause and its impact (10m)

● Menstruation stops permanently
● Age - 45 to 50 - Raymond Pearl
● Impacts -
○ No longer possible to bear children
○ Cessation of estrogen secretion
○ Vaginal dryness
○ Insomnia
○ Hot flashes
○ Weight gain - increased fat level
○ Bone density decreases
○ Cardiovascular health - exposed to endogenous estrogen gives
protection in early years
○ Night sweats, etc.
● Evolutionary rationale - E.g Non-adaptive hypothesis - Selection shadow
hypothesis
● Grandmother hypothesis - menopause was naturally selected for humans
because it promotes the survival of grandchildren
● Conclusion
5. Demographic Transition (10m)
● Refers to change in population structure explained by birth and death rate.
● Historical significance: First proposed by Warren Thompson - 1929.
However, the first authentic theory was given by F.W.Notestein - 1945.
● Stages of demographic transition -
○ High population growth potential
○ Population explosion
○ Incipient decline
○ Stationary population

● Criticisms
○ Demographic transition is based on western societies but not the
whole world
 ○ No time frame provided
○ The misconception of adult population growth of the city
○ Missing link of population shrinkage
● Value Addition -
Demographic Transition Model
https://www.coolgeography.co.uk/A-level/AQA/Year%2012/Population/DTM
/DTM%20new.htm

Demographic Transition in India - Usha Ram and Faujdar Ram

https://oxfordre.com/publichealth/view/10.1093/acrefore/
9780190632366.001.0001/acrefore-9780190632366-e-223

W6D4-Critically examine Darwin’s theory of evolution in understanding evolution.

(20m)
Introduction:
Evolution is a process by which the population of organisms develop or acquire unique
traits and pass them from generation to generation which over long stretches of time leads
to new species resulting ultimately into the vast diversity of the biological world.

Evolution refers to change in gene frequencies.

Darwin:
Darwinism is a comprehensive theory of organic evolution which shows adaptive changes
and horizontal aspects of diversity. Darwin explained organic evolution in his book “On the
Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection” in 1859.

Factors influencing Darwin:

1. T.R.Malthus published an essay titled “On the Principles of Population” (1798) which
emphasized on population increase geometrically and food sources increase
arithmetically, which influenced Darwin to get the real clue of selection and struggle
for existence in the population.
 2. Sir Charles Lyell wrote a book entitled “Principles of Geology” (1830–1833) in which
he explained gradualism and uniformitarianism, which influenced Charles Darwin
with regards to the time period required for evolution.
3. Alfred Russel Wallace wrote a paper “On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart
Indefinitely from the Original Type” (1858) who came up with the idea of natural
selection independently but at the same time as Darwin.

Postulates:
Darwinism consists of 5 principles, which are -
1. Overproduction - living beings have an innate desire to produce more but
population remains the same due to predation, delicate and low viability, high
susceptibility against biotic and abiotic factors which reflects struggle for existence.
2. Variation and Heredity - Competition among organisms compel them to change
according to conditions so that they can utilize the natural resources and survive
successfully. This creates variation among the organisms.
Darwin had no accurate idea of variation. He mentioned four types of variation.
a. Individual variation
b. Sports (or) sudden variation
c. Variations due to use and disuse
d. Hybrid variation
3. Struggle for existence -
a. Intraspecific struggle - competition for food and space. (ecological niche)
b. Interspecific struggle - complex relation of struggle among plants and
animals
c. Struggle against environment - extreme climates
4. Survival of the fittest or natural selection - During the struggle for existence,
individuals with favourable characters and variation that are proved to be beneficial
in facing the hardship of the environment have a better chance of survival.
Fitness of a group or population is decided on two criteria -
a. Capacity of adaptation and pre-adaptation
b. Differential reproduction
 5. Origin of species (Modifications) - The adaptations are present and accumulated in
the individuals over the time and ultimately lead to emergence of new species from
the old ones.

Criticism:
Several objections were made to Darwin’s theory.
1. Darwinism accounts for the survival of the fittest but not for the arrival of the
fittest.
2. Darwin did not differentiate between somatic and germinal variance. He
considered all variations are heritable, however, only germinal variations are
heritable.
3. It cannot account for degeneracy of certain characteristics.
4. It does not explain the origin of variation.
5. Darwinism does not explain the effect of use and disuse of vestigial organs.
6. Darwin did not differentiate between the role of overspecialized organs and the role
of specialized organs in different organisms. In his words, overspecialized organs
are useful to organisms but it's far from the truth. E.g. Antlers of Irish deer cannot
be explained on the basis of natural selection.
7. Individual differences do not explain the evolution of terrestrial animals from
aquatic animals.
8. Darwin does not explain the mechanism of inheritance, which was given by Gregor
Mendel.

Conclusion:
Charles Darwin’s theory had a deep impact on understanding the evolution of human life
through the origin and adaptation of organisms which were brought into the realm of
science.

Sources: IGNOU, Telugu Academy, P Nath

Links: https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/41412/3/Block-2.pdf
W6D5-Elucidate how Darwin and Post-Darwin theories of evolution resulted in the
development of Synthetic theory of evolution. (15m)

Introduction:
Darwinism is a comprehensive theory of organic evolution which shows adaptive changes
and horizontal aspects of diversity. Darwin explained organic evolution in his book “On the
Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection” in 1859.

Nature of Darwin Theory -

The nature of Darwin’s theory is very simple yet scientific because of its formulations of
struggles for existence which have better chances of surviving and thus be naturally
selected.

5 Postulates of Darwin’s Theory -

1. Overproduction
2. Variation and Heredity
3. Struggle for existence
4. Survival of the fittest or natural selection
5. Origin of species (Modifications)

Darwin postulates emphasis on natural selection which will lead to speciation and be
adapted to physiological and biological conditions.

Supplementary Theories of Darwin -

1. Theory of Artificial Selection by humans - e.g. Race horses
2. Theory of Sexual Selection - e.g. Scent glands of mammals
3. Theory of Pangenesis (abandoned) - e.g. Variation

Darwin contributed to the basic framework of evolutionary theory based on which many
others like Herbert Spencer, August Weismann, Ernst Haeckel, Davenport, etc. continued
their experiments to support and provide evidence to Darwinism.

Post-Darwinism -
 1. Post-Darwinism accepted Darwinism in terms of universality of variation,
overproduction of organisms, and importance of natural selection but rejected
Darwin’s pangenesis theory.
2. August Wesimann made pangenesis untenable by presenting his work - Germ
Plasm theory.
3. According to them, natural selection by itself does not cause sudden genetic changes
but brings gradual changes.
4. They also considered cooperation among organisms as an important principle of
survival.

However, Post-Darwinism failed to explain evolutionary genetics, which led to Synthetic

theory of evolution which includes mutation theory, isolation theory, orthogenesis theory
and recapitulation theory.

Conclusion:
The synthesis between Mendelian genetics and natural selection resulted in development of
Synthetic theory of evolution as a combination of variation, inheritance and selection as
the base of evolution.

Reference diagram :
Sources: IGNOU, Telugu Academy, P Nath
Links: https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/41412/3/Block-2.pdf

W6D6-Describe the characteristics and various types of locomotion patterns among

the non-human primates. (20m)

Introduction:
Order Primates are mainly tree dwelling or arboreal, as a result they have experienced
changes or modifications such as locomotory organs, nervous system, sense organs, etc.
with various striking types of locomotion patterns among the non-human primates.

Characteristics:
According to George J Mivart (1873), primates are Unguiculate, claviculate, placental
mammals, with -
1. orbits encircled by bone;
2. three kinds of teeth, at least at one time of life;
 3. brains always with a posterior lobe and calcarine fissure;
4. the innermost digits of at least one pair of extremities opposable,
5. hallux with a flat nail or none;
6. a well-developed caecum;
7. penis pendulous;
8. testes scrotal;
9. always two pectoral mammae.

Locomotion Patterns (may use Diagrams):

There are different types of locomotion in living primates which includes terrestrial and
arboreal.
1. Vertical Clinging and Leaping - observed in Tarsier, Lemur, Galagos. Naper and
Walker considered this mode to be the basic form. When an animal is on rest, it is
clinging to a branch (E), keeping its body in a vertical position. When the animal is
moving, it leaps (F) landing on the second branch vertically. On the ground, they
move by hopping (G).
2. Brachiation - It is a suspensory behaviour in which hands and arms (D) are used as
main locomotory organs. It is also known as arm swinging locomotion.
a. Primitive brachiation - Primates use both the hands alternatively (H) and
turn 180 degrees while moving through a branch.
b. True brachiation - Animal jumps from a branch to another branch in which
both the hands are used. (C)
i. Modified brachiators - E.g. Orangutans, Chimpanzees, Gorilla.
ii. Semi-brachiators - E.g. New World Monkeys.
 3. Quadrupedalism - 2 sub types
a. Arboreal - walking and running on all 4 limbs along branches (A and B) of
trees. E.g. Lemurs and Lorises.
b. Terrestrial - moving on the ground (I) on all 4 limbs. E.g. Baboons,
Macaques, Apes. Palm and fist walking. E.g. Orangutan, Knuckle walking -
Chimpanzees and Gorilla

Conclusion:
Primates are masters of life in the trees primarily due to their grasping hands and feet. Life
in the trees requires a constant stream of body adjustments which are a result chiefly of
environment and body size.

Sources: Telugu Academy, Internet.

W7D1-Discuss different forms of primate social organisation. (15m)

Introduction:
Primate social organisation refers to the size (number of individuals), composition
(variation between sexes), cohesion (relating to proximity and bond strength) among
individuals living in a social association.

Body:
Social organisation - Living in social groups is one of the significant characteristics of
primate as they solve their major adaptive problems within the given social context.
They may be formed due to two main selection pressures -
1. Predation - to gain protection
2. Group life - to acquire adequate food sources efficiently

Different forms of social organisation (fission-fusion variable composition) -

1. Solitary individuals (Struhsaker, 1969) - E.g. a mother and her dependent offspring,
adult male and adult female
2. Family or monogamous pairs - E.g. a mated pair and their young ones
3. Multi-male groups - E.g. Several adult males, several adult females and their young
ones, offspring and several non-sexually active females
 4. Uni male groups
5. Single male group (Harem) - E.g. a single adult male and several adult females along
with offsprings (Garber, 1997)
6. All-female groups - E.g. several adult females along with their offsprings
7. All-adult male groups

Few observations -
1. For instance, in multi male groups of Macaques and Baboons, there is a clear rank
order among the adult males whereas it is absent in spider monkeys and
chimpanzees.
2. The nocturnal primates live in monogamous family groups (Clutton-Brock, 1989).
3. The diurnal species usually live in relatively large and stable groups.
4. Mating and paternal care are key to successful reproduction and formation of the
core of the social groups.
5. Females must take substantial commitment of time and energy for both pregnancy
and lactation once they have conceived which naturally leads females to emphasize
parental care.
6. Females in groups generally protect themselves by living in groups as a
consequence, the males usually compete for control over such groups of females.
E.g. Baboon, Macaque
7. Home range or territory is often described as an area which provides an animal or
group of animals with food.

Conclusion:
In order to understand humans and primates and their changing behaviour, emotions and
social organisations, it is important to study social organisation of non-human primates
and then extrapolate that to the humans.

Source: Telugu Academy, Internet

W7D2-Bring out the comparative anatomical features of man and apes. Discuss their
evolutionary significance. (15m)
Introduction:
Humans and apes though belong to the same order Primates, they differ in basic
anatomical characters which were observed over course of evolution.

Body:
Evolutionary significance:
Environmental (cultural) evolution discovered much later during the Pleistocene played a
significant role in human evolution observed via human transitions between subsistence
systems.
The most significant of these adaptations are:
1. bipedalism,
2. increased brain size,
3. lengthened ontogeny (gestation and infancy), and
4. decreased sexual dimorphism.
5. Other significant morphological changes included the evolution of a power and
precision grip, a change first occurring in H. erectus.
The relationship between these changes is the subject of ongoing debate.

Diagrams -
Value addition:
Morphological adaptation of the human foot for achieving
robust and efficient bipedal locomotion and models of the human and
chimpanzee feet.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8793834/

Critical evaluation:
Conclusion:
A common evolutionary history between humans and apes with similar adaptations to
common environment challenges is reflected in the limbs, locomotion, teeth and brain, etc.
are characterised by a number of morphological, developmental, physiological,
behavioural, and environmental changes.

Source: Telugu Academy, IGNOU

Link:
Cultural and biological evolution:

https://www.lenscience.auckland.ac.nz/en/about/teaching-and-learning-resources/
senior-biology-learning-resources/cost-of-human-evolution/cultural-and-biological-
evolution.html

Comparative anatomy of man and apes - https://youtu.be/H94CJsEI11Q

https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/65591/1/B-3U-11.pdf

W7D3-What are the physical and cultural characteristics of Homo erectus? Discuss its
phylogenetic status. (20m)

Introduction:
Homo erectus is the most long lived species of Homo for almost 2 million years. Homo
erectus meaning ‘upright man’ is currently an extinct species of genus Homo.

Discovery - The fossil was discovered by Eugene Dubois in 1891 at Java which he named as
Pithecanthropus erectus.

Subspecies -
1. Homo erectus erectus (Java Man)
2. Homo erectus pekinensis (Peking Man)
3. Homo erectus heidelbergensis
4. Homo erectus narmadensis (Narmada Man)
Geographical Distribution -

According to Out of Africa theory: originated in Africa (Richard Leaky and L.S.B.
Leaky) -> moved out of Africa -> reached Asia (Eugene Dubois, 1891 ) and certain parts of
Europe (Gabunja and Vekja, 1991).

Physical characteristics -
1. Height - 1.53-1.73
2. Weight - 50-70
3. Cranial capacity - 750-1260
4. Dentition - Parabolic dental arcade, large teeth, shovelled incisors, first molar is
largest
5. Taurodontism (extension of pulp cavity)
6. Sagittal crest reduced or absent.
7. Postcranial anatomy - Mastoid process and linea aspera are present, thus
confirming Erectus was bipedal.
8. No Chin.
Cultural Characteristics -
1. Tool traditions of Homo erectus - bifacial tradition 1st seen at Olduvai Gorge. It is
experienced in 2 stages, in Africa and Europe (Fagan, 1974).
a. Abbevillian - hand axe (Beals and Hoijer, 1969).
b. Acheulian - flaked tools
The most common tools are cleavers and hand axes for a variety of purposes -
cutting, scraping, digging, etc.
2. Use of fire - First evidence, charred bones were found at Swartkrans (South Africa).
The oldest known hearth is located at Escale, France.
3. Hunting - At Terra Amata, remains of mammoth along with those of deer, horses
were found and also several long broken bones of big animals at the sites like Zhou
Kou Dien and Kenya indicates perhaps the presence of division of labour and
communication.
4. Shelter - Hunters built full fledged shelters found at the site of Kalambo Falls which
suggest the use of temporary windbreaks for shelter. At Terra Amata, huts were
found and the floors were oval measuring 20 by 40.
Phylogenetic Status -
Initially, E.Dubois based on primitive traits like thick skull bones and prominent brow
ridge, the fossil was named as Pithecanthropus erectus and he proclaimed it to be the
missing link between Apes and Man. But later, John Napier, David Pilbeam reanalyzed the
fossils and tried to ascertain their phylogenetic status. B. Janush and others confirmed it to
be close to modern humans and is unanimously placed in the genus Homo.

Value addition:
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2015.0236

https://www.laprensalatina.com/million-year-old-homo-erectus-skull-found-in-china/

Conclusion:
Homo erectus' ability to make complex tools was possible because of the strength and
dexterity in its hands, which represents a significant transformation from previous
hominins to a species much more similar to modern humans.

Sources: Telugu Academy, IGNOU

Link: https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/65879/1/Unit-7.pdf

W7D4- Should we still distinguish between ‘classic’ and ‘progressive’ Neanderthals?

Discuss the controversy surrounding Neanderthal’s position in human evolution. (15m)

Introduction:
The Neanderthals are believed to be an intermediate stage between Homo erectus and
Homo sapiens. Ernest A.Hooton classified Neanderthals into Classical and Progressive
based on anatomical features.
Features Classic Neanderthal Progressive Neanderthal

Cephalic index Lower Higher

Forehead Receding Less receding

Vault of skull Lower Higher

Occipital region Protruding Less protruding

Supraorbital ridge Large and continuous Large and separation in the

middle

Surface of skull Rough Less rough

Face Long and prognathic Medium to short

 Shape of orbit Less rounded More rounded

Nose Broad and large Less broad

Upper jaw Projecting Not projecting

Teeth Always large Not always large

Body build Stocky Medium

Should we still distinguish between ‘classic’ and ‘progressive’ Neanderthals?

1. The more massive build of Neanderthals and other features such as flatter noses has
been interpreted as an adaptation to the harsh glacial climate of Ice Age Europe.
2. However, according to Bradley D.M., 2005, the morphological traits of Neanderthal
did not appear to be climatically forced.
3. Generous intermingling of Classical type and Progressive type amongst both cool
and warm Paleolithic climate (reconstructed ) limits the idea of mutual exclusivity.

Controversy surrounding Neanderthal’s position in human evolution:

Human evolution has been a subject of great speculation and controversy.
1. Praesapien model (Vallois, 1954) - Emphasizes existence of separate ancestors for
Neanderthal and Modern Humans during middle Pleistocene.
2. Pre Neanderthal model or Early Nean model (Howell, 1960 and Wilfrid Edward Le
Gros Clark, 1964) - Suggests that divergence of modern man and Neanderthal
occurred in Europe or adjoining areas during the end of middle Pleistocene.

Recent findings of Neanderthal Genome Project (2010) and other genetic studies suggested
that ancestors of modern humans may have mated with two distinct groups of archaic
humans - Neanderthals and Denisovans. Thus, the debate continues whether Neanderthal
and its types constitute a subspecies of Homo sapiens or a separate species altogether.

Conclusion:
Neanderthal fossils established the link in human evolutionary pathways which were
expedited in the 1970s with the introduction of molecular genetics. Using this technique
fossil records were reanalyzed and led to different models of classification.

Sources: Telugu Academy, Internet

W7D5-Critically evaluate the contesting theories of the emergence and dispersal of

modern Homo sapiens. (20m)

Introduction:
Human evolutionary trend is characterised by a number of morphological, developmental,
physiological and behavioural features when coupled with the evolutionary story of Homo
sapiens sapiens is really a biological autobiography of all humans.

Body: 3 main hypothesis:

(i) The complete replacement model (Out of Africa hypothesis):
1. British paleoanthropologists Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews (1988), is
based on the origin of modern humans in Africa and migrated into Eurasia and
replaced all populations which had descended from Homo erectus.
2. This theory proposes that anatomically modern populations arose in Africa within
the last 200,000 years, then migrated from Africa, completely replacing the
populations of Europe and Asia.
3. There could be no admixture of migrating African modern Homo sapiens with local
populations because the African modern humans were a biologically different
species.

Critical to this model are the following tenets:

1. After Homo erectus migrated out of Africa, the different populations became
reproductively isolated, evolving independently, and in some cases like the
Neanderthals, into separate species.
2. Homo sapiens arose in one place, probably Africa (geographically this includes the
Middle East).
 3. Homo sapiens ultimately migrated out of Africa and replaced all other human
populations, without interbreeding.
4. Modern human variation is a relatively recent phenomenon.

At the University of California: Scientists at Barkley, using mtDNA gathered from a

number of different populations, constructed “trees” that demonstrated that the entire
population of the world today descended from a single African lineage.

Using the same mtDNA material, other scientists constructed many trees that differed
from those of the Barkley group, and some of them are without African roots.

At Yale, Harvard, and University of Chicago: A team of researchers has investigated

variation in the Y chromosome, finding much less variation in humans than in other
primates.
(ii) The regional continuity model (Multiregional hypothesis): This model is most closely
associated with palaeoanthropologist Milford Wolpoff of the University of Michigan and
his associates.

The model proposes:

1. Some level of gene flow between geographically separated populations, prevented
speciation, after the dispersal.
2. All living humans derived from the species Homo erectus that left Africa nearly two
million-years ago.
3. Natural selection in regional populations, ever since their original dispersal, is
responsible for the regional variants (sometimes called races) that we see today.

According to Smith et al., 1989, local populations would not have evolved totally
independently but human speciation between the regional lineages maintained human
beings as a single, although obviously polytypic, species throughout the Pleistocene.
(iii) Partial replacement model: Proposed by Gunter Brauer of University of Hamburg,
postulates the earliest dates for the dispersal for African modern Homo sapiens at over
100,000 y.a.

1.Moving into Eurasia, modern humans hybridised, probably to a limited degree,

with resident archaic groups, and eventually replaced them.
2. The disappearance of archaic humans was therefore due to both hybridization
and replacement and was a gradual and complex process.
3. This model includes components of regional continuity, hybridization, and
replacement, with the emphasis on replacement.

Conclusion:
Anatomically modern human populations continue to evolve, as they are affected by both
natural selection and genetic drift. We now have ancient DNA analysis from Europe
(largely due to bottleneck effect) and Africa (natural selection). Scientists split support the
three hypothesis.

Reference diagram -
Sources: Ember and Ember, Internet
Link:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534714000470

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
21589761_The_Multiregional_Evolution_of_Humans

https://www.nature.com/scitable/content/out-of-africa-versus-the-multiregional-
hypothesis-6391/

Socio-Cultural Anthropology Answer Writing

W8D1- Q1) Discuss the historical and cultural contexts that led to superseding
ethnocentrism with cultural relativism in anthropology. (15m)
Introduction:
Franz Boas - historical particularism - cultural relativism.

Ethnocentrism W.G. Sumner - Folkways (1906)

Body:
1. Ethnocentrism E.g. Theory of cultural evolution
2. Malinowski’s Functional Aspect of Cultural Traits
3. Margaret Mead Ethnography - Adolescent female sexuality in Samoa.
4. James Lawrence Miller - Vertical and Horizontal Relativism - Moral Relativism
5. Cultural Relativism vs Ethnocentrism - Historical events -
a. Nazism
b. Colonialism
 c. Racism

Relevance:
Judging women’s cultural outfit - Hijab.

Criticisms:
1. Human rights issues Vs. Cultural relativism
2. UNHRC and Racism, Xenophobia
3. Use of chopsticks in Asian cultures at every meal to eat is strange, silly, or stupid
way according to Western countries.

Conclusion:
Significance of Cultural Relativism over Ethnocentrism in anthropological studies.

Sources: IGNOU and Internet.

https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/74519/1/Block-3.pdf

W8D1-Q2) Define the concepts of Status and Role in detail. (15m)

Introduction:
Ralph Linton - The Study of Man (1936) - Status and Role.

Body:
1. Status - Ascribed Vs. Achieved.
2. Role -
a. Classification of Roles - Linton, Nadel, Banton.
3. Roles in simple societies - age, sex, kinship
4. Roles in complex societies - social strata, specialisation of tasks.
 5. Relation between Status and Role - Radcliffe Brown’s “Structure and Function in
Primitive Society, 1952”.

Relevance:
Status elevation in Indian tribes -
1. Sanskritization
2. Head Hunting among Naga tribes
3. KL Sharma - Rajasthan - social mobility - rural bourgeoisie vs. older landlords

Conclusion:
Dynamics of changing social structure with emphasis on role and status of a given society.

Sources: IGNOU and Internet.

https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/66019/1/Unit11.pdf

W8D2-Ways of acquiring mate in tribal society. [PYQ-2018, 10m]

Introduction:
Structural-functionalists' views on marriage forms an important tool to study ways of
acquiring mates in simple societies.

G.P. Murdock - Marriage definition.

Body:
Majumdar - eight ways of Acquiring Mate

1. Marriage by Purchase and Negotiation

a. Acquiring mate by Purchase - E.g. Nuers, Ho’s
b. Acquiring mate by Negotiation - E.g. Mundas, Baigas
2. Acquiring mate by Exchange - E.g. Koya, Tivs
3. Acquiring mate by Service - E.g. Gond-lamini
4. Acquiring mate by Probation - E.g. Kukis
 5. Acquiring mate by Elopement - E.g. Oraons, Karbis
6. Acquiring mate by Trial - E.g. Bhils
7. Acquiring mate by Intrusion - E.g. Chenchus, Birhor
8. Acquiring mate by Capture - E.g. Nagas, Yanomamis

Conclusion:
Impact of modernisation, globalization in marriage systems on tribal cultures.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

W8D2-Incest taboo. [PYQ-2015, 10m]

Introduction:
Define incest taboo.

Tenets of incest taboo -

1. Directs sexual desire outside the family.
2. Forces people to marry outside the family.
3. Create a larger community.
4. Avoids inbreeding.
5. Prevents disruption in the family.

Effects of incest taboo -

1. Limits sexual competition.
2. Generally considered as a cultural universal.

Body:
Theories explaining Incest taboo -
1. Childhood familiarity theory - Westermarck
2. Psychodynamic theory - Sigmund Freud
3. Family disruption theory - Malinowski
4. Theory of Cooperation - Tylor, Levi Strauss
5. Inbreeding theory - Raymond Firth, William Durham, Ember

Conclusion:
What constitutes incest varies widely across cultures and its impact.

W8D3-Define family and critically examine Universality of Family. (15 Marks,

2015)

Introduction:
G.P. Murdock - ‘the family is a social group characterised by common residence, economic
co-operation, and reproduction. It includes both sexes, atleast two of whom maintain a
socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted’
Other definitions:
R.H. Lowie -defined family as a group based on material relations, rights and duties of
parenthood, common habitation and reciprocal relations between parents and children.

Ralph Linton - defined family as a group that involves marriage, rights and duties of
parents and children.

Body:
G.P. Murdock in “Social Structure (1949)” examined the institution of family through cross-
cultural analysis spanning 192 societies.
 fig:Families as constructed by George Peter Murdock

Major Functions:
1. Four essential functions -
a. Sexual
b. Economic
c. Reproductive
d. Educational (Socialisation)

2. Views favouring Murdock

a. Extended and joint families - at least one or two nuclear families
b. Malinowski’s Theory of Needs
W.N.Stephens identified shortcomings with Murdock’s definition, specifically the need for
common residence for the members of the nuclear family. E.g. Ashanti tribe

3. Views opposing Murdock

a. Sexual function - Kathleen Gough - Nayars, Ghost marriages, women-
women marriages
b. Economic function - Melford Spiro - Kibbutz, Israel
c. Socialization function - Matrifocal Negro families

Value Addition:
1. Sologamy defies all rules prescribed for universality of marriage.
2. Alternative experiments to the family -
a. Some of the communes in the US like Amish, Druckers, Shakers, etc. live in
communes.
3. Changing functions in family - Sudan (Khartoum case study), 2016 by Ebtihaj
Abaker Musa Adam, Hassan Mohammed Yousif -

https://www.ijsrst.com/IJSRST162318

Conclusion:
The family is a universal social group till family isn’t confined to its definition to the
conventional wife-husband-children unit.

W8D3-Explain the impact of feminist movement on universality of marriage and

family structure. (20 Marks, 2020)

Introduction:
Feminism definition and it’s impact on marriage and family.

Body:
Types of feminism -
1. Radical feminism - Ti-Grace Atkinson
2. Liberal feminism - JS Mill
3. Marxist feminism
Factors responsible for feminist movement -
1. Modern education
2. Industrialization & Urbanization
3. Constitutional & Legal Safeguards

Impact of Feminism on Family -

1. Effect on family structure
2. Conjugal role
3. Economic independence of women
4. Arlie Russell Hochschild - “The Time Bind, The Second Shift” - men and women - equal
working time but women still spend more time on housework
5. Destabilizing of family - Emotional labour - “The Managed Heart: Commercialization of
Human Feeling”
6. Voice to the voiceless against marital rape, oppression and domestic violence
7. Number of unmarried women increasing - Sologamy
8. Kristin Luker - effect of feminism on teenage women’s choice to bear children both
in and out of wedlock

Value Addition:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
247749405_A_Marriage_of_Inconvenience'_Feminist_Perspectives_on_Marriage

https://www.sundayguardianlive.com/lifestyle/9216-exploring-feminism-and-real-life-
impact-feminist-movement-india

Conclusion:
Radical feminism to gynocentrism emphasizes on a female perspective to guard female
interests which leads to different kinds of impacts on universality of marriage and
aberrations in family structure.
W8D4-Various types of descent. (15 Marks)
Introduction:
Meyer Fortes - Descent definition.

Concept of family property, wealth and structure of authority - regulates descent inorder to
maintain peace and social order.

Body:

Types of descent:
1. Unilineal descent
a. Patrilineal - Papuan, New Guinea
b. Matrilineal - Ashanti, Ghana
2. Bilateral descent - Himba, Namibia
3. Ambilineal descent - Kadar, Kerala
4. Parallel descent - Apinaje, Brazil
5. Cross descent - Nama, Africa
6. Double descent - Yako, Nigeria

Value Addition:
1. Matrilineal ultimogeniture - practiced by the Khasi people of Meghalaya.
Conclusion:
Descent rules are changing rapidly today as societies are increasingly exposed to other
cultures around the world and new economies. In addition, people may create or deny links
to particular ancestors in order to make their Geneology come out to their advantage.

W8D4-How did Radcliffe-Brown and Levi-Strauss study kinship in terms of social

structure? (15 Marks, 2019)
Introduction:
For Radcliffe-Brown the universal family created sentiments which took solidarity among
siblings to a larger grouping while Levi-Strauss stated the siblings can be linked through
the exchange of sisters in marriage.

Morgan inspired Malinowski, Brown, Levi Strauss through his “System of Consanguinity
and Affinity of Human Family (1871)”.

Body:
Radcliffe-Brown’s study of kinship in terms of social structure:
1. Views - structural functionalism as a basis of societal phenomena
a. Social structure -
i. Social relations of person to person. E.g. Kinship structure of any
society
ii. Differentiation of individuals by their social role. E.g. Men and
women
2. Kinship Orders with examples.
3. Case Study - Kinship Structure of Western Australian Tribal Society.
4. Contribution - African Systems of Kinship and Marriage (1950) - Masai of East Africa
- MENYE - unilineal descent.

Criticism:
1. A.L.Kroeber disagreed with Brown's placing of descent groups at the centre in
Australian studies.
 2. Functionalist model deciphered the real problems in societies rather than historical
understanding - clan model.

Levi Strauss’s study of kinship in terms of social structure:

1. Elementary Structures of Kinship (1949) - Alliance theory
2. 2 forms of structure -
a. Elementary Structure - positive marriage rules
i. Restricted exchange
ii. Generalized exchange
b. Complex Structure - negative marriage rules

Criticism:
1. Needham - Levi Strauss structuralism - concept of reciprocity and exchange as
facing distinctive opposition.
2. Louis Dumont - Structural theory in its limited arena on its own rises above the
prejudices of its own culture.

Conclusion:
Though Strauss’s alliance theory had much greater explanatory value than Brown’s
approach, its relevance in contemporary anthropological investigations have minimized
the curiosity in kinship studies to understand the diversity of kinship systems.

https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/anthropology/
02._social_cultural_anthropology_/17._kinship,descent_and_alliance_kinship_terms/et/
7135_et_et_17.pdf

W9D1-What are the characteristics of hunting and gathering economy (15 marks,
2018)
Introduction:
Define hunting and gathering economy.
connector:
4 broad groups major group being hunting and gathering economy.

Body:
Characteristics -
1. Oldest examples of economic activity known to mankind.
2. Nomadism and semi-nomadism.
3. Level of expertise - E.g. bows, arrows.
4. Use of fire - transformative power.
5. Simple economic resources - E.g. digging sticks, collection baskets for food, special
baskets for honey are used for gathering
6. doesn’t require a lot of capital investment - very low to no surplus
7. Gathering is most practiced in northern Canada, interiors of southeast Asia,
northern Eurasia, tropical Africa, and southern Chile.
8. While people who lived in extremely hot and extremely cold climate zones would
resort to hunting, it was observed that people who lived in harsh climatic conditions
preferred gathering over hunting.
9. The main strategy - accept low production goals and optimize the distribution and
use of resources.
10. Division of Labour is between sexes.

Value Addition:
1. Sahlins (1968) - ‘original affluent society’
2. Gordon V Childe - Neolithic revolution - transforming nature through plant and
animal cultivation and domestication

Conclusion:
Emile Durkheim noted hunting and gathering constitute the simplest form of human
socio-cultural life and conclude on its present forms.

links:
https://www.history.com/topics/pre-history/hunter-gatherers
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

W9D1-Debate between formalist and substantivist approaches (10 Marks, 2022)

Introduction:
The first rumblings of the formalist-substantivist debate can be heard in Bronislaw
Malinowski’s 1922 critique of Western economics in his studies of the economy of the
Trobriand Islands.

The ongoing debate over whether Western economic tools can be used for the study of
“primitive” economies was renewed by Melville Herskovitz and Frank Knight in 1941.

Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation (1944) - opposition between substantivist and
formalist economic approaches.

Body:
Formalist vs Substantivist - table.
1. Debate 1 - Insufficiency, Scarcity and Choice
2. Debate 2 - Types of Economy
3. Debate 3 - Forms of Trade, Money Use and Market Elements

Criticisms of Formalist -
1. Principle of profit maximization is not universally applicable.
2. Any behaviour that does not maximize utility based on available means as irrational

Criticisms of Substantivist-
1. Prattis says the strict distinction between primitive and modern economies in
substantivism is problematic.
2. Plattner says in the age of globalization - no pure pre-industrial societies left.
Conclusion:
Beginning of the formalist and substantivist debate laid strong foundations for the
application of economic principles to simple societies which later on were evident in tribal
and global economies.

Links:
https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/76985/1/Unit-2.pdf
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-esc-culturalanthropology/chapter/economics/

W9D2-Mention the characteristic features of band with suitable examples. (15

marks, 2017)
Introduction:
Morton Fried, in his 1975 study, The Notion of the Tribe, defined bands as small, mobile,
and fluid social formations with weak leadership that do not generate surpluses, pay taxes
or support a standing army.

Body:
Characteristic features of Band -
1. Way of Living in Band Society-’Band societies’ - food foraging.
Eg: Eskimos in Alaska.
2. Nature of society - little to no formal leadership and egalitarian societies
Eg: San people of Southern Africa and Shoshone of the Great Basin
3. Leadership - Informal leadership eg: Bigman Melanesian society.
4. Power - informal leader does not possess power and could not compete with others
and can only give advice. Eg: Santhals
5. Decision making is always done by consensus in the tribal societies.

Law in Band Societies -

1. Disputes are typically resolved informally.
2. No formal mediators or any organisational equivalent of a court of law.
 3. Among the Inuit, for example, disputants engage in a duel using songs in which,
drum in hand, they chant insults at each other before an audience.
4. The Mbuti of the African Congo use ridicule; even children berate adults for laziness,
quarrelling, or selfishness. If ridicule fails, the Mbuti elders evaluate the dispute
carefully, determine the cause, and, in extreme cases, walk to the center of the camp
and criticise the individuals by name, using humor to soften their criticism—the
group, after all, must get along.

Warfare in Band Societies -

1. Conflict does sometimes break out into war between bands and, sometimes, within
them.
2. Such warfare is usually sporadic and short-lived since bands do not have formal
leadership structures or enough warriors to sustain conflict for long.
3. Among the Tiwi of Australia, for example, failure of one band to reciprocate another
band’s wife-giving with one of its own female relative led to abduction of women by
the aggrieved band, precipitating a “war” that involved some spear-throwing.

Value Addition:
Band Fissioning - As the number of people in a band increases ,the potential for disruptive
interpersonal conflicts rises. As a result, the tendency of some families to leave the band
and to form their own band increases. Richard Borshay Lee (studied among Ju/’hoansi
bushmen of Africa) calls this process social velocity.

Conclusion:
Though they live in harmony with the environment as a community and satisfying their
basic needs, they barely qualify as a form of political organization because groups are
flexible, leadership is ephemeral, and there are no signs or emblems of political affiliation.

W9D2-How do political organisations of simple societies establish power,

authority and legitimacy? (20 marks, 2021)

Introduction:
Political organization refers to the way by which a society maintains social order, cohesion
and the purpose of public decision making and deals with power distribution and
establishment in the society.

Connector : Elman R. Service in Primitive Social Organization (1962) - political character of

societies that recognized four levels of socio-cultural integration: band, tribe, chiefdom,
and state.

Body:
Band Organization:
Societies made up of nomadic small groups (< 100) -> each group is a band -> politically
autonomous.
➢ Resources: Population of hunter and gatherers - oldest form of political
organization.
➢ Membership: Loose association with territory, can seek membership in the next
territory.
➢ Political decision making: informal - headman through community’s recognition
for special skills.
➢ Authority: not centralized.

Examples:
1. In Inuit bands, each settlement may have its headman due to the virtue of good
judgment and communication skills.
2. Kung society headman’s chief duty is to plan when and where the band will move in
relation to their consumption of resources.

Tribal Organization:
Tribal groups are usually larger in size than band societies.
➢ Resources: eg: horticulture and pastoralism.
➢ Membership: eg: Form impermanent and informal pan-tribal associations.
➢ Political decision making (Informal leadership): open to all.
Eg: Tribal headman or head woman formally recognized as leader.
➢ Authority: not centralized.
Examples:
1. Nuer tribe, Sudan (Evans-Pritchard) - Nuer tribes have no regularized authority, no
laws or lawgivers. The position most closely resembling political office is that of the
Leopard-skin Chief. His main function, in addition to certain ritual duties, is to
mediate feuds.
2. Age-sets as political organization among Karimojong of North-Eastern Uganda:
Allocates each individual a place in the system establishing an appropriate pattern
of response. Political leaders are not elected from among the elders of a particular
age-set, nor are appointed but they acquire their positions informally.
3. Big man of New Guinea (man of influence) - acquired followers by doing favors they
cannot possibly repay, such as settling their debts or providing bride-wealth. The big
man has no power to coerce - force followers to pay the debt owed.

Chiefdom Organization:
Number of local communities are integrated into a more formal and permanent political
unit.
➢ Resources: Majorly agriculture.
➢ Membership: socially stratified, the prestige of the chiefs and priests being the
highest.
➢ Political decision making: Chief - formal, hereditary and permanent.
➢ Authority: centralized.

Examples:
1. In Fijian chiefdoms, the chief was responsible for the redistribution of goods and
the coordination of labor.
2. Chiefs were identified as God figures responsible for agricultural prosperity and
social welfare as seen in In Hawaiian societies.
3. Chiefs were believed to have inherent qualities in their blood. A high-ranking chief
in Polynesia inherited a special religious power called mana. Mana sanctified his
rule and protected him.

Elman Service saw chiefdom as one of the necessary steps towards the state.
Conclusion:
With modern political systems being dominant and changing socio-economic conditions,
the political systems of simple societies are under threat of sustenance. Thus, we need to
recognise and preserve the traditional political systems in simple societies.

W9D3-How does customary law function in tribal society? Discuss its different
sources. (15 marks, 2018)

Introduction:
According to Malinowski, customary or primitive laws are binding rules of the various
forces which make for order, uniformity and cohesion in a tribe that defines right and
reasonable behaviour.

Body:
Nature and function of Customary Law:
1. Oral tradition, therefore it is difficult to know all customs of a land.
Eg: negotiation and mediation by Melanesian Big man by Sahlins.

2. Primitive law is governed by kinship ties.

Eg: Affinal kins, exogamy, endogamy and incest laws.

3. Primitive law is based on moral principles and public opinion.

Eg: Adjudication in Santhal and Munda village councils.

4. The oath and ordeals are the main mode of evidence.

Eg: oath - chants of “Dharm” and ordeal to prove innocence in Santhal.

5. Punishment is awarded in the shape of fine, excommunication, isolation, communal

feast etc.
Eg: excommunication for serious crime in Santhals called “Bitlaha”

6. Breach of law is taken as to affect not only to an individual but also to the whole tribal
society.
Eg: C.G. Crawford in “Handbook of Kuki Custom" as inheritance, land hire, divorce price,
seduction, slave price, loans and oaths etc.

Sources of tribal customary law and their functions:

1. Oral customary laws in Nature eg: Fijian societies.
2. Customary Law and Mechanism of Reciprocity eg: Dongoria kondh(odisha).
3. Solidarity and uniformity as Internalized Norms eg: sentinelese
4. Mediation and Reconciliation eg: Garo
5. Gradual Evolution eg: PESA and schedules
6. Invention eg: tribal communities in Malawi and Zambia.

Value Addition:
Among khasi, the wealth is two types.
1. Hereditary/ancestral (Nongtymmen): Only “Khatduh” the youngest daughter
inherits this property from the mother.

2. Non hereditary (Nongmei-nongpa) : Distributed among the siblings.

Khasi men are unhappy with this customary law.
“ Syngkhong Rympei thymmai” is a group fighting against the matrilineal
system and particularly this practice.

Conclusion:
KS Singh provided a comprehensive account on tribal ethnography, customary law and
change as customs and traditions are viable, living doctrines that grow with the
community and modern times.
W9D3-Discuss the mechanism of social control in different kinds of political
systems. (20 marks, 2022)
Introduction:
Social Control is that mechanism by which a community or group operates as a whole and
maintains a changing equilibrium.

Connector: E.A.Ross was the first American sociologist to deal with this concept of social
control in his famous book”social control” published in 1901.In fact,it was he who first used
the concept of ‘social control’ in sociological discussion.

Body:
Radcliffe brown (Structural functionalism) → social control → re-establish social
equilibrium→ continuity of social structure.

Need for Social Control:

1. To maintain continuity and uniformity in society.
2. Regulation of Individual Social Behavior in accordance with the social objectives
and social values
3. Obedience to Social Decisions
4. To create the feeling of solidarity in the minds of people
5. To bring Conformity in Society.
6. To Check Cultural Maladjustment

Mechanisms of Social Control:

1. EA ROSS: Social groups exercise social control through methods such as public
opinion, law, custom, religion, morality, personality, folkways and mores.
2. E.C. HAYES: Education →most effective; Family→ most significant agency.
3. KARL MANNHEIM; Distinguished b/w direct and indirect means of social control.

Internal Mechanisms of Social Control:

1. Individuals conform to moral standards not just because they know what
they are but also because they have internalized these standards.
2. Any violation →Feel Discomfort and guilt.
3. It operates on the individual even in the absence of reactions by others.
External Mechanisms of Social Control:
These include other people’s response to individual behaviour through rewards and
punishment.
1. Formal
2. Informal

Formal mechanisms of social control:

1. Exercised by known and deliberate agencies of social control. i.e. law , constitution
etc.
2. Followed by modern state societies.
3. Exercised by formal and institutionalized authority.

LAW: According to EDUCATION: Education COERCION:

Professor Holland “a inculcates moral, Followed by many societies
general rule of external intellectual and social to control deviant behavior.
action enforced by a values in individuals. Eg. coercion by state to
sovereign political I.e. socialization. maintain social order
authority” through harsh laws.
It is uniform and is meant
for all.

Informal mechanisms of social control: Internalized norms and values:

1. FOLKWAYS: Folkways are norms to which individuals conform. It is customary to

do so. E.g standing in a queue at cash counter
2. MORES: Mores refer to moral conduct.They influence the value system of a society
and are in the form of social regulations which aim to maintain social order
3. CUSTOMS: Customs are the long established practices of people, which occur
spontaneously but gradually In simple societies, customs were powerful means of
social control.
4. RELIGION: Emile Durkheim defines religion as the unified system of beliefs and
practices related to sacred things. Those who have common beliefs and practices are
united into one single moral community through religion.
 5. REVENGE : Murder by Murder e.g : Tiv
6. MAGIC AND WITCHCRAFT
7. SOCIAL SANCTION : According to R. Brown: a reaction on the part of a society or of
a considerable number of its members to a mode of behavior which is thereby
approved (positive sanctions) or disapproved (negative sanctions)”
E.g : Ao-Nagas:Individual who hunt greater no of heads achieve higher status- a
positive sanction
Eskimos-punishment for man who steals another man’s wife is ,he is ridiculed in
nasty song made by injured man
Among Nagas eating of Goat meat is prohibited-who ever breaks this taboo his hair
becomes prematurely gray.

Value Addition:
1. According to Maine and Durkheim (Theories of Social control)- where the
contractual relations in terms of exchange of Goods and services do not exist
among members, social control can be achieved by universally acknowledged
 behavior i.e customs . In the case of complex societies, contractual relationships
take the form of civil law.
2. According to Malinowski, factors promoting conformity are the same across all
societies, he highlighted Reciprocity as the universal basis of social order.

Conclusion:
Morris Janowitz(1975) and Jack Gibbs (1994) have attempted to keep the broad
understanding of social control in the functions of foundation of social order alive. Yet, the
more delineated understanding of social control in terms of deviance and/ or crime
remains by far the most widespread.

W9D4-Critically explain the anthropological approaches to religion. (15 marks, 2019)

Introduction:
Anthropology of religion has been concerned with the significance of religion and its role in
the life of people,in belief and practice.

Body:
Anthropological approaches to religion:
1. Evolutionary approach:
a. E.B. TYLOR, Primitive Culture (1871),→ religion is a cultural universal
⇒animism - earliest and most basic religious form

ANIMISM⇒ POLYTHEISM⇒ MONOTHEISM

● HERBERT SPENCER ⇒ ancestor worship is earliest form

● JAMES FRAZER, The Golden Bough (1890)
Religion is an evolved form of magic.
 MAGIC ⇒ RELIGION ⇒ SCIENCE

Criticism:
1. No first hand experience.
2. Avoided systematic study of culture in totality

2. Psychological approach:
● Freud attributed development of religion to subconscious psychological conflicts.
○ I.e. conflict between father and son ⇒ creation of totem based on “oedipus
myth”.
● Kardiner⇒ religious institutions -basic personality

Criticism:
* Considered religion as an illusion.

3. Functionalist Approach
● Durkheim- religion - institution of social integration.
● Malinowski (magic science and religion,1925) psychological functionalism-
religious acts fulfills- psychological need-adjustment between man and
supernatural.
● Radcliffe-Brown (1922) the andamanese islanders ,
Religion integrates -society and Rituals - solidarity of the group.
● M.N. Srinivas (1952) study of society and religion among the Coorgs.
Rituals=solidarity among different sections.

Criticism:
● Overlooked changes.
● Social structure - fallacy of misplaced concreteness.

4. Structuralist approach: Religion - postulation of universal logical pattern of human

mind.
 1. Levi Strauss:
● Grammar of mind - universal psychological process - gives rise to social structure.
● Explains myth is a language -product of unconscious mind
● Religion- product of- binary opposition.

2. Dumont (In Indian context):

● Religion manifested in worship of village deities.
● He finds opposition between purity & impurity & their interdependency in religious
thoughts.

Criticism :
1. overemphasis on systemic analysis ignoring Historical Reconstruction.
2. Is language like pattern in culture universal?
3. Study of minds is too subjective.

5. Symbolic approach : Evans Pritchard(1956) first recognized Symbolic aspect of religion.

1. Victor Turner :
● His work on Ndembus religious life which consists many rituals & are mainly
of 2 types ie
a) lifecycle crisis ritual
b) Ritual of affliction
● Every Act & performances in ceremonies replete Symbolic meanings.

2. Mary Douglas :
● Sacred engraves the mind of the worshipper.
● Symbols carry meaning only when interrelated with each other.
● Religion - study of such symbols & their meanings.

3. Clifford Geertz :
● Proposes Religion as part of the cultural system.
● Symbols -vehicle of conception.
● Conception of religion - system of meanings attached to the people.
Criticism :
1. Overemphasis on symbols.
2. Unscientific & unverifiable interpretation of symbols.

Value Addition:
Neo-Buddhism

Conclusion:
Though each of these approaches gave valuable insights about religion,they did not explain
it in totality.Biological,neurological and cognitive approaches are gradually gaining
popularity,and may dominate future studies of religion.

W9D4-How do you relate the concepts of Sacred and Profane in Durkheim’s theory of
religion with a focus on the role of totem. (15 marks, 2015)
Introduction:
The Sacred-Profane dichotomy is given by Emile Durkheim in his book The Elementary
Forms of Religious Life (1912).

Body:
Durkheim criticized Animism and Naturism and considers Sacred and Profane as central
to religion.
Sacred vs Profane - Table.

Totemism:
1. Certain objects (plant, animal) - kinship relations - social groups - give identity.
2. Sacred totemic emblem symbolized the clan.
3. Origin - tribal lifestyle.
a. Social gatherings > effervescence > heightened emotions > belief in sacred >
totemism
4. Prohibitions -
a. Totemic entity > kin > too sacred to be eaten.
Role of Totem - Arunta tribe, Australia:
1. Totem -
a. Emblem of the clan.
b. Visible form of the totemic principle.
c. Worship totem - society > individual
d. Mark objects in Arunta rituals (stones, pieces of wood) - called Churingas.
2. Sacredness conferred on Churingas -
a. Distinction from profane.
b. Had powers - cure illness.
3. Sacredness of clan - use blood in rituals and paint totemic emblem.
a. Old men more sacred > younger ones.

Criticisms:
1. Jack Goody criticized Durkheim’s claim of universality of dichotomy.
a. Many societies - no words for sacred and profane.
2. Evans-Pritchard argued that among the Azande of Central Africa, sacredness might
be situational.
3. W. E. H. Stanner found the distinction was impossible to apply unambiguously in
studying Australian religion.

Value Addition:
Secularization of totems due to modernization:
The transition from sacred to profane:
Eg. River Ganga.
Eg. Temples.

Conclusion:
Sacred-profane binary gave a new dimension to understanding religion and utilized by
anthropologists like L.P. Vidyarthi to study sacred complex.
W9D5-Animism and Deep ecology. (2021 10M)

Introduction:
E.B. Tylor in his"Primitive Culture (1871)" stated that Animism, belief in Anima (soul), is the
early form of religion.

Deep ecology, coined by Arne Naess (1973), is an ecocentric concept based on the
interconnectedness and equal value of all life organisms.

Body:
Animism and Deep Ecology:

➢ In Animism, experiences of death, disease, visions and dreams, led primitives to

think about existence of soul, which is projected onto animate & inanimate objects.
➢ Deep ecology goes beyond the individualism of Western culture towards also seeing
ourselves as part of the Earth.

Reconciliation between both:

1. Rejection of anthropocentrism
a. Highlights inherent value of all living beings.
2. Humans are part of nature
a. Protect all life on Earth as protecting self.
3. Transformation in ways people interacted with nature
a. Preserve ecological and cultural diversity.
4. Ecological egalitarianism
a. All life has right to exist.

Diversion among both:

1. Animism is about specific, context-bound relations.

a. Appropriate in one place, baffling elsewhere.
2. Deep ecology is more exhaustive.
a. Temporally extensive cultural change.

Relevance:
Animism and deep ecology to heal widespread environmental degradation -
● Establish relationships beyond human realm.
● Relate to things within environment as if it was animate.

Examples:

1. Bishnois, Jodhpur - Blackbuck (reincarnation of Guru) - can’t tolerate killing.

They’re important in ecology.
2. Urarina, Amazon - Wetland spirits indirectly benefit conservation of wetlands.
They’re valuable in themselves and have the right to continued existence.

Value Addition:
Neo-Animism in Pursuit of SDGs

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0148296322004684

Conclusion:
Thus the integrated application of the concepts of Animism and Deep ecology can aid in
ecological restoration.
W9D5-Distinguish between religion, magic and science. (20Marks 2013)
Introduction:
Sir James Frazer in his work the golden bough (1890-1915) attempts to delineate the
intellectual boundary between magic, religion and science and proposed an evolutionary
sequence from magic to science.

Body:
Frazer-Magic is a technique designed to achieve specific goals manipulating the
supernaturals

E.B.Tylor-Religion is belief in “Supernatural”.

Science is defined as the observation ,identification,description,experimental

investigation and theoretical explanation of natural phenomenon.

Religion & Magic

Malinowski-Magic and Religion belong to the area of Sacred.

Similarities between R-M

W.J Goody in his work “religion among primitive”came up with the idea of the Magic
religious continuum.
Example :
*Religion and magic among Tikopia studied by Raymond Firth.

*In the Dahomey tribe the same person performs magic and religion studied by
Herskovitz.

Differences between Religion & Magic

Feature Religion Magic

1. Notion of god Supernatural entity Hierarchy of spirits

controlling natural & social
order

2. Nature of goal Non-utilitarian & collective Utilitarian & individualistic

3. Practitioner’s Priests < Gods Magician > Spirits

position
 4. Relationship priest-follower professional-client
between practitioner
& follower

5. Condition of Emotionally involved No emotion for the client

practitioner E.Pritchard> psychology of
magician changes in
Azande Tribe

6. Nature of ritual Done in Public & daytime Done in secrecy & mostly in
night

7. Goal of the ritual Positive & moral Can Be positive & negative
both

8. Significance Social integration Divisive force in society

Religion & Science

Similarities between R-S

Differences between Religion & Science

Feature Religion Science

1. Belief system Closed Open

2. Nature of belief Sacred secular

3. Rationale Can't be questioned Open to questions

4. Rigidity Not open for empirical open

testings

5. Nature Collective Individualistic

6. Degree of emotion High None to less

involved

7. Effects on society Social welfare Benevolent or malevolent

8. Position An end in itself Goal oriented & dynamic

Magic & Science

Similarities between M-S

Differences between Magic & Science

Feature Magic Science

1. Working sphere Supernatural world Natural world

2. Based on Wrong assumptions Truth & logic

Frazer> Bastard sister of
science

3. Attitude Expectation-uncertainty Fact oriented

4. Assumptions Occult causes Natural causes

5. Psyche Excludes verification Conclusion only after due

verification
 6. Laws applied Illogically Logically

7. Nature of the Secret public

practices

8. Causes of Failure Counter magic by Inadequate knowledge

competent magician

Value Addition:

1.Dual-use research of concern (DURC):

Science with potentiality of both Benefit and harm - Intentional or Accidental

1.Viruses- Genitically modified versions with more virulence in laboratory- bio-terrorism

2.Pharma R&D -E.g: Aerosol Method - biological weapons such as Anthrax

3.Nuclear weapons,Information technology etc

https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/what-is-dual-use-
research-of-concern#:~:text=Dual%2Duse%20research%20of%20concern%20(DURC)
%20describes%20research%20that,including%20engineering%20and%20information
%20technology .

4.Can Religion and science co-exist?

https://www.ineos.com/inch-magazine/articles/issue-7/debate/

Conclusion:
Although magic, religion and science all three are different in their belief and practices
there exist certain overlapping aspects which can be attributed to the psychosocial pursuits
of man.

W10D1-Critically evaluate Morgan’s classification of family. (15 marks, 2021)

Introduction:
Lewis Henry Morgan in his "Ancient Society (1877)" stated that the concept of family was
not prevalent in the early societies and the mother-sib was the earliest form of grouping in
them.

The principal institutions of mankind originated in savagery, developed in barbarism, and

are maturing in civilization. In the same manner, family passed through successive forms.

Body:
Morgan gave the first classification of five forms of family based on five different types of
marriage -

Stage of Evolution - Family Table.

Although Morgan’s theory has been criticized for being speculative and ethnocentric, his
evolutionary theory influenced the development of anthropology.

1. Morgan outlined the importance of the study of kinship systems for

understanding social organizations.
2. Morgan conducted cross-cultural research that attempted to be
systematic and large-scale.
3. Morgan organized anthropological data and formulated the evolutionary theory
rather than simply collecting cultural data.

Evaluation:

1. Henry Maine - patriarchal family came first and later matriarchal family came.
2. Westermarck - family emerged due to male possessiveness and jealousy.
a. The History of Human Marriage (1922) - growing concept of property, males
started institution of family to protect and safeguard their property.
3. Tylor - Couvade didn’t feature in Morgan’s scheme.
4. McIver - Certain developed societies like Pueblo Indians are still matriarchal.
 5. Morgan’s evolution of family has been criticized to be based on artifacts of his own
imagination.
a. No evidence for kin terms currently in use reflects a past stage (Iroquois
classificatory system)

Conclusion:

Despite these criticisms, Morgan’s contributions are considered integral to the study of
kinship and family.

W10D1-Historical Particularism and Franz Boas. (10 marks, 2021)

Introduction:

Franz Boas was an American anthropologist who pioneered the concept of historical
particularism as a response to comparative methodology of evolutionists in his work
“Limitations of Comparative methods” in 1896.

Body:

Historical particularism: Coined by Marvin Harris(1968) and it’s considered to be the first
American anthropological school of thought.
Inference: It rejected the idea of psychic unity, hierarchical arrangement, unilinear
evolutionism and sweeping generalizations of classical evolutionists.

Contributions of Boas:

1.Emic ideology over eticism.

2. Literary contributions:

2a) Central Eskimo(1888)-Geographical Determinism

2b) Kwakiutl text- Diffusionism

2c) The Mind of Primitive Man(1911)-Socio-psychological approach in tribal

Anthropology
3. Highlighted cultural relativism vis-a-vis the prevailing ethnocentrism.

4.He introduced Museum Methodology under historic studies.

5.He trained a generation of anthropologists.

6.As an Activist Boas was the voice for voiceless during WW-1, XenophobiaJingoism etc.

Historical particularism and Boas: Boas stressed the need of regional studies of individual
cultures,and their reconstruction of cultural Histories the basis of extensive study in a
holistic manner–

1. Oral history,tradition(salvage ethnology)

2. Ethnographic method such as participant observations
3. linguistic evidence later the laid foundation for various branches of anthropology.

Criticism:
1. Only apt to study primitive societies rather than complex ones.
2. Boas criticized over emphasis on facts and field and a relative inability to theorize
concepts, obsession with data collection, complete disdain of comparative
approach.

Value Addition: Neo Boasianism.

Conclusion:
Despite criticisms, Franz Boas and his historical particularism contributed significantly in
the form of cultural relativism and ethnographic studies which form the basic philosophy
of modern anthropology.

W10D2-Basic tenets of structural-functionalism. (10 marks, 2017)

Introduction:
Radcliffe-Brown, chief pioneer of the British School of Structural Functionalism,
was influenced by Emile Durkheim’s concept of structure and function in a
society.

Body:

Basic tenets of Structural-functionalism:

1. Social Structure -
● Described by Radcliffe-Brown in his book “Structure and Function in
Primitive Society” (1952).
● Arrangement of persons in relation to each other.
E.g. Tsonga and Bantu tribes, South Africa - Lokala (bride-price) -
provides economic aid to bride’s relative

2. Social Institution in Social Structure -

● Provide status and roles guided by norms and values. E.g. Family
● Continuing arrangement of persons - structural continuity. E.g.
Western Australian Social Structure
 3. Types of Social Structure -
● Actual - Relations of persons change from time to time. E.g. Birth,
Death
● General - Relatively constant for a long time. E.g. Village

4. Socio-cultural Laws -
● Fundamental laws governing the social structure.

5. Social Structure and Economic Institutions.

6. Social Structure and Religion.
7. Social Structure and Social Organisation.
8. Social Structure and Function.

Criticism:

1. Edmund Leach in "Political Systems of Highland Burma" (1954) - political

leaders manipulating the political structures of their communities, not the
other way around.
 2. Absence of any concrete function - analysis done on imagination.
3. Organic analogy open to question - society is subjected to changes.
4. Fails to explain cultural variation.
5. Evans-Pritchard argued one cannot ignore individual histories of a society
while analyzing the systems of their cultures.

Conclusion:
Structural-functionalism proved instrumental to anthropologists like
M.N. Srinivas to study Indian social system with a structural-functionalist lens.

W10D2-Functionalism. (10 marks, 2016)

Introduction:
In response to the fallacy of evolutionism, diffusionism & historicism of the early
20th century, Functionalism emerged which explains culture as a need satisfying
mechanism and a tool to sustain social structure.

Body:

Basic Premises Of Functionalism ;

Culture
1. Functional instrument for achieving human needs
2. System of objectives, activities in which every part exists as means to an
end
3. Integrated whole
4. All culture traits & institutions are integrated & interrelated

Adam Kuper (1973) thinks that 1922 was the “Year of wonder” of Functionalism as
2 monographs substantiated the functional approach i.e. 1) “The Andaman
Islanders” by RC Brown 2) “Argonauts of the Western Pacific'' by Malinowski.
Types of Functionalism
1. Biocultural Functionalism of Malinowski
Institutions operate to satisfy individual needs & that of
society as a whole.
He distinguished it into 3 levels (Acc to Turner 1987)
 Types of needs Cultural response

Biological kinship
ex reproduction

Socio structural Laws & customs

Ex social control

Symbolic Magico religious systems

Ex confidence & collectivity

2. Structural functionalism of RC Brown ;

Social structure consists of interconnected interdependent parts and each
part functions to ensure survival of social structure i.e. society as a whole.
Brown defines function as contribution of parts to the whole.

Criticisms ;
● All social structures remain constant
● Ahistorical approach
● Unable to explain
1. social changes
2. conflicts(acc to Merton)
● Bio cultural functionalism cannot explain cultural variations.
● According to Kluckhohn, function theory dealt with structure not with
process.

Accomplishments
1. Explains how institutions & customs maintain social structural continuity
2. Methodological contributions
● Intensive fieldwork
● Synchronic analysis
● Framework for systematic collection of data
Value addition:

1.Neofunctionalism: Jeffry Alexander

Regional Integration due to
-Economic interdependence
-Increased organizational capacity
-Supranational market Rules

2.Functionalist theorist and their role in INDIRECT RULE of colonialist.

https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/264736

Conclusion:
Functionalism asserts that the function of all aspects of culture, or the learned
behaviours and ideas that are characteristic of a particular people group, is to
keep its people and its society alive and support each other.

W10D3-Discuss the approaches of Leslie White, Julian Steward and Marshall Sahlins in
the light of cultural evolution. (15 marks, 2022)

Introduction:

Neo evolutionary school emerged in the 20th century to address shortcomings of

the 19th century classical evolutionists, accepting that culture develops not in
unilinear sequence but in the form of parabolic curve.
 Fig 1. Parabolic curve theory of cultural evolution
Body:

Leslie A.White’s Approach to Cultural Evolution:

1. Universal Evolutionist.
2. White’s ideas - The Science of Culture (1949) and The Evolution of Culture
(1959).
3. Culture can be represented in symbols.
4. Cultural materialism in energy terms -
a. Culture developed when the amount of energy harnessed by people
per capita per year is increased.
5. Parts of Socio-cultural System:
a. Techno-economic (tools)
b. Social (kinship)
c. Ideological (beliefs)
 d. All 3 interrelated, but he subscribed to idea of technological
determinism.
6. Culturology -
a. Predict cultural phenomena by understanding general patterns of
culture.
7. Law of cultural development:
a. E X T = C [E-Energy, T-Technology, C-Cultural development]

Stage of Evolution Energy Characteristics Tools

Savagery Man’s muscle Hunting-gathering Stone tools

power

Barbarism Animal’s energy Agriculture Plough

Civilization Coal, Petroleum Industrial Revolution Machines

Energy Revolution Nuclear energy Atomic Energy Reactors

Weakness:
1. Too much emphasis on techno-economic factors, ignored others.
2. It cannot explain why some cultures evolve whereas others either do not
evolve or become extinct.
Julian H.Steward’s Approach to Cultural Evolution:
1. Three-fold Classification of Evolution:
a. Theory of Culture Change (1955) -
i. Unilinear - culture passes through successive development
stages
ii. Universal - evolution of culture of mankind as a whole
iii. Multilinear - no one line; many lines of evolution
2. Multilinear Evolution -
a. All the cultures developed through different stages - not through
same.
b. Cross cultural analysis important to understand and study limited
cultural parallels. E.g. Cultures of Mexico, Egypt, Mesopotamia - pre-
agriculture stage.
c. Empirical approach based on historical reconstruction.
3. Cultural ecology:
a. Culture and environment interaction - driving force for culture
change.
 b. Culture Core - technology basic component, analyzed with local
habitat.
c. Periphery - not connected directly to the environment; shapes each
culture.
d. 3 steps for cultural ecological investigation -
i. relationship between technology and environment must be
analyzed.
ii. behaviour patterns involved in exploitation of a particular
area by means of particular technology must be analyzed.
iii. determine how these behaviour patterns affect other aspects of
the culture.

Case Study - Shoshone of the Great Basin (1930s):

Steward demonstrated that,
- low density and high degree of dispersal of the Shoshone population,
- organization into bands with highly flexible residence, and
- lack of permanent leaders,
Reflected the inability of their simple technology to extract more stable supply of
food from the sporadically available resources of the Great Basin environment.

Weakness:
1. Marvin Harris did not accept multilinear view and considers the link
between cultural ecology and cultural materialism spurious.
2. According to White, Steward fell into the historical-particularist trap of
paying too much attention to particular cases.

Marshall Sahlins’ Approach to Cultural Evolution:

1. Along with Elman Service, in Evolution and Culture (1960), dual scheme of
evolution - general and specific.

a. General evolution - successive emergence of new levels of all round

development. E.g. Hunting and gathering -> Agriculture -> Industrial
Revolution.
 b. Specific evolution - sequence of particular cultures and their lines of
development. E.g. Adaptation of Eskimo to their local environment.
Inference - Evolution moves simultaneously in two directions.

Conclusion:

The efforts of neo evolutionists repopularised evolutionary theory in the late

1960s to long-term culture change and with the similar patterns of development
that may be seen in unrelated, widely separated cultures.

W10D3-Cultural Materialism. (15 marks, 2011)

Introduction:

Cultural Materialism, profounded by Marvin Harris in his work The Rise of

Anthropological Theory(1968),is based on theory of base
Marx's and
superstructure,Steward's Cultural ecology,White’s Cultural evolution.

Body:

BASIC PREMISES
Cultural Materialism was coined by Marvin Harris in The Rise of
Anthropological Theory in 1968.
1. Inspired by Marxian Materialism, Cultural Evolution and Cultural Ecology.
2. Culture is an adaptive solution to the material circumstances of life.
3. Focused on empirical science as the way to explain culture.
4. Believed in observation oriented research.
 5. Promoted etic approach over emic approach to study cultures.

POSTULATES
1. Cultural materialism explains that cultural similarities , differences and
culture change consist of three distinct levels:

2. PRIMACY OF INFRASTRUCTURE: It consists of material reality which

influences structure and superstructure.
Eg: sacred cow complex of india.

3. Cultural materialism proposes that production lies within the

infrastructure and that the infrastructure-structure relationship is
unidirectional.
Eg. feminism movement in USA studies by Maxine Margolis

Criticism:
1. Termed “vulgar materialism” by Marxists such as J. Friedman.
● Too simplistic and straight forward.
● Disregard superstructure aspects of culture.
 2. Structuralists say etic approach to study culture is irrelevant.
3. Post modernists were against scientific methods.
● Science itself is culturally determined.
4. The Los Angeles Times accused him of "overgeneralized assumptions."

Accomplishments:

1. Encouraged use of more scientific research methods.

2. Archaeologists, too, have adopted cultural materialist approaches.
William Rathje in arizona (1992)
3. Cultural changes can be studied across geographic and temporal
boundaries in order to get at so-called universal, nomothetic theories

Value addition:

Sacred cow complex case study

Harris used a cultural materialist model to examine the Hindu belief that cows
are sacred and must not be killed. First, he argued that the taboos on cow
slaughter (emic thought) were superstructural elements resulting from the
economic need to utilize cows as draft animals rather than as food .

Harris argues that the scarcity of feed (infrastructural change) shaped ideological
(superstructural) beliefs of the farmers.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/2740230

Conclusion:

Cultural Materialism stressed the need of scientific research methods along with
using both ETIC and EMIC perspectives for comprehensive understanding of
Culture.
W10D4-What made Geertz Interpretive Anthropology different from Turner's
Symbolic Anthropology? What does each of them mean by the terms 'Symbol' and
'Symbolic'? (20m, 2015)

Introduction:
Symbolic and Interpretive Anthropology assumes culture lies in individuals’
interpretations of events around them and aims to understand symbols in its
cultural context.

Body:

Geertz Interpretive Anthropology Turner’s Symbolic Anthropology

Basic Approach

● Interpretive Approach - Symbolic ● Symbolic Approach - Symbols

“sources of illumination” to orient initiate social action and exert
with respect to particular culture. determinable influence.

Influences

● Max Weber. ● Emile Durkheim.

Focus Area

● Symbols act as vehicles of culture. ● Symbols act as “operators in the

social process” and produce “social
transformations”.

Orientation

● Thick Description - providing ● Relied on observable characteristics

cultural context and meaning that and deduction of concepts by
people place on actions, words, anthropologist.
things, etc.
E.g. Wink (thick) and blink (thin).

Use of Hermeneutics
 ● Understand the ways that people act ● Threefold hermeneutic to
in social, religious, and economic understand cultural concepts, based
contexts. upon "exegetical” (questioning
E.g. Balinese Cockfight indigenous informants),
"operational," and "positional"
levels of meaning.

According to Geertz and Turner, symbol and symbolic stands for -

Symbol

● As per Geertz, symbols embody ● Turner writes, “A symbol is a blaze

historically transmitted patterns or landmark, something that
of meanings which form culture. connects the unknown with the
known”.

● Susceptible to change. ● Static and stable.

● Symbols should not be looked at in ● Every symbol serves as a symbol for

an abstract way, rather at the way another.
meaning is constructed. ● Progression from material to
E.g. “Deep Play (1972) ”- Balinese institutional symbols.
Cockfight denotes - E.g. “The Forest of Symbols (1967)” -
○ ‘Sabung’ - hero, warrior Ndembu Milk Tree (dominant
○ Larger bet, higher social symbol) -
status ○ Material Symbol -
○ Owner & their cocks - Symbolizes human milk,
reflects their own image female breast, mother-child
○ Winner - admiration and bond, family
respect ○ Abstract Symbol - Symbolizes
○ Money - secondary society

Symbolic

● Symbolic forms express a system of ● Symbolic objects are constituent

inherited conceptions by which units of rituals.
people communicate and develop
knowledge.
 ● No such classifications. ● Symbolic units classified into
dominant and instrumental
symbols.

Criticisms of Symbolic and Interpretive School:

1. Criticized Geertz for lacking scientific rigour in thick description.

2. According to Marxists, symbolic school focused too much on the individual
symbols themselves.
3. Cultural Ecologists criticized symbolic anthropology’s research
methodology not suitable to reproduce results by others.

Conclusion:
Although Geertz and Turner differed in their approaches, their contributions gave
a new dimension to the study of culture in a holistic manner.

Apposite Value Addition:

● Study based on Victor Turner’s Theory of Symbols:
Victor Turner's Theory of Symbols: The Symbolism of a Religious Site and Object
in a Rural Environment in Eastern Slovakia

Cross as Dominant symbol

Main 3 features of Dominant Symbol by Turner:
1. Condensation
2. Unification
3. Polarisation of Meaning

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
348183871_Victor_Turner's_Theory_of_Symbols_The_Symbolism_of_a_Religi
ous_Site_and_Object_in_a_Rural_Environment_in_Eastern_Slovakia
W10D4-Explain the features of 'Post-Modernism' in Anthropology. (20m, 2015)

Introduction:

Postmodernism in anthropology , a philosophical movement born as a response to

Modernism. first entered the philosophical lexicon in 1979, with the publication of
The Postmodern Condition by Jean-François Lyotard.

Significance: The school was pioneered by Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault,

James Clifford, Jean francois lyotard etc during the 1980s.

Body:
Features of 'Postmodernism' in Anthropology

1. Concept of power- Power structures in a culture or society are some

of the most dominant features of a culture and affect the actions of
a society's members.
2. Polyvocality: No culture has the definitive, correct interpretation of
an event or phenomenon.
3. Relativism: Reality is subjective, and so narratives of a culture or
society shouldn't be judged as truthful or untruthful.
4. Anthropologists should attempt to examine the same event from
the perspective of multiple cultures.
5. The scientific method isn't an effective method for anthropological
research as It's rooted in Western ways of thinking.
6. Meta narratives and theories are seen as unfairly totalising in their
generalization about the state of humanity and historical process.

● There are 2 approaches of postmodernism

a. Skeptical
b. Affirmatives

● Wilce -Postmodernists think that Concept of culture is highly Eurocentric.

 ● Self-Reflexivity – Self-Reflexivity leads to a consciousness of the process of
knowledge creation. There is an increased awareness of the collection of
data and the limitation of methodological systems.

● Radical skepticism – The systematic skepticism of grounded theoretical

perspectives and objective truths advocated by many postmodernists had a
profound effect on anthropology.

Methodologies -

1. Deconstruction - Demystifying a text to reveal internal arbitrary hierarchies

and presuppositions. Also an elevation of text and language as the
fundamental phenomena of existence
2. Intuitive Interpretation - introspective and anti-objectivist - involves
introspective understanding.

Accomplishments :

1. Critical Examination of Ethnographic Explanation

2. Demystification
3. Polyvocality

Criticisms:

1. D’Andrade - Science works because they are objective enough to

prove or disprove.
2. Ryan Bishop –criticized for fostering a self-indulgent subjectivity,
3. Norris believes that Lyotard, Foucault, and Baudrillard are too
preoccupied with the idea of the primacy of moral judgments
4. Bob McKinley – McKinley believes that postmodernism is more of a
religion than a science

Conclusion:
Postmodernism blurred the distinction between high culture and popular
culture, between art and everyday life as it broke the established rules about
style and has led to a heightened sensitivity within anthropology to the
collection of data.

Apposite VA:
Postmodernism in anthropology criticized prevalent notions- -

1. As in the arts, postmodernism in anthropology too criticized the definite

ordering of life and suggests that it is necessary to view them as combined,
plural and comparable.
2. While modernism associated itself with ideas like identity, authority,
unanimity, inevitability etc, postmodernism looks into difference,
multiplicity, cynicism, documentation
3. Modernists were criticized about the concept of universal truth and
objectivity.

W10D5-Mention major branches of linguistic anthropology and discuss language use

in social and cultural settings. (15m, 2021)

Introduction:

Emergence of Linguistic Anthropology in the early 20th century dealt with the
use of language as a multifaceted tool for empirical investigation of different
unique cultural forms & practices.

Connector :
Trajectory set by Franz Boas, Edward Sapir & their students grounded Linguistic
Anthropology firmly by exploring multiplicity of linguistic forms in different
social contexts.

Body:

Major branches of linguistic anthropology :

1. Descriptive linguistic or structural linguistic:

Studies languages and analyzes its features which are not deciphered yet.
E.g-Use of Phonemes,Morpheme,syntax and semantics.

Ethno-linguistics-:

According to Overton Brent,increase in words indicate cultural complexity.

E.g-Influence on thought (linguistic determinism),language indicates different
social roles and social statuses.

Socio-linguistic-

It examines how social categories influence the use of speech.

E.g In Japan females used to add the polite prefix ‘o’ in conversation
Female says “ohasi” for chopsticks ,while male use “hasi” for it.

Historical linguistics- reconstruction of dead languages and their connections to

living languages. Describing changes in dialect and languages over time.

E.g-Romans noticed that Latin and Greek were similar and they incorrectly
assumed that Latin came from Greek but the reality is both came from Indo-
European .

Language use in social and cultural settings:

Language and culture:

1.Paralanguage-
learning by imitating,observing people,initially from parents and close relatives
and later from friends and people outside the close family circle.
E.g-kinesics and proxemics.
2.Homologous relationship between language & culture-
Language and culture developed together and influenced each other as they
evolved.
Eg: Alfred L. Krober said that culture started when speech was available, and from
that beginning, the enrichment of either one led the other to develop further.

3.Assimilation and Social Differentiation, and Language

Transmission of a language is self-perpetuating unless there is deliberate
interference.
Eg: Isogloss cultivate their dialect phonologically, grammatically, and lexically to
fit into new communities

4.Influencing the Way People Think - language and cognition, use of language
changes according to changing social conditions.
Eg: Edward Sapir - no two languages are similar in such a way that they would
represent one society. The world for each society is different.

Language and social structure

1.language is part of social structure thus attempting to study either of two in
isolation entails a certain amount of distortion.
2. The relationship between language,system of thought and other patterns of
behavior can be traced back to each culture.
3.Each society has its own model of the universe and all observable phenomena of
the universe can be accounted for & accurately described in the language of its
people.
4.language is a social activity,a form of behavior which derives meaning from it.

Conclusion:
Thus, Linguistic Anthropology is not only unraveling the Language-culture nexus,
but also safeguarding the endangered languages all around the globe.

Apposite va:

North-east Communities Are Trying To Revive Their Dying Languages in

order to preserve their culture
Eg: Palash Kumar Nath, a researcher actively working on digital documentation
of some of the indigenous languages belonging to the Tai language family - Tai-
Khamyang and Tai Phake as spoken in Northeast India.

Sources-
1. Kerala SCERT
2. https://www.outlookindia.com//how-north-east-communities-are-
trying-to-revive-their-dying-languages-news-195395
3. https://www.daytranslations.com/blog/relationship-between-language-
and-culture/amp/
4. https://www.outlookindia.com//how-north-east-communities-are-
trying-to-revive-their-dying-languages-news-195395

W10D5-Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. (10m, 2020)

Introduction:

The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, also known as the linguistic relativity hypothesis,

refers to the proposal that the particular language one speaks influences the way
one thinks about reality.

Significance: First advanced by Edward Sapir in 1929 and subsequently developed

by Benjamin Whorf, the structure of a language determines a native speaker's
perception and categorization of experience.

Body:
1. Sapir and Whorf were suggesting that language is more than a vehicle for
communication; it actually establishes mental categories that predispose
people to see things in a certain way.

• For eg:, if the language has a single word— aunt for many relatives then. I will
perceive all of these family members as genealogically equivalent and
consequently will behave toward them in essentially the same way.
 2. Sapir and Whorf were primarily concerned with the effects of language on
perception, and they suggested that both perception and the resulting
behavior are determined (or at least influenced) by the linguistic categories
we use to group some things under one heading and other things under
another heading

Later scholars focused on two main ideas:

1. Theory of linguistic determinism that states that the language you speak
determines the way you perceive the world around you.
For eg: Hopi use numbers for counting and measuring things that have physical
existence, but they do not apply numbers in the same way to abstractions like
time.

2. Theory of linguistic relativism that states that your language merely

influences your thoughts about the real world.
For Eg: Indians in Mexico’s northwestern mountains speaking Tarahumara have
just one word for both “green” and “blue”—siyoname

Criticism:
1. language changes at a rate roughly comparable to the rate at which
their language changes. But worldviews typically change much more
rapidly than language.
2. The fact that linguistic change or replacement is usually far slower
than changes in worldviews suggests that language and culture are
not tightly integrated.
3. If some given language were to become truly global, that language’s
ways of perceiving and thinking would also dominate. Can this lead
to monoculture?

Conclusion:
However, language and culture are historically cumulative and locally
conventional sets of behaviors that are emblematic of commonality, and of
difference, among human groups.

Apposite VA:
1. Telangana's tribal languages face risk of extinction:

Of these, Gondi has already been listed as an endangered language in the

UNESCO list, according to the state Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
Telangana's tribal languages face risk of extinction: How they can be preserved |
The News Minute

2. Alexander-Zeev Guiora observes Hebrew emphasizes gender at younger age, so

Israeli children become more gender sensitive than English or Finnish children
https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/98322/j.1467-
1770.1982.tb00973.x.pdf;sequence=1

3. William Lutz says Language also influence emotion and perception

(Euphemism) , Ex : Firing vs Downsizing
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
249733238_Language_and_culture_in_emotion_research_A_multidisciplinary
_perspective

W11D1-Write the historical development of fieldwork tradition in anthropology till

recent times. (15m, 2022)

Introduction:
Hortense Powdermaker defines fieldwork as “the study of people and of their
culture in their natural habitat. It receives first hand experience and collects data
in its own niche.

Body:
Historical development of fieldwork tradition in anthropology :

1. Lewis Henry Morgan, first person who studied kinship in detail. He used
the questionnaire tool of data collection and published his findings in the
 book called Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of Human Family in
1870.
2. W.H.R. Rivers (1898) is also part of Torres-strait expedition of the oceania
region and Toda tribal community of Tamil nadu. He is credited for
introducing Genealogies in Data Collection.

3. Franz Boas an American anthropologist carried out his first fieldwork

among the Inuit of the Baffin Island, Canada in 1883.
3a) Boas owing to his strong belief in first hand data collection.
3b) He propagated the study of a society for its relevance in the present
meaning ‘here and now’.

4. Malinowski introduced participant observation in anthropology.

Eg: Description of the practice of Kula ring in his celebrated, Argonauts of
the Western Pacific (1922) with the use of his prescribed fieldwork methods
still remains the hallmark of ethnographic investigation while doing
fieldwork.

5. Radcliffe-Brown’s work on the Andaman Islanders was also based on field

study where he spent almost two years in the field (1906-08) for his Master’s
dissertation.

6. Raymond Firth,(1929) studied economic systems among the Maoris of New

Zealand. Raymond Firth was later responsible for initiating discussions on
ethnicity in anthropology.
Women’s entry in anthropology’s fieldwork :
7. Margaret Mead conducted fieldwork among Samoan islands, Aarapesh,
Mundugumor and Tchambuli. She is famous for introducing visual
anthropology (photographs, video-taping) into field works.
8. Ruth benedict(1934), studied Pima, Pueblozoni, Kwakitul, dobu and also
Japanese culture and national character studies.
9. Cora-du-bois,(1944) did field work through her Projective test at Alor, an
Indonesian village. She included ethnographic facts, collected biographics,
and dreams of children.
 10. Mary Douglas in the 1940s came to be reckoned for her fieldwork in the
Congo on ritual purity and impurity and symbolism.

FIELDWORK IN THE TWENTY FIRST CENTURY :

1. In the 2020s, Doing Fieldwork in a Pandemic:
2a) Creating dazzling arrays of methods beyond the prototypical required
long-term personal presence.
2b) local on-the-ground daily diaries, photos, and food logs, to the
photovoice method.
2. Visual anthropologists have many methods of creating and analyzing
images with Zoom interviews or focus groups.

Conclusion:
Thus, the Fieldwork tradition in anthropology was theoretically started by
Classical evolutionists and systematically developed by Diffusionists and
reached practicality by Functionalism and Culture personality school.

Value Addition: ethics in fieldwork.

W11D1-Ethnography. (15M)

Introduction:

According to David M Fetterman,1998 Ethnography is the art and science of

describing a group or culture, the description may be small tribal group in an
exotic land or a classroom in middle class urban

Body:
Elements of ethnographic research:
1. Culture: Study culture as an entity. It includes patterns of behavior, values,
norms and standards.
2. Holism: Perceive human actions in the context of the whole system. I.e.
individual actions are manifestations of the socio-cultural system.
3. In- depth studies: naturalistic observation and capture social life as it
unfolds in natural situations.
 4. Interactive -reactive approach: Gather first hand information and flexible,
reactive and self corrective analysis
5. Humanistic perspective: Throw light on the essence of culture.

Types of Ethnographic Research:

1.Macro Ethnography-Broadly Defined cultural groupings
2.Micro Ethnography-Specific cultural groupings
3.Emic perspectives
4.Etic perspective.

Steps :
1. Selection:Choice of research site or field.
2. Review of Literature-to get brief Idea
3. Identification of variables which needs to be explored
4. Entry-Negotiations for access and trust in the field.
5. Cultural Immersion-Gaining informants
6. Data collection-observational Transcripts,interview recordings,tapings etc
7. Development of theory-Writing ethnography based on conclusions derived
from the field.

Advantages of ethnography

1. Gives the researcher direct access to the culture and practices of a group.
2. It is a useful approach for learning first-hand about the behavior and
interactions of people within a particular context.
3. Authentic information and spontaneously observe dynamics that one could
not have found out about simply by asking.
4. Investigate complex issues which are challenging to analyze using
quantitative approaches.
5. It aids in the understanding of human behavior and cross cultural analysis

Limitations of ethnography
1. Time-consuming method.
2. Long-term immersion can be challenging, and requires careful planning.
 3. Ethnographic research can run the risk of observer bias.
4. Writing an ethnography involves subjective interpretation.
5. There are also ethical considerations to take into account.

Conclusion:

Today, ethnography is a common approach in various social science fields, not

just anthropology. It is used not only to study distant or unfamiliar cultures, but
also to study specific communities within the researcher's own society.

Value Addition:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
347430220_Doing_digital_ethnography_in_the_digital_age

W11D2-Discuss various tools of data collection in conducting anthropological research.

(20 Marks, 2021)

Introduction:
In anthropological research, data is gathered with the help of various tools by
doing fieldwork and laboratory work to appreciate and comprehend human
cultural and biological diversity.

Body:
Tools in Socio-cultural Anthropology:

Observation:
1. Participant observation - researcher directly involved - a part of the
community.
E.g. Malinowski - Trobriand Islands
2. Non-participant observation - activities of the community under study
observed from a distance without direct involvement.
E.g. Classical Evolutionists

Interview:
1. Structured interview - interviewer asks the pre-drafted questions.
2. Unstructured interview - interviewer exercises autonomy in asking
questions - in-depth interview.
E.g. Ruth Benedict - The Chrysanthemum and Sword - interviews Japanese
immigrants to outline national character of Japan.

Schedules:
1. Set of structured questions on a specific topic.
2. Interviewer directly asks these questions to the respondent.

Questionnaire:
 1. Researcher lists the questions - provided personally, or mailed to the target
population.
2. Restricted to close ended as open ended questions are difficult to interpret.
E.g. L.H. Morgan used questionnaire for kinship studies.

Case Study:
1. In-depth research of a particular event where a group of people are directly
involved.
2. Holistic.
E.g. Herbert Spencer used case material in his ethnographic work.

Genealogy:
1. Study of families and tracing of their lineages and history.
2. Morgan - family organization in Iroquois. W.H.R. Rivers - Torres Strait
Expedition.
E.g. Kuru disease among New Guinea highlanders was not hereditary, but
due to spread of cannibalism.

Life History:
1. Reveals extensive account of a person’s life, whether written or narrated by
the person, or by others (Langness, 1965).
E.g. Cora Du Bois went to Alor Island - collected life histories - along with
Kardiner - proposed Modal Personality - “The People of Alor”.

Oral History:
1. Preserve original, historically interesting information from personal
recollections through planned recorded interviews.
E.g. Folklores

Tools in Physical Anthropology:

Anthropometry Somatoscopy

Measurement of the dimensions Visual observation of anatomical

 of the body described numerically. features which aren’t numerically
E.g. Measurement of abdominal measured.
circumference. E.g. Evaluating skin colour in humans.

Tools in Archaeological Anthropology:

Ethno-archaeological Method Excavation

Contemporary examples Extraction of material - digging layer

compared with prehistoric by layer.
findings - function behind making E.g. Excavation of 50 pieces of bone
of similar artifacts. ornaments in Narmetta.
E.g. Material culture of present
hunter-gatherers enlightens use
and function of artifacts of earlier
periods.

Secondary Sources of Information:

A researcher uses data that has been collected and analyzed by primary sources.
E.g. James Frazer’s Golden Bough
 Merits Demerits

1.Readymade and readily available. 1.Documents might not include current

2.Economical, time-saving. trends.
2.Relevant documents may have been lost.

Conclusion:
To sum up, anthropological research involves both quantitative and qualitative
tools for data collection to gain a comprehensive and in-depth view of human
phenomena in societies.

Value Addition:

Mixed Method Research (MMR)

Mixed methods refers to the combination of quantitative and qualitative
methodologies in research.

Merits Demerits

1. Qualitative rich data can be used to 1.The loss of depth and flexibility when
contextualize and help in quantitative qualitative data are quantized
assessments of knowledge. 2. Quantized qualitative data can force
2.Utility of findings increases and researchers to reduce sample size.
helps in policy intervention.

https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1012&context=icwdmeea

Digital Ethnography during the COVID 19 Pandemic

Five key principles for doing digital ethnography (Sarah Pink et al., 2016):

a) Multiplicity
b) Non-Digital-centricity
c) Openness
d) Reflexivity
e) Unorthodox

Merits Demerits

1.Interconnection across online and 1. Hawthorne effect/Observer effect

offline spaces 2. Restrictions on observation brought about by
2.Multi sighted , facilitating research online presence
across more than one connected site

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
349325794_Digital_Ethnography_during_the_COVID_10_Pandemic

W11D2-Discuss the relevance of the Case Study method of data collection. (20 marks,
2013)

Introduction:
Pauline V. Young 1984 described case study as a comprehensive study of a social
unit, be it a person, a group of persons, an institute, a community or a family.

Significance:
Frederic Le Play first introduced Case studies as handmaiden to statistics in his
studies of family budgets but Herbert Spencer was first to use case material in his
ethnographic work.
Later Dr. William Healy, Cora-du-Bois, Radcliffe Brown etc are the scholars who
used this method.

Body:
Characteristics of Case study
1. Highly detailed qualitative study
2. Process oriented
 3. Combines objective data & subjective data
4. Narrowly focused

Sources of data
1. Life histories
2. Personal documents
3. Biographies
4. Informations obtained through
4a) Interviews
4b) Observation
4c) Secondary sources

Applications of case study

1. To challenge existing theory
2. To build upon new theory
3. To describe a situation or object or a phenomenon
4. For better understanding of complex real life situation

Relevance of Case Study

1. Individual oriented humanistic perspectives gained firm grounds in
Anthropology.
1a) It focuses on micro level investigation to recognize the
humanistic dimensions.
2. It investigates how intrinsic factors interact with the external.
2a) It is anachronistic to treat any society as ‘primitive’ .
 2b) Growing impact of industrial-capital economy is diluting the
social boundaries
2c) Every community is being brought into the nexus of the world
system.
3. provides the researchers with a complete set of rules for collection &
analysis of data.
4. Challenges the appropriateness of western countries
4a) The Observer's formal model consisting of beliefs & practices
better explains the livelihood patterns than the universal models
depicting the objective reality.
Scholarly views:
5. Development being a slow & gradual process
5a) Case study as ‘Social Microscope’ (Burgess) yields the knowledge
about crystallization of social processes at the local level
6. According to Kothari (2014)
6a) Collects details regarding the diverse habits traits & qualities
under investigation
6b) Data obtained is useful for formulating of hypothesis &
preparation of schedule & questionnaire for further research

Limitations
1. No uniform & standardized system of recording case histories has been
developed
2. Time consuming, very subjective & speculative
3. Incomparable & irreproducible
4. Fully based on informants, so increased chances of getting fake
information.
5. According to Kothari (2014)
5a)_Investigator’s bias might distort the quality of case study
5b) Cannot be effectively used in big & complex societies
Conclusion:
Thus in case study method efforts are made to study each and every aspect of the
concerning unit in minute details and then from case data generalizations and
inferences are drawn.
Sources : ePG, Ignou

Value addition:

https://www.jstor.org/stable/41919615

W11D3-Elaborate the scope of anthropology and elucidate its uniqueness in the field of
other social sciences (20 Marks, 2021)

Introduction:

ANTHROPOLOGY is the study of human beings in totality across time and space,
In time it deals with evolution while in space it refers to the variations at a
particular moment of time.

Body:

Scope of Anthropology and its uniqueness in different sub-fields :

1.Urban Anthropology- adaptability of migrants to new places based on learnings

from archaeology.
1a) A new sub -branch emerged after the 1960s due to cultural and social
changes and came up with studies like the “peasant in cities”(Eames and
Goode,1977).

2.Anthropological Methods-
2a) Applied anthropology uses tools like Rapid Rural Appraisal( RRA)and
participatory Rural Appraisal(PRA) for addressing particular problems and
then suggesting solutions.
 2b) RRA-Quick appraisal of problems-time bound change in their
conditions

2c) PRA- EMIC views come to life-people participate to negotiate the

meaning and extent of their problems to suggest solutions.
E.g-preparing safe routes map that can provide alternative during
emergency (Khattri,2012)

3- Business Management-

3a) The field of management anthropology helps in understanding cross-

cultural trade practices.
3b) Business is not only limited to economic transactions rather it
envisages a more dynamic behavioral aspect.
3c) The anthropological tool of the comparative method provides and
opportunity for cross-cultural comparisons and reach to generalization of
best practices related to marketing and organizational set up
(Khattri,2012)

4.Disaster management
4a) Anthropologists have contributed towards disaster management by
studying and suggesting methods of vulnerability reduction (Khattri,2012).
4b) Efforts are made to reduce the risk of vulnerable groups on the basis of
poverty,gender,age,social capital & physical space they occupy.
5.Biological Anthropology-
5a) Anthropologists use the knowledge of anthropometry in designing
clothes,footwear & furniture and designing machinery,artificial limbs etc.
5b) Data on human osteology,serology & genetics have medical applications.
5c) Biological Anthropologists also contribute towards disease research,diet
& nutrition ,genetic counseling and eugenics. Also help in forensic tests to
identify criminals and crimes.

6.Physical anthropology-
6a) Anthropologists are largely concerned with human paleontology and
human genetics .
6b) In human paleontology,studies are conducted on fossils to unravel the
evolutionary history of humans.(Ember et al, 2002).
6c) The field of human genetics tries to understand human
variations,disease distribution across regions and human adaptation on a
genetic level.

7.Archaeological Anthropology-
 7a) It offers general information and education to people through museums
where the reconstruction of human culture.
7b) It has the unique capability of stretching back to the remotest eras of
human existence.

8.Linguistic Anthropology-
8a) It serves many practical purposes related to ‘exotic’ languages.
8b) Linguistic anthropologists improve the method and materials for
intensive instructions in a large no. of foreign language. Some work with
the government.
8c) Agencies and indigenous people to document endangered languages.
8d) The above listed areas clearly indicate anthropologists are required to
be involved in almost all areas of human life.

Applied Anthropology -
1. ETHNOGRAPHIC PROJECTS
2. FORENSIC
3. KINANTHROPOMETRY

Conclusion:

Therefore anthropology is studying man in his past, present and future and exists
as a comprehensive, comparative, holistic and humanistic field of study amongst
all social , biological , and humanistic sciences.

Sources: IGNOU,KERALA SCERT

W11D3-Differences between Social Anthropology and Sociology. (10 Marks, 2016)

Introduction:

Evans-Pritchard (Social Anthropology, 1946) -“social anthropology can be

regarded as a branch of sociological studies, chiefly devoted to primitive societies”.

Body:
 Social Anthropology Sociology

Field differences

● Pre-industrial societies - ● Industrial societies - more complex

communities less familiar and and western-type societies.
technology less developed.

Methodological differences

● Depends on participant ● Use questionnaires and rarely test

observation (Bronislaw their generalizations cross-
Malinowski) and comparative culturally.
analysis.

Focus Area

● Studies man in a holistic way. ● Dealt with particular aspects of

society.

Knowledge of Language

● Unfamiliar cultures - problem of ● Usually speak the same language as

translation - Understand the people they study.
language and ways of thought of
the people he studies.

Philosophical Orientation

● Theoretical input is relatively less. ● Focus much on the theoretical

approach.

Impact of Sociologists on Anthropologists:

1. Radcliffe-Brown is said to have been greatly influenced by the
functionalism of Emile Durkheim.
2. Mauss had a significant influence upon Claude Lévi-Strauss, the founder of
structural anthropology.

Value Addition:
Kroeber and Talcott Parsons (`The Concepts of Culture and of Social System', 1958)
Kroeber observes:
‘All in all, these are differences only in emphasis. In principle, sociology and social
anthropology are hard to keep apart’.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/4105451

Conclusion:
With an interdisciplinary approach, both the disciplines benefit each other on a
common platform.

Sources: https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/41238/1/Unit-3.pdf

W11D4-Discuss how anthropological knowledge of the human body may be used in

designing equipment and articles of human use. (15 Marks, 2022)

Introduction:
Anthropometry gives detailed information on the range and variation in body
shape and size of humans. Today, this knowledge is widely used in equipment
designing.

Body:
Application of Anthropometry in Designing
Designers used data and drawings according to their purpose, which
include measurements of human beings in all age groups sizes etc

1. Workstation design
a. Ergonomics deal with the engineering of machines for human use
and with the engineering of human tasks for operating machines
b. Objectives of ergonomics
i. To increase the competence and efficiency with which work is
performed
ii. To maintain and promote worker health
 c. Anthropometry of the users is important to design the workstation
because there are different and diversified labour force in different
parts of the world
d. Four necessary design dimensions for the bodily design of industrial
workstations
i. Work height
ii. Normal and maximum reaches
iii. Lateral clearance
iv. Angle of vision and eye height
2. Garments designing
a. Anthropometric data plays an important role in garment production
because the data is needed for designing garments with comfortable
and right fit
b. Size charts in the industry which are standard of body measurement
based on anthropometric data are used throughout the process and
attire design and production
3. Shoe designing
a. Shoes are also designed based on the anthropometric measurements
of foot such as foot length, foot breadth etc
b. Foot anthropometric measurements which are applied to design
shoes and stockings should represent a sample of specific population
which includes children, youth and elderly
4. Kinanthropometry
a. The application of body measurements for studying human size,
shape, proportion, composition, maturation and gross functioning
for understanding human movement in relation with growth,
exercise, performance and nutrition
b. Today sports clothing and equipments are widely using this
knowledge to design proper equipment
5. Designing defence equipments
a. Designing defence equipments starts from the second world war to
get the operational benefits and ease of use of equipments
b. The war gears designed on the anthropometric knowledge reduced
the fatigue and increased performance of the soldier in the battlefield
 c. Today anthropological knowledge is widely used in designing of
defence equipment like gun turrets, cockpit and ejection of seats in
fighter jets etc.
Conclusion
Thus, use of anthropological knowledge in designing equipments is a growing field
and helps to get best from the equipments.

Value Addition:
1. J.P Henry, a physiologist designed a partial pressure suit. It is a one piece
non-stretch suit with air tubes connected to it. During space travel, as the
altitude increases, air pressure decreases and the body swells. The suit is
designed in such a way that when air pressure decreases, air enters into the
air tubes and prevents the muscle from swelling. Anthropometric data of
the individual is needed to make the suit from neck to toe.

https://sci-hub.se/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/
10.1177/096777209900700405?journalCode=jmba

2. In India, Sachindra Narayan conducted anthropological study in Sauria

paharia and re-designed hockey stick which is suitable for their short
stature, that helped them in excelling at national events.
3. Anthropometry of male agricultural workers of western India for the design
of tools and equipments Anthropometry of male agricultural workers of
western India for the design of tools and equipments - ScienceDirect
a. The anthropometric data of users population in very utile for the
design/improvement of farm equipments/implements for
agricultural workers in order to reduce drudgery, increase efficiency,
safety and comfort

W11D4-What are the applications of human genomic research in human welfare? (15
Marks, 2020)

Introduction:
In 1990, The Human Genome Project (HGP) was launched with the goal of
deciphering the vast majority of the human genome. It entailed the discovery of all
human genes and gaining knowledge about human development, physiology,
medicine and evolution.The project completed in 2003.

Body:

Human genomic Research helps in understanding the biological basis of complex

disorders resulting from the interplay of multiple genetic and environmental
influences, such as diabetes; heart disease; cancer; and psychiatric illnesses,
including alcoholism etc.

It has applications in various fields like:-

Diagnostics

Identifying disease causing mutations, Healthy carriers of Diseases

e.g:Cystic fibrosis-Autosomal recessive Disorder,caused by mutation in CFTR

gene

e.g: in 2016 — NIH scientists identify a genetic mutation responsible for a rare form of
inherited hives induced by vibration, also known as vibratory urticaria.

Therapeutics

gene-based treatment for hereditary and acquired diseases

(a) mass production of natural substances that are effective in treating

certain disorders (e.g.blood-clotting factors, growth factors and
hormones, and interleukins and interferons)

(b) Gene therapy is designed to deliver DNA carrying a functional gene

to a patient’s cells or tissues and thereby correct a genetic alteration

Molecular Medicine
 ● Improved diagnosis of disease
● Earlier detection of genetic predispositions to disease
● Rational drug design
● Gene therapy and control systems for drugs
● Pharmacogenomics "custom drugs"

E.g:Davies et al- Identified different chromosome regions responsible for Type-1

diabetes

BRCA1, the first major gene linked to inherited breast cancer

Other genetic conditions, including myotonic dystrophy, fragile X syndrome,

neurofibromatosis, inherited colon cancer, Alzheimer's disease, and familial breast
cancer.

Genomics and Proteomics:

New insights into the genome have led to the emergence of proteomics, the study
of the structure and function of an individual's entire set of expressed proteins.
Proteomics is highly linked to genomics, since the blueprint for each protein is
inscribed on an organism's genes.

Personalized medicines:

genetic, epigenomic, and clinical information allows breakthroughs in our

understanding of how a person's unique genomic portfolio makes them vulnerable to
certain diseases, and tailoring the treatment.

Risk Assessment

● Assess health damage and risks caused by

-radiation exposure, including low-dose exposures

-mutagenic chemicals and cancer-causing toxins

-heritable mutations

Understanding the human genome will have an enormous impact on the ability to
assess risks posed to individuals by exposure to toxic agents.

DNA Forensics
 ● Identify potential suspects whose DNA may match evidence left at crime
scenes
● Exonerate persons wrongly accused of crimes
● Identify crime and catastrophe victims
● Establish paternity and other family relationships
● Detect bacteria and other organisms that may pollute air, water, soil, and
food
● Match organ donors with recipients in transplant programs

Bioarchaeology, Anthropology, Evolution, and Human Migration

● Study evolution through germline mutations in lineages

● Study migration of different population groups based on female genetic
inheritance
● Study mutations on the Y chromosome to trace lineage and migration of
males
● Compare breakpoints in the evolution of mutations with ages of populations
and historical events

Understanding genomics will help us understand human evolution and the

common biology we share with all of life. Comparative genomics between humans
and other organisms will help determine the yet-unknown function of thousands
of other genes.

Case study: Genome edited human embryos

Human genome project :

Genome editing to correct a genetic mutation in human embryos that can be

passed down from parents. (CRISPR- CAS 9)

Example :
Mutations in genes that cause a thickening of the heart muscle (hypertrophic
cardiomyopathy), which may result in heart failure.

Recent study:
In the UK, cardiomyopathy effects were studied and a method to implant
genetically altered embryos was suggested recently. currently in UK it is illegal
There are:
Arguments favoring in developing the genome edited human embryos
Arguments made against developing genome edited human embryos

Conclusion:

The HG project showed that humans have 99.9% identical genomes, and it set the
stage for developing a catalog of human genes and beginning to understand the
complex choreography involved in gene expression.

Add on:
1. One of the most active areas of the ELSI(Ethical,legal & social implications)
program has been policy development related to the privacy and fair use of
genetic information, particularly in health insurance, employment, and
medical research.
2. Proteomics - enhancers
3. Individual medicine
4. Orthologous
5. Epigenetics
6. ELSI (Ethical, Legal ,Social Implication )
7. Enhanced or personalized medicine.

ARCHAEOLOGY

1.8 a) Principles of Prehistoric Archaeology. - Chronology : Relative

and Absolute Dating methods.

W12D1 Relative Dating Methods (10M)

INTRODUCTION
 Relative dating methods determine the relative sequence of past events or objects,
without knowing their absolute age.

BODY
Method Description

1. Stratigraphy Artifacts that are found in successive undisturbed cultural layers

● Law of Superposition - Natural deposition causes new layer to
deposit over old layer

2. Seriation Method of determining the age of the artifacts based on the style, type,
and technique
● Stylistic Seriation - based on similarity in style
e.g., carinated vessels of Jorwe culture.
● Frequency Seriation - Based on the quantity
e.g. Copper hoard culture of Gangetic plains

3. Dating of Bones Measurement of elements/compounds accumulated in bones over time:

● Nitrogen dating: uniform rate of decay of collagen to form
nitrogen
● Fluorine dating: fluorine in groundwater accumulates and form
fluorapatite

4. Pollen Dating Studying pollen samples and placing it in particular time-ranged

pollen zones
● E.g. pollen sequences of Holocene times of northern Europe.

Merits Demerits

1. Less expensive and simpler 1. No specific date

2. Universally applicable, no need for 2. Temporal distance cant be determined
presence of radioactive isotopes. 3. folding and faulting disrupts order of
superposition
4. Variation in concentration of chemicals
in groundwater
CONCLUSION
Despite the limitations, relative dating can be useful for relating palaeontological
or archaeological finds from nearby sites with similar geological histories.

VALUE ADDITION

Grotta Romanelli Caves, situated in Southern Italy, has been an important site
providing information about the Pleistocene times of the Mediterranean Sea.

The recent Stratigraphic reassessments (Chrono-, Bio-, Litho-stratigraphy) has

provided insights on Sea level history, palaeoenvironments and their
relationships with human settlements.

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-16906-9

SOURCES
1. https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/65856/1/Unit-4.pdf
2. https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/
S000829IC/P001688/M020081/ET/1493287698P07-M17-
RelativeDatingMethods-ET.pdf
3. https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/
anthropology/01._physical___biological_anthropology_/
10._fossils_and_dating_methods/et/7204_et_et_10.pdf

W12D1: Thermoluminescence. (10M)

Introduction
Thermal means heat and luminescence means to emit light. It means the
material that has accumulated energy over a long period of time will emit light when
exposed to high heat. It is a method of absolute dating.

Body
Principle:
● The microscopic structure of some minerals and ceramics trap nuclear
radioactive energy.
 ● This energy separates electrons from the molecules that make up the minerals
or ceramics.
● Over time, more such free electrons get trapped by the imperfections in the
microscopic structure of the ceramics.
● By heating the ceramic or mineral to above 500 degrees Celsius, these trapped
electrons are released, creating a flash of light called thermoluminescence.

Advantages

● Thermoluminescence Dating (TLD) can measure a greater range of doses

● TLDs can be read on site instead of being sent away for development
● TLDs are easily reusable, cheaper
● The clay core of bronze sculptures made by lost wax casting can also be tested

Limitation:

● Destruction of a relatively significant amount of sample material.

● As TL dating depends on the site's environment, They are prone to error due to
variation of the environment.

Applications:

● It is used for material where radiodating is not available, like sediments

● It is a method of choice for dating ceramic and earthenware pots, sediments,
lava etc

Value addition
Thermoluminescence dating of a 50,000-year-old human occupation site
in northern Australia | Nature
● Study by Richard G Robert, Rhye Jones and M A Smith
● TL dates were obtained range of stone artifacts from sandy footslope
deposits at two occupation sites
● Result: These TL dates are not only the oldest yet proposed for Aborginal
occupation but also may mark the time of initial human arrival on the
Australian continent

Conclusion
 Despite limitations, exciting possibilities are emerging from experiments
with dating ice age sediment such as loess, some in contexts where there are
association with stone age artefacts.

W12D2: Differentiate between lower paleolithic and middle paleolithic

culture with suitable examples

Introduction
Paleolithic culture flourished in the Pleistocene era. It is divided into Lower, middle
and upper Paleolithic cultures based on refinement in techniques of tools
manufacture.

Body

Aspect Lower paleolithic Middle paleolithic

Period 3.3 million - 300,000 BC 300,000 -50000 BC

Tool industry Oldowan industry (dated 1.85 million Mousterian industry (dated to 55,800
years BP) years (BP)
● Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, Kadar ● Named after Le Moustier (France)
Gona & Hadar region ● bifacial flake points, scraper types
● crude industry of pebble and retouched flake tools
○ chopper, heavy scrapers, ● cave sites and open-air site
hammer stones, etc. ● Levallois (France), Fauresmith
● Sites: The Soan industry, Sirsa and (Africa)
Ghaggar valleys ● Nevasa, Godavari valley

Acheulian industry - (1.65 to 0.25 million

years BP)
 ● Sites: St. Acheul, France, Peninj
river Tanzania
● Characterized by handaxes,
cleavers, scrapers on cores and
flakes with unifacial and bifacial
flaking
● E.g. Sites: Africa-Olduvai Gorge
India -Isampur in the Hunsgi
Valley (1.2 million years BP);
● Later Acheulian tradition
○ refined and more symmetric
tools
○ Refined flake forms
(scrapers, points, etc.)
appeared,

Tool material ● Quartzite ● Crypto crystalline silica - quartz,

flint and jasper

Technology Tool Technology Tool Technology

● Direct Percussion Technique ● Levalloisian technique
● Clactonian technique ● Disc core Technique
Ornament making Use of fire

Socio-cultural ● Australopithecus and Homo ● Homo Neanderthalensis.

features lineages ● Buried with tools and rituals (E.g.
● non-utilitarian aspects like body Shanidar-Iraq : flowers in caves)
decoration (red ochre-like pieces ● Hunting Magic - (Cave of
at Hunsgi and Baichbal valleys) Witches[Genoa] & bear cult)
● Cannibalism (skull on the bank of the
Solo River Java)

Conclusion
Thus, excavations of stone tools and fossils enable us to reconstruct the social life of
prehistoric man and their technological advancements.
VALUE ADDITINO: MAPS, DTONE TOOLS AND TEAM ANTHRO NEWS

W12D2: Delineate the salient features of chalcolithic cultures. (15M)

Introduction
Chalcolithic culture is said to be a transition between neolithic and bronze age. It is
characterized by the use of copper and stone tools.

Time period : Around 5500 to 2000 BCE in the Holocene epoch.

Climate: Warm and dry climate, favorable for settlements.

Body

Material culture:
The technology was a mix of metal and stones. The metal technology is seen in
smelting of copper and manufacturing of copper tools and weapons. The lithic
technology includes microliths, stone blades and axes.

Another identifying characteristic of the period is polychrome painted pottery.

Chalcolithic sites:
1. India: chalcolithic mainly found in South-Eastern Rajasthan, Western part of
Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, and in South and East India.
In india, we have cultures like Ahar culture, Malwa culture

2.Europe: A copper axe found at Prokuplje, Serbia, containing oldest securely dated
evidence of copper 7500 yrs ago.
Certain cultures include Yamna, corded ware, & kurgan culture.
The blaker culture appears to have spread Copper and bronze Technology in Europe,
along with Indo-European language.
3. Africa: Chalcolithic culture first reached Egypt. Seen through the Nagada cultures.
But for most of Africa, Iron and copper smelting appeared together and thus there
was no distinct Chalcolithic period.
Social life:
1. This saw the emergence of full fledged villages.
2. The economy evolved around cultivation of cereals and domesticated animals.
3. Societies engaged in long distance trading.
4. Mud-brick and Thatched houses were common.
5. Religious life centered around the wills of the mother goddess, Sacred Bull, and
a belief of Afterlife is present.
6. Development of stratified society is seen.

Limitations of Chalcolithic Phase

1. Chalcolithic people could not make full use of domestic animals as they used
them only for food and not for milk
2. They did not do much cultivation. They lived in black cotton soil area which
required iron tools for cultivation and there are no traces of plough or hoe.
3. Chalcolithic phase did not show longevity. There are traces of a large number
of children buried which indicate lack of nutrition and outbreak of epidemics.
 4. People had no knowledge of mixing two metals so they could not use the
stronger metal bronze nicely. Copper had its own limitations and its supply
was also less

Value addition
Recently, Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) carried out excavations at two
prominent sites of Chalcolithic affiliations in Central India (Eran, district Sagar and
at Tewar, district Jabalpur) in the state of Madhya Pradesh.

Conclusion
Gradually copper got replaced by bronze, giving rise to bronze age

Sources:
Value addition
(https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/new-circles-of-
archaeological-survey-of-india)

https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1782315

W12D3: Describe the salient features of chalcolithic cultures of the deccan. (15M)

Introduction:
Chalcolithic culture is characterized by the use of copper and stone tools.
Of the 6 chalcolithic cultural zones of India, 2 zones present in the Deccan are
Northern Deccan and Southern Deccan.

Body:

Features of Deccan Chalcolithic:

1. Warm and dry climate.
2. Mud bricks and thatched houses.
3. Cereal cultivation and animal domestication.
4. Mix of metals and stones.
5. Wheel made black and red ware pottery (inverted firing technique)
 6. Religious belief centered around Mother Goddess (sacred bulls).
7. Social inequalities in Chalcolithic society.

Regional Variations:

North Deccan Chalcolithic Cultures:

Savalda (2000-1800 Malwa (1700-1400 BC) Jorwe (1400-700 BC)

BC)

Distribution Dhulia, Maharashtra Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra

Maharashtra

Sites Salvada (Tapi valley) Navdatoli, Maheshwar, Prakash, Daimabad,

Nagda, Eran, Daimabad Inamgaon

Settlement Single roomed 2 level settlement, Houses Early Jorwe houses -

rectangular houses - multi roomed, circular, rectangular -
square or rectangular, sedentary; Late Jorwe
No evidence of bricks, Pit - circular - semi-
dwellings (Inamgaon & nomadic (Dhavalikar)
Daimabad)
Subsistence Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Decline in agriculture
- Late Jorwe -
Hunting (Inamgaon)

Material Pottery - slow wheel Tools - Stone hand axes Tools - stone
Culture turned, Black on red (Navdatoli), Copper blade/flake industry
painted pottery with implements - flat celts (Inamgaon); Metal
naturalistic designs Pottery - Slow wheel technology -
turned, light red or pink rudimentary stage;
pottery with paintings in Lime making
black Pottery - Fast wheel
turned red ware
Burials - Child and
adult burials;
(Inamgaon burial)

South Deccan Chalcolithic Cultures: (2400-1000 BCE)

 Material Culture Tools and Socio-economic Life Art
Technology

● Phase I - Pure ● Long and ● Hill dwellers ● Terracotta

Neolithic phase slender Hunting and figurines of
with crude microlithic cattle rearing bulls, horns and
pottery blade ● Lived in huts, male human
● Phase II - ● flat axes burial under forms
Improved pottery, and fish living floor of ● Excelled in arts
occasional metal hooks of huts on the rock - in
intrusion - metal ● Ash mounds the form of
implies exchange ● minimal indicate punched dots
with North effect of ritual and depicted
Deccan culture metal significance human
● Phase III - Copper knowledge ● Millets, horse figurines as
and bronze on cultural gram, bajra well as horse-
objects, black and efficiency and legumes driven carts
red ware pottery. as main food ● Copper Bangles
● Believed in and bead
afterlife necklaces of
Camelian
steatite and
quartz crystal.

Conclusion:
The use of microlithic stone and copper tools in Chalcolithic cultures transitioned
to bronze tools marking the transition from Neolithic to Copper-bronze age.

Sources:
1. https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/
S000001AN/P001116/M013246/ET/146339182514et.pdf
2. https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/41362/1/Unit-3.pdf
3. https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/20140/1/Unit-10.pdf
W12D3: Indian Palaeolithic culture can neither be conceived chronologically
homogeneous nor as a uniform cultural phase. Discuss (15M)
Introduction

Like present Indian society, Indian prehistory is also full of heterogeneity

and non-uniform cultural phases. The differences are clearly visible in terms of
technology, culture and time period of the sites.

Body
The Indian palaeolithic period is accepted to be emerging around the early
upper pleistocene period, which is late when compared to the world. Indian
palaeolithic culture can neither be conceived chronologically homogeneous nor as
uniform cultural phase

Chronologically non uniform

● In India 3-fold division of lower, middle and upper palaeolithic is not
possible
● Only few sites in India show 3-fold division such as Bhimbetka in MP, Belan
Valley.
● Sites like Belan valley of Upper palaeolithic period dates around 19,000 BC,
while sites like Baghor are as young as 2000 BC (running parallel to IVC).
● Similarly sites like Bhimbetka and Khatauni dates around 5000-6000 BC

Culturally non-uniform
1. Stratification
○ It is showing variation all over the country,
○ Northern sites are highly stratified like Sohan valley, which is having
6- layered stratification
○ Bhimbetka site in Madhya Pradesh is also stratified.
○ Central indian sites showing complicated stratification due to rift
valley
○ South indian sites showing simple stratification
2. Tools
○ Bhimbetka has its distinct feature of Cleaver and hand axes with the
absence of chopper-chopping tool complex
 ○ Madrasian Culture has its own unique feature of vaal technique
which isn't traced to be used by any other site.
○ Similarly, instead of core tools, some places like Kuliana and
Kamarpara (Odisha) were using Flake tools.
○ The Middle Paleolithic is known for flake tools use, but techniques
vary from site to site. E.g., while Nevasian people used stone hammer
and Levalloisian technique, Andhra site used only cylinder hammer
technique. Soan used Mousterian flakes and Narmada people used
Levallois technique only.

3. Arts
○ Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh and Mirzapur in UP are the only sites
where the presence of cave art is seen. Also art objects are rarely seen
in palaeolithic sites

Value addition
Archaeologists Discover An Inventory of Stone Age Tools from An Ancient Cave in
Maharashtra’s Sindhudurg! | The Weather Channel
● A cave site in the forest of sindhudurg the Koshi village in Maharashtra was
recently excavated by Dr. Tejas Garge and his team.
 ● The archaeologists have since found several stone tools that could be
anywhere from 48,000 to 5000 years old
● Some of the tools obtained from the site are microlith tools, tanged points,
choppers, hammer stones, anvils, etc

Conclusion
However, recent discoveries from Attirampakkam site in Tamilnadu is
making the archaeologists rethink palaeolithic cultures in India. But still
palaeolithic culture is non homogeneous and non chronological in present indian
context.
Stone Age tools found in Tamil Nadu suggest re-framing of ‘Out of Africa’
theories (downtoearth.org.in)

W12D4: Describe various aspects of trade and religion of Harappan civilization.

Introduction:
Harappan civilization was the earliest known urban culture of Indian
subcontinent. Indus people were greatly reliant on trade and their religion was
beset with animistic practices.

Body:

Trade of Harappan Civilization:

1. Within country: Maharashtra, South India, Saurashtra and Rajasthan
2. Foreign trade: Sumeria, Afghanistan, Balochistan, Iran, Badakhshan,
Bahrain, Oman and Central Asia.
a. Mesopotamia (cities - Susa, Ur - Harappan seals, cuneiform
inscription)
i. Exports from Harappa - Carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold
and wood.

Material Imported from

 Gold South India, Afghanistan, Persia

Silver Afghanistan, Iran

Copper Rajasthan, Balochistan, Arabia

Lapis Lazuli Badakhshan

Turquoise Iran

Agate Saurashtra, Western India

3. Barter System.
4. Trade routes on land and sea:
a. Carts and pack-cattle - Harappan streets with cart tracks - cart
models - Harappa and Chanhudaro : bronze - equipped with drivers
and canopied compartments.
b. Seal - master’s ship with a central cabin ; Mohenjo Daro,
Sutkagendor, Lothal - maritime trade.
2. Weights and Measures:
a. Cubical chert weights.
b. Binary system: ratio of weight is doubled as 1:2:4:8:16:32.
c. Measuring scale.

Religion of Harappan Civilization:

1. Harappan religion: Animism - worship of trees, stones, etc.
2. No temples have been found.
3. Great Bath - Mohenjo Daro - ritual bathing.
4. Belief in Male and Female Deity:
a. Worship of:
i. Mother Goddess: terracotta figurine at Mohenjo Daro. (John
Marshall, 1931)
ii. Linga and yoni.
iii. God Pashupati (Lord of Beasts) or Proto-Shiva: buffalo horned
head-dress, yogic posture and surrounded by animals.
5. Swastika sign on seals (Mohenjo Daro)
 6. Tree Worship: Pipal - creation and knowledge.
7. Animal Worship: One horned Unicorn, Humped Bull.
8. Fire Worship: Kalibangan and Lothal.
a. No evidence of fire-pits - Harappa, Mohenjo Daro.
9. Belief in Afterlife: Dead rested in N-S direction, buried with earthen pots,
bangles, beads, copper mirrors.
a. Kalibangan - symbolic burial - pots, no bones
b. Lothal - joint or double burials

Value addition:

1) Map showing the trade relations of the Harappan civilisation.

2) The recent finding in Oman of a 5,000 year old silver ring with a bison (a
symbol of Harappan Culture) engraved on it gives insights of the ancient
economic and cultural ties.
https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.aol.com
/amphtml/5-000-old-silver-ring-
130000233.html&ved=2ahUKEwjb36_K6sH7AhUfxTgGHQ2mBu8QyM8BKAB6BAg
KEAI&usg=AOvVaw1zGPe9xbx8LLrmtPdU5wt5

Conclusion:
Thus, the economy of Harappan civilization flourished with vast trade network
and their religious practices stood as a precursor to Hinduism.

Sources:
1. https://nios.ac.in/media/documents/SrSec315NEW/315_History_Eng/
315_History_Eng_Lesson3.pdf
2. TN Class 11 History
3. https://www.harappa.com/sites/default/files/pdf/
Kenoyer2004_Wheeled%20Vehicles%20of%20the%20Indus%20Valley
%20Civilizatio.pdf
4. Telugu Academy

W12D4: Urban Planning in Harappan Culture (15 Marks - 2010)

Introduction

Harappan civilization / Indus Valley Civilization is known as the first

urban civilization of the world which spread across 2 million square kilometers
with a network of cities. Urban planning is a unique feature of Indus valley
civilization which proves that they lived a highly civilized and developed life.

Body

Features of its urban planning:

1. Town planning:
 ● Proper town planning with well laid out streets, flat-roofed brick
houses, with efficient drainage system and ventilations.
● Each city is divided into two regions, citadel- higher ground
(administrative area) and lower city. Purpose of citadel was to protect
the city from flash floods.
● Houses were built on a raised platform and are placed on both sides
of the roads. Doors of the houses are opened into the lanes and not on
to the roads
● Though the streets were not paved, however they are divided in right
angled rectangular blocks and lamps for lighting
2. Water treatment:
● They had well-constructed wells, tanks, public baths, a wide drinking
system
● The baths and wells were situated on the higher ground.
● One third of the area of the city of Dholavira in the Rann of Kutch
was devoted to collection and distribution of freshwater
● Reservoir was connected to a network of small and big reservoirs that
distributed water to the entire city all year around
3. Sanitation:
● Presence of toilet and bathroom in every house.
● Paved drains connected to every house and ran along the streets.
● Drains were covered and connected to the bigger sewage outlets
which ensured to channel the dirt out of the city and is provided with
inception holes to check its functioning.
● Underground drainage system is observed at Lothal.
4. Rain water harvesting and storage:
● One of the oldest water harvesting systems is found in Naneghat in
the western Ghat.
● Efficient system for conservation, harvesting and storage of water
was seen in Dholavira.
5. Irrigation system:
● Early canal irrigation system was also found
● Large scale agriculture was practiced and an extensive network of
canals was used for the purpose of irrigation

E.g., Reservoirs built at Girnar

6. Defense structures:
● Presence of defense walls across cities
● Presence of big wooden trunks along street corners to protect houses
from the fast running Chariots.
Value addition

1. Recently, UNESCO has announced the Harappan city of Dholavira in

Gujarat as India’s 40th world heritage site. It is the first site of Indus
Valley Civilisation (IVC) in India to be included on the coveted list.
https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/
india-s-40th-world-heritage-site-dholavira

Conclusion
All these features suggest that these cities were well planned and developed
before the actual movement of people, houses and regular maintenance of the
infrastructure by the authorities. Thus, Harappan urban planning was the
standout feature of it, and even today it acts as an inspiration to urban planners.

W12D5: Discuss the morphological features and phylogenetic position of

Ramapithecus (15 Marks, 2021)
Introduction
Ramapithecus was the last and most important miocene hominid. It is accepted by
many scholars to be the first true hominid. Ramapithecus dates back to the period
between 14 - 10 million years ago.

Body
Discovery & Distribution
● G.E. Lewis in 1932 discovered remains of upper jaw of Ramapithecus in the
siwalik hill for the first time
● In 1961 L.S.B. Leakey unearthed parts of both sides of the upper jaw of
Ramapithecus in Fort Tarnan, Kenya.

Morphological features of Ramapithecus

1. Incisors & canines vertically inserted(unlike procumbent positions in ape)
 2. Little to no diastema
3. Canines are not projected
4. Presence of canine fossa
5. Rounded dental arcade
6. Arched palate as in man
7. Size of front teeths(I, C) & cheek teeths(PM, M) are nearly similar
8. Flattened & thick enameled premolars & molars are adapted for heavy chewing
& processing of hard food stuffs
9. Size of 3rd molar is reduced as compared to other 2
10. Molars possess Y-5 Cusp pattern as in Dryopithecus
11. Tooth rows are divergent, identified as parabolic or Slightly V-shaped
12. Maxilla reduced in size to accommodate chewing muscles which increases
chewing pressure
13. Presence of large inferior mandible or torus
14. Shelf-like ridges present inside the lower jaw.
15. Orthognathus face

Phylogenetic position of Ramapithecus

● Ramapithecus has been the center of a great debate concerning its possible
hominid status.
● Simons & Pilbeam in 1965 analysed an entire group of fossil discoveries made
by Lewis, Leakey & others.
● Indicated that Sivapithecus was basically ape like
● Ramapithecus seemed to have a number of hominid features & thought
it to be the early hominid ancestor.
● On examining the nature & extent of teeth, some scholars described
Ramapithecus as a weapon wielding terrestrial biped.
● On the basis of fossil findings & interpretations about Ramapithecus, it has
been widely regarded as the first hominid belonging to a line between
Dryopithecus to early miocene & later modern hominids.
● It is suggested that it diverged from ape line around 14mya & marked the
beginning of hominid line(due to its dental similarities with that of later
hominids)
●

● Andrews & Cronin(1982) & Lipson & Pilbeam(1982) suggested that 2 forms ie
Ramapithecus & Sivapithecus are actually a single species group depicting
Females & males of sexually dimorphic species group.
● This idea was put forward to confirm the data suggested by concept of
molecular clock ie Apes & Humans had a common ancestor at 5 mya
approximately

● But later discoveries from Yunan strongly suggests that 2 species evolved there
 ● Large creature with larger dental features with herbivorous detention
were identified as Sivapithecus ape like features
● Other creature with smaller dental features with omivorous dentition

● Thus it is attributed that we would not deny it is a adaptive radiation of

pre human form

Value addition

Conclusion
Ramapithecus is the most likely candidate for the ancestry of later hominids
because of its presence in an area where the next hominids – the Australopithecus
- have been found.
W12D5: Describe the salient features of Sivapithecus. (15 marks, 2018)
Introduction:

Sivapithecus (Shiva’s Ape) is a genus of extinct apes belonging to the Middle-Late

Miocene epoch (13-8 million years ago).

Features of the face, nose and palate are uniquely shared by orangutans and
Sivapithecus, while being absent from other primates.

Body:
Geographical Distribution:
 a.

b. Four regions in Siwaliks: the Potwar Plateau of Pakistan, Ramnagar and

Hari Talyangar in India, and the Churia Hills in Nepal.
c. Greece, Turkey, China, Kenya

Species and Discovery:

Sivapithecus indicus skull - discovered in 1979 - D. Pilbeam and S.M. Ibrahim

Shah - Potwar Plateau, Pakistan. Other species - S. parvada and S.sivalensis.

Physical Features:

Size and Weight:

a. Five-foot long ape; relatively large hominoid, sexual dimorphism
Face:
a. Large zygomatic bones.
b. Concave profile - The face curves markedly upward in profile -
airorhynchy.
c. Eyes set narrowly apart.
d. Orbits are shaped like elongated ovals, tall from top to bottom.
e. Smooth nasal floor.
Dentition:
a. Projecting incisors, large canines similar to orangutans, but dental
differences in molars - both have thickly enameled molars - orangutan:
enamel wrinkled into complicated tooth surfaces; surface of Sivapithecus
teeth: uncomplicated - similar to early hominids.

Sivapithecus Dental Arcade

i. Diet: Tough tubers and stems; also fruit eater.
Adaptation:
a. Occupied more open and seasonal woodlands - Lived part of the time on the
ground - had limbs mainly adapted to arboreal life (Andrews & Stringer,
1989)
b. Forelimbs - unique mixture of arboreal quadrupedalism.

Phylogeny:
Earlier View: Ancestor to modern humans.
Present View:
● Sivapithecus - basically ape-like - considered as an ape ancestor (Simons
and Pilbeam, 1965)
● 2 forms - Sivapithecus and Ramapithecus - one single species group -
males and females of sexually dimorphic species group. (Lipson and
Pilbeam, Andrews and Cronin, 1982)

Value addition:
● First record of Sivapithecus from Kutch Region, Gujarat

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6235281/
 ● Knuckle-walking in Sivapithecus

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/49708644_Knuckle-
walking_in_Sivapithecus_The_combined_effects_of_homology_and_ho
moplasy_with_possible_implications_for_pongine_dispersals

Conclusion:
Sivapithecus possesses a mosaic of hominid and ‘pongid’ (orangutan) characters,
making them the last common (or generalised) ancestor.

Sources:
1. Telugu Academy
2. Ember and Ember
3. https://www.thoughtco.com/sivapithecus-ramapithecus-1093141
4. https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/65870/1/Block-1.pdf
5. https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/41345/1/Unit-3.pdf
6. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sivapithecus
7. https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/
S000001AN/P001775/M024497/ET/1508923855Quadrant1.pdf

Link: New Sivapithecus specimen from Ramnagar (Jammu and Kashmir), India
and a taxonomic revision of Ramnagar hominoids
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0047248418304378

W13D1: Discuss the importance of ethnoarchaeology in reconstructing the past

citing Indian examples. (15 M)

Introduction:
Ethno-archaeology as a separate branch of archaeology as well as a sub-branch in
anthropology. It is the knowledge of a contemporary ethnic group for
understanding past culture. Coined by Jesse Fewkesin 1900.

Body:
IMPORTANCE OF ETHNOARCHAEOLOGY IN RECONSTRUCTING THE PAST.
1. Settlement patterns
2. Site structure and activities
3. Subsistence systems
4. Material culture
5. Mortuary practices

Settlement patterns

David and Kramer have characterized several subsistence adaptations- hunting

and gathering,pastoralism and agriculture-and their spatial correlations,
drawing on selected case studies with a view to identification of their
archaeological signatures.

Example :
The type and nature of the house and other architectural remains ,daily use
materials as well as other materials artifacts help to reconstruct past culture.

Subsistence system

Settlement Patterns and subsistence systems are always interrelated. Human

habitation or settlement is always established near to a source of food and
water.Similarly,the human settlements always leave some substantial tangible
remains on the surface from which an archaeologist can able to trace out the
nature and types of occupation practiced by the inhabitants.

Example :
The shifting cultivation and terrace cultivation practiced by different tribal
groups of orissa and jharkhand make available evidence related to the subsistence
practice of early neolithic culture of the region .

Site structure and activities

On the basis of findings,they try to establish the settlement pattern

& subsistence systems of a particular site.They usually emphasize in locating
areas in which craft activities were made.

Example :
Ethnography of craft,especially the traditional method of iron smelting craft of
Asura and kolhas

Material culture

Material culture comprises any house,building or structure,tools and other

artifacts that include any material item that has had cultural meaning ascribed to
it, past and present.

Example :
The tribes like Ho, santhal, Munda, Bathudi and Bedia etc who are residing along
with other communities use very simple dresses to cover their body.

Mortuary practice

The ethnographic study of mortuary practice is very much useful for

interpretation of the burial sites of archaeological context, but difficult to
understand due to variation in various factors.

Example :
Mortuary practice of the “Ho tribe”
The burial of the dead body,the Hos always dig a stepped burial pit which contains
two chambers inner and outer.They place the dead body and associated grave
goods inside the inner chamber whereas the outer chamber is filled with
soil.Grave goods basically include foods,drinks,utensils,coins,ornaments (glass,
brass,silver,iron gold,etc.) and a person's daily use articles,except the hunting
implements.

Significance of Ethnoarchaeological studies in India:

 ● Ethnoarchaeological studies in East India → Majority of them are still
rural in character and follow traditional ways of life.

● Cultural development among the cultures of Indian tribes- retain some

fabric of prehistoric life ways.

● A record of this surviving process can be of great use for extracting

information about the past ways of life and remote times.

● Ethnoarchaeology has ample scope as its application expands beyond

the understanding of material culture alone in the context of tribes.

● The multiplicity and variety of preserved traditions among these

societies render it to be a storehouse of preliterate cultures.

Value Addition:
Kalinga ethnoarchaeology study
Thunder Axe ethnoarchaeology study
Ethno Archaeology as Embedded History: The Kerala Experience
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Manjula-Poyil/publication/
350521872_Ethno_Archaeology_as_Embedded_History_The_Kerala_Experie
nce/links/606b4817299bf1252e2fc52d/Ethno-Archaeology-as-Embedded-
History-The-Kerala-Experience.pdf?origin=publication_detail

Conclusion:

Thus, if ethnoarchaeology stresses on observing the ways of the pre-literate

people, the traditional practices and belief systems which the tribes in this part
of the world have carried with them from generations to generations, it can
unfold valuable information about the past and act as an aid to archaeological
recourse.
W13D1: Discuss the importance of the ethno-archaeological approach to the study
of indigenous craft in India. (15M)

Introduction:
Ethnoarchaeological approach to the study of indigenous crafts explains
contemporary craft forms to draw inferences regarding patterns of past
behaviour.

Body:
1. Understand patterns of continuity and change in ceramic traditions.
a. Archana Choksi (1995) studied Gundiyali (farmers, labourers, service
class) and Lodai (farmers and herders), two pot manufacturing
villages in Gujarat - produce different vessels. Potters are reluctant
to change design of vessels - except when there’s significant socio-
economic changes.
2. Highlights type of relationship between artisan groups and local
population.
a. Horne’s work (1989) on brass workers in West Bengal - reside in a
specialized community, producing bowls, lamps for sedentary
population - symbiotic relationship.
3. Multiple systems of craft production in early urban centres.
a. Kenoyer et al., (1989) studied Khambhat - centre of agate bead
making. Large-scale production - centralized workshops; smaller
scale production - independent workshops.
4. Insights on transmission of craft-making skills to understand craft
specialization emergence.
a. Valentine Roux (1980’s) - the stages of technological development of
wheel-thrown pottery (Early & Mature Harappan) - comparable to
the stages for apprenticeship in wheel-thrown pottery in Delhi.
5. Understanding continuity in culture.
a. Kramer’s research (1980’s) - Hindu and Muslim traditional
earthenware potters located in two urban centers, Rajasthan -
Similarity in ceramics produced since Harappan time to the
contemporary.
b. Craft of Dhokra metal casting, West Bengal - known since IVC.
 6. Change in material culture in hierarchical societies.
a. Miller (1981) studied pottery use in Madhya Pradesh - lower status
individuals adopt materials used by higher status groups - raise their
status (Sanskritisation)
b. Groups - top of the social hierarchy discard previously used ceramic
forms for new ones - material (and social) distinctiveness.
7. Utility of materials discovered in past.
a. E.g. - Chirand, Neolithic site in Bihar - terracotta figurines of snakes
- Nagas in the area worship snake figurines today.

Value Addition:

Thongjao‐ A Perspective of Ethnoarchaeology

http://www.heritageuniversityofkerala.com/JournalPDF/Volume2/481-492.pdf

Conclusion:
Ethnoarchaeological approach vis-a-vis indigenous craft helps us reconstruct the
social lives of indigenous communities and gives a better understanding of their
culture.

Sources:

1. https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/
0a8e0334-fce2-47f2-bece-660249352c7c/content (Miller, Valentine Roux,
Kenoyer, Horne)
2. https://networks.h-net.org/node/22055/reviews/22087/kolb-kramer-
pottery-rajasthan-ethnoarchaeology-two-indian-cities (Kramer)
3. https://crpmahavidyalaya.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/AR_A-
History_of_Ancient_and_Early_Med_Upinder_Singh.pdf (Archana
Choksi)
4. https://www.livehistoryindia.com/story/living-culture/dhokra-art
W13D2: What are the various factors influencing population growth in India?
Discuss. 15 marks (2018)

Introduction:

With 1.41 billion people (18% of World’s population), India is the second most
populous nation of the world after China's 1.45 billion. As per World’s population
prospects 2022, India will have the highest population in the world by 2023.

If we look at the demographic transition of India, we observe that we are

somewhere in the 3rd stage of falling birth rate and slowly decreasing death rate.

Body:

The major factors which influence the population growth rate of India are:

1. Total Fertility rate above the replacement level

 ● The decline in TFR in India is very slow (3.6 In 1991 to 2.159 in 2022) which
is still slightly above the replacement level of 2.1. As per NFHS, Among
Tribes TFR is 2.8
● Due to the high replacement level in these years, it led to huge population
growth.

2. Decreased Mortality Rate

● India's mortality rate reduced from 27 in 1951 to 9 in 2022.
● Life expectancy increased due to improved medical facilities. It also
contributed to India's growing population.
● In 2022, There is nearly 60% (54 per 1000) reduction in Under-5 Mortality
rate in Tribal population compared to 1988 (135 per 1000).

3. High rural population with agrarian economy

● The TFR level of rural India at 2.5 in comparison to urban TFR of 1.8.
● High population growth in rural areas led to increased number in
agriculture

4. Big family benefits

● Social, political and economic benefits
● Migration to urban areas without disturbing agricultural practices
● Provides sense of security and helps in gaining political power

5. Poor population control measures with lack of administrative support

● Lack of administrative support, technological interferences, Awareness, etc
for policy measures, leading to lack of awareness and acceptance towards
contraceptive measures.

6. Poor level of education, healthcare, and nutrition level

● Education is the biggest antidote to overpopulation, but in India, literacy

level is only around 74%, with many only as functional literates. Tribal
literacy rate is only 54%.
● Poor healthcare facilities and high IMR leads to more childbirth as security
against any unnatural death.
● The government is yet to connect issues on healthcare, nutrition and high
EMR to literacy, especially female literacy, nutritional security, provisions
for safe drinking water, sanitation, etc.
 Example: Kerala has achieved significant results in population control and
duties focus on literacy healthcare. While states with poor female literacy and lack
of basic facilities are still struggling to reach TFR and low IMR.

7. Religious beliefs and traditions

● Among large sections of people across religious lives, it is believed that the
children or gift of God and their birth should not be curbed.
● The Son meta preference is still observed in many parts of the society, The
social evil of dowry is also a contributing factor to it.
● Adiya and Kattunayakan tribes in Kerala do not use contraceptives and
considers it as an ill-practice.

8. Lack of state interest

● Population control being a central policy issue, most states lack a policy and
initiative from their end. State, being nearer to the people, has an important
role to play.
Example: Low TFR rate in south indian states due to the individual efforts to
implement population control measures, while states like Bihar up have failed to
take the initiative from their end.

Value Addition:

Tribal eligible couple and care providers' perspective on family planning: A

qualitative study in Keonjhar district, Odisha, India - Clinical Epidemiology and
Global Health (cegh.net)

Conclusion:

It is essential for India to achieve its target of stable population levels

to reduce the strain on the diminishing resources. Simultaneously, rich
demographic dividend must be reaped to benefit from the large working age
population.
W13D2: Outline the distribution of Dravidian languages in India and describe
their cultural significance. (15 Marks 2014).

Introduction:

Robert Caldwell in 1856 used ‘Dravidian’ as one of the major language families,
consisting of 80 varieties spoken by over 220 million people in southern and
central India, and is thought to have originated around 4,500 years ago.

Body:

Distribution of Dravidian languages in india

Dravidian Languages is a family of 80 varieties including both languages &

dialects that are categorized on the basis of the regions they are spoken in,
which are as follows-

NORTHERN GROUP CENTRAL GROUP SOUTHERN GROUP

It is made up of three *It is made up of eleven *This category includes

languages: different languages: seven languages.

*Brahui is spoken in Gondi, Khond, Kui, Kannada, Tamil,

Baluchistan, Manda, Parji, Gadaba, Malayalam, Tulu,
Kolami, Pengo, Naiki, Kodagu, Toda, and Kota
Malto in Bengal and Kuvi, Spoken by tribes.
Odisha's tribal areas, Tamil is the oldest of
and Telugu has evolved into a these.
civilized language and is
Kurukh in Bengal, spoken in Andhra Malayalam least spoken
Odisha, Bihar, and Pradesh and Telangana,
Madhya Pradesh
Cultural Significance of Dravidian language

● The research community agrees that the Dravidians are natives of the
Indian subcontinent and were present before the Indo-Aryans (Indo-
European speakers) arrived in India around 3,500 years ago.

● The Dravidian languages were much more widespread in the west in the
past than they are today.
 ● These groups of languages have kinship organizations.

● Separate labels are used for older and younger individuals in a generation.

● There is the absence of reconstructible words for caste or caste names.

● There is the presence of basic numerals from ten to one hundred.

● They are spoken in southern India, parts of Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, etc.

● Among 21 known Dravidian languages, the four major Dravidian

languages have much more cultural significance,some of the classical
examples contributing to its significance are:

1.Tamil

*It is a classical language, with continuity between its classical and modern
forms, as evidenced by inscriptions, poems, secular and religious texts, and songs.

*It has its own vocabulary, own linguistic systems .It is also one of the most
culturally rich language. It has numerous classical literary works. Some of
them are:-

*Tolkâppiyam: Tolkâppiyam or 'an ancient poem' is the oldest long work of

Tamil literature that still exists. It is evolved over time & it is composed
between the 2nd and 1st century BCE.

*Jivaka-Chintamani, Silappadikaram, Manimekalai, Kundalakesi, and

Valayapathi: collectively known as the Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature.

*Yapperungalam, Yapperungalakkarigai: Two works on prosody (or the

patterns of rhythm and sound used in poetry) by the Jain ascetic
Amirtasagara.
Telugu

Andhra Mahabharatam: The Telugu version of the Mahabharatha . It is

written by the Kavitrayam or a trinity of poets, namely Nannayya, Thikkana,
and Yerrapragada between the 11-14th centuries CE, known to be the first
Telugu literary composition.

Kannada

Kavirâjamârga: Literally meaning the 'Royal Path for Poets', Kavirâjamârga:

was written around 850 AD. It was meant to be a guidebook for poets and
scholars alike.

Malayalam
Ramacharitam and Thirunizhalmala: These epic poems written in old Malayalam
are the earliest known literary works. Later on, another style of writing called the
"Pattu" (song) literature became very popular.

Value Addition:
Ancestral Dravidian languages were possibly spoken by many in Indus Valley
civilisation.
https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/ancestral-dravidian-languages-were-possibly-
spoken-by-many-in-indus-valley-civilisation-says-study/article35738505.ece

Conclusion:
Prehistory of Dravidian languages is shrouded in mystery as its reconstruction is
still fragmentary . A multidisciplinary pursuit involving linguistics,
ethnoarchaeology & genomics is the need of the hour for better understanding of
Dravidian pre-history & its influence on Eurasian languages.
Outline the distribution of Dravidian languages in India and describe their
cultural significance. (15 Marks 2014).
Introduction:

Robert Caldwell in 1856 used ‘Dravidian’ as one of the major language families,
consisting of 80 varieties spoken by over 220 million people in southern and
central India, and is thought to have originated around 4,500 years ago.

Body:

Distribution of Dravidian languages in india

Dravidian Languages is a family of 80 varieties including both languages &

dialects that are categorized on the basis of the regions they are spoken in, which
are as follows-

NORTHERN GROUP CENTRAL GROUP SOUTHERN GROUP

It is made up of three *It is made up of eleven *This category includes

languages: different languages: seven languages.

*Brahui is spoken in Gondi, Khond, Kui, Kannada, Tamil,

Baluchistan, Manda, Parji, Gadaba, Malayalam, Tulu,
Kolami, Pengo, Naiki, Kodagu, Toda, and Kota
Malto in Bengal and Kuvi, Spoken by tribes.
Odisha's tribal areas, Tamil is the oldest of
and Telugu has evolved into a these.
civilized language and is
Kurukh in Bengal, spoken in Andhra Malayalam least spoken
Odisha, Bihar, and Pradesh and Telangana,
Madhya Pradesh
Cultural Significance of Dravidian language

● The research community agrees that the Dravidians are natives of the
Indian subcontinent and were present before the Indo-Aryans (Indo-
European speakers) arrived in India around 3,500 years ago.

● The Dravidian languages were much more widespread in the west in the
past than they are today.
 ● These groups of languages have kinship organizations.

● Separate labels are used for older and younger individuals in a generation.

● There is the absence of reconstructible words for caste or caste names.

● There is the presence of basic numerals from ten to one hundred.

● They are spoken in southern India, parts of Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, etc.

● Among 21 known Dravidian languages, the four major Dravidian

languages have much more cultural significance,some of the classical
examples contributing to its significance are:

1.Tamil

*It is a classical language, with continuity between its classical and modern
forms, as evidenced by inscriptions, poems, secular and religious texts, and songs.

*It has its own vocabulary, own linguistic systems .It is also one of the most
culturally rich language. It has numerous classical literary works. Some of them
are:-

*Tolkâppiyam: Tolkâppiyam or 'an ancient poem' is the oldest long work of Tamil
literature that still exists. It is evolved over time & it is composed between the 2nd
and 1st century BCE.

*Jivaka-Chintamani, Silappadikaram, Manimekalai, Kundalakesi, and

Valayapathi: collectively known as the Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature.

*Yapperungalam, Yapperungalakkarigai: Two works on prosody (or the patterns

of rhythm and sound used in poetry) by the Jain ascetic Amirtasagara.

Telugu
Andhra Mahabharatam: The Telugu version of the Mahabharatha . It is written by
the Kavitrayam or a trinity of poets, namely Nannayya, Thikkana, and
Yerrapragada between the 11-14th centuries CE, known to be the first Telugu
literary composition.

Kannada

Kavirâjamârga: Literally meaning the 'Royal Path for Poets', Kavirâjamârga: was
written around 850 AD. It was meant to be a guidebook for poets and scholars
alike.

Malayalam
Ramacharitam and Thirunizhalmala: These epic poems written in old Malayalam
are the earliest known literary works. Later on, another style of writing called the
"Pattu" (song) literature became very popular.

Value Addition:

Ancestral Dravidian languages were possibly spoken by many in Indus Valley

civilisation.
https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/ancestral-dravidian-languages-
were-possibly-spoken-by-many-in-indus-valley-civilisation-says-study/
article35738505.ece

Conclusion:
Prehistory of Dravidian languages is shrouded in mystery as its reconstruction is
still fragmentary . A multidisciplinary pursuit involving linguistics,
ethnoarchaeology & genomics is the need of the hour for better understanding of
Dravidian pre-history & its influence on Eurasian languages.

W13D3: Purushartha and righteous living today (10 Marks, 2021)

Introduction:
Purushartha refers to the 4 goals of life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and
Moksha, that help in maintaining a balance between materialism and
spiritualism.

Body:

Purushartha Chatushtaya:

1. Dharma (righteousness) - Central to all human activities. Regulates

enjoyment of Artha and Kama. “History of the Dharmashastra (1930)”, V.P.
Kane explains dharma as rights and duties of man -
 2. Artha (wealth) - Means for acquiring worldly prosperity. Righteous and
honest pursuit of economic activities oriented towards -
a. Wealth acquisition
b. Aparigraha (non-appropriation)
c. Asteya (non-stealing)
3. Kama (desire)- All impulses, instincts and desires of man, seeking pleasure
through satisfaction of senses. Essential for perpetuation of Kula (family &
lineage) and aesthetic development of man.
4. Moksha (liberation) - Salvation, liberation from endless cycle of births and
deaths. Absorption of self into eternal bliss. Realization - Brahmavid
Brahmaiva Bhavati.

Purushartha and Righteous Living Today:

1. Means to regulate oneself and achieve internal peace of mind.
2. Dharma - exaggerated exposition of aristocracy.
3. Artha and Kama end in themselves -
a. Social life - dominated by violence, corruption
b. Urge to seek money (Materialistic) not restricted - self-indulgence &
bars way to highest good - Moksha.
 c. (Capitalistic exploitation) Industrialisation & Urbanisation.
d. Over indulgence in sensual pleasures - euphoria from drug use.
e. Desire to increase lifespan using modern medical technology - Away
from Moksha.
i. Focus on maintenance of body over soul.
4. Rise of inhumane and immoral practices - departure from Dharma.
a. Warfare, Money Mules.
5. Force of law exercised for enforcing rules - individual doesn’t fit in his
social position & does undesirable activity - punished.

Value Addition:

On Dharma:

● N.A. Nikam, 1973 : Dharma is a means to an end, that Dharma is only an

"instrumental" value.
● Robert Redfield (1953,61) - Dharma is a style of life which includes the way
of getting a living which contributes to shaping ideas of the good life. The
term emphasizes the judgements, implicit or explicit or expressed, as to
what is right conduct.

https://www.academia.edu/13637278/
Anthropology_of_Civilization_DHARMA_THE_INDIAN_CULTURAL_HE
RITAGE

On Purushartha

● Louis Dumont (1960) has given a correct perspective to this trilogy of

human functions in society. The three values in this critical trilogy are
dharma, artha and kama. While Dharma implies duty and leads to moral
universalism, Artha is profit that implies rational action in our economic
theory extended to politics Kama refers to pleasures of life.
● Manu : The management and conduct of life should be conceived and
formulated in terms of harmonious coordination of these three Trivarga
(classes of needs).

Conclusion:
Despite its eroding presence in practice, Purushartha remains significant in
guiding our social ethics as well as leading a balanced life.

Sources:
1. Indian Anthropology - Nadeem Hasnain
2. http://www.vpmthane.com/Publications/Indian%20Philosophy
%20%20Its%20Relevance%20in%20the%2021st%20Century/Ms.
%20Sneha%20Sharma.pdf
3. https://www.thejaipurdialogues.com/sanatana/importance-of-
purushartha-in-current-times/
4. https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/
S000001AN/P001117/M013265/ET/14634646346et.pdf

W13D3: Dharma versus Religion (2022)

Introduction:
Dharma derives its origin from 'Dhru' metal of Sanskrit which means to Wear or
Uphold whereas Religion originates from Latin word Religare which Means to
bind.

Although both Dharma & Religion used synonymously but there are many
differences which are :

Body:

Dharma Religion

Dharma’ points to the universal a religion is restrictive and imposes

truth relevant for the whole of a pre-fixed “belief system” on
humanity. regardless of different people. a religion divides humanity
beliefs of different people. E.g:“One into “believers” and “non-believers”.
Global family”, vasudhaiva
kutumbakam
Dharma is all about ethics and Most of Religions also preach
morality,it focuses on developing Morals and values,but they are not
basic human virtues like honesty, universal and must be understood
compassion, gratitude, non-violence within the ambit of Religion.
etc.
e.g:Christian ethics is based on the
Bible.-teaches how to live a life that
is pleasing to god

Dharma is based on Knowledge and Religion is largely based on holy

wisdom based on practical Ground scriptures
realities,Laws of Nature,social
reforms etc e.g;Bible,Quran etc

No specific scriptures.

Dynamic Changes with Mostly static and minor changes

circumstances ,time,society,region possible
etc

E.g: A kshatriya should not avoid the

call for fighting-That’s is irrelevant
today

Dharma Expects people do their Just Religion preaches people to have

duty faith in supernatural powers for
good results.

e.g: Nishkama Karma

Rituals are absent, Most religions have rituals.

Religions often have different sects

 E.g:Roman Catholicism,
Protestantism in christianity

Shia, sunni in Islam

Idea of conversion absent, Conversions encouraged

understanding encouraged

Inquiry and questioning Encouraged Beliefs are Immutable and can’t be

questioned.

Value Addition- https://openthemagazine.com/columns/dharma-vs-religion/

Very nature of religious identity differs when it comes to the Western or
Abrahamic religious traditions and the Indic or dharmic religious traditions. In
the case of the Abrahamic traditions, religious identity is exclusive and singular;
and in the case of the dharmic traditions, it tends to be inclusive and even
multiple aspects.

Conclusion:
Thus, Dharma is an ideal frame of reference for appropriate human conduct & it
is inclusive of all the religions.

References:https://openthemagazine.com/columns/dharma-vs-religion/

https://socialissuesindia.wordpress.com/why-dharma-is-not-religion/

W13D4: Critically examine the concept of Tribe – Caste continuum and its
relevance in contemporary India. (15 Marks-2015)
Introduction:

The concept of continuum was initially coined by R Redfield (Folk urban

Continuum) in his work ‘The folk culture of YUCATAN’ 1941. Bailey in his book,
Tribe, Caste and Nation (1960), used this framework in the Indian context
reconstructing it as Tribe Caste Continuum (TCC)

Body:
F.G. Bailey proposed that there exists a continuity between tribes and castes of
India. He

● Suggested Tribes and caste should be viewed in terms of continuum

● Argued that caste society is organic and hierarchical while tribal society is
segmentary and egalitarian
● Seeks distinction to make the distinction in relation to politico- economic
system but not in totality of behaviour

Surjit Sinha tried to understand the tribe caste continuum on the basis of his field
work among the tribes of Bastar. He opines that many of the lower caste in India
seem to share their culture with the tribals

Changes in tribal society

● Haimendorf study of Reddy’s of bison hills show that true British contact
low cultivation led to transformation of Reddy’s in caste system as
kshatriya
● Sanskritization wave and attraction of Brahmanism
● Change in economic pattern settled agriculture
● Discarding Additions and consumerism

Hindu society to see changes

● Gotra system- DD Kosambi finds the route of gotra in tribal clan

organization
● Endogamy - Uma Chakravarti points out tribal need of presenting identity
and cost need of preserving purity is satisfied by structure of endogamy

Criticism of TCC

● Dev Nathan in his work, ‘from tribe to caste’ criticizes the view of tribe’s
eagerness to convert into caste as ethnocentric and biased.
● According to Ghurye every tribe is backward Hindu caste
● According to Saraswati, there is cultural oneness of tribe and caste
● In certain cases, tribalism take place
 ● Careful ignorance of changes brought in Hindu caste system of tribal
contact like gotra.
● TCC is oppressive for tribe
○ Example bhils who played instrumental role in formation of Mewar
state were oppressed in some state

Relevance

● It demonstrates the dynamic nature of Indian society

● It helps in recognising the history of contact between the tribals and Hindu
society and appreciate the intermingling of little and great tradition
● This can enable effective designing of developmental programme that
understand regional dynamics and preserve cultural autonom
● The concept can establish the level of culture contact of tribes for instance
Sachidanand scale can be applied to different tribes as follows

Value addition

1. Mention of tribes in Hindu epics like Ramayana (like shabari) and in

Mahabharata (as eklavya)

https://theprint.in/opinion/ramayan-to-mahabharat-what-ancient-hindu-
texts-teach-us-about-honouring-tribals/1216463/
 2. Analysis is the reflection of the effect of the sociological process of a Tribe-
Caste continuum on genetic structure. While on one end we have the
cluster of Caucasoid caste populations, the other end consists of Mongoloid
tribal groups. In between are the populations which were originally tribes
but now have become semi-Hinduized caste groups, viz., Rajbanshi, Chutia
of Assam, and Ahom.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15101058/

Conclusion:
Thus, tribe and caste are seen forming a continuum. Yet it is clearly see
that both caste and tribe are becoming transferred and are being merged into a
different system which neither one nor the other

W13D4: Based on historical and contemporary evidences discuss the future

of caste system in India. (15 marks-2018)

Introduction:
M.N. Srinivas, in ‘Caste in Modern India’ (1962), defines caste as a hereditary,
endogamous, usually localized group, having a traditional association with an
occupation, and a particular position in the local hierarchy of castes.

Body:
Contemporary Evidences:

Caste and Continuity:

M.N. Srinivas (2003) - “While caste as a system is dead or dying, individual castes
are thriving.”
1. Ritual aspect of caste confined to personal sphere.
a. Harold Gould - rickshawallahs of Lucknow (1974) - While working -
no caste restrictions. At home - observed all caste ritual practices.
2. Caste Alliances: Political mobilisation of caste groups - Madhopur, U.P.
a. Noniyas & Chamars joined - oppose the locally dominant upper caste
Thakurs.
3. Caste-based politics.
a. Political parties - candidates - drawn from the locally dominant
caste groups.
b. Horizontal stretch - M.N. Srinivas - Future of Indian Caste (1979) -
coming together of cognate jatis - play vital role in state politics.
E.g. Kolis, Gujarat
4. Regulates distribution of material opportunity.
a. Caste-based affirmative action.

Caste and Change:

1. From Closed to Open System:
a. Caste, Class and Power Changing Patterns of Stratification in a
Tanjore Village - Andre Beteille (1966)
 i. pre-British - education - monopoly of Brahmans
ii. During his study, educational system - far more open - many
non-Brahman and untouchable boys attended schools at
Sripuram and Thiruvaiyur.
2. Decline in Hierarchy: Rudolph and Rudolph (1967: 11) - success of
representative democracy.
a. Led different caste groups to come together - achieve their political
goals.
3. Caste associations to pursue social mobility.
a. Nadars of Tamil Nadu - association efforts - Nadar Mahajana
Sangam, acquired higher status & modern organisation to serve their
needs.
4. Weakening of caste-occupation nexus.
a. Jajmani system disintegration - now - market-based pricing for
services by workers. E.g. Urbanclap
b. Industrialisation, Modernization - Automation - low dependency.
5. Downward social mobility.
a. Higher castes - Jats (Haryana) protesting for reservation in jobs and
colleges.
6. Caste system visible in religious minorities.
a. E.g. Public discourse regarding lower caste Muslims and Christians -
for affirmative action.
7. Concept of purity and pollution, commensality aspect of caste - declined.
a. Mid-day Meal Scheme.
8. Marriage outside rigid caste boundaries.
a. Decline of joint family - Inter-caste marriages gaining popularity.
9. Promotions based on merit instead of caste.
a. E.g. MNC’s.

Future of Caste System in India:

3 schools of thought -
1. Abolishment of Caste System - Ghurye & Ambedkar
 a. Asirvatham (1957) - “whatever uses caste might have had in the past,
it is a hindrance to progress today - therefore, we should oppose it
tooth and nail”.
b. Critic - D.N. Majumdar - evils like untouchability - like broken or
poisoned finger - need to be amputated - not the whole system.
2. Restoration of Varna System - Gandhi
a. Proper division of labour.
b. Critic - A.J. Toynbee, T.H. Marshall, P. Kodanda Rao - intra-family
occupational variations.
3. Modification of Caste System
a. Amalgamate various sub-castes having cultural unity and economic
similarity.
b. Critic - Tried in Bombay, results disastrous.

Value Addition:

Understanding the role and relevance of the caste system in 21st century India -
Students' perceptions.

https://www.sav.sk/journals/uploads/05281234AAS_20-1_Gundemeda.pdf

Conclusion:
As long as caste performs the functions of a welfare state in India and provides for
the common bonds of kinship ties, political groups and alliances, it can be assured
of a continued existence in modern India.

Sources:
1. https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/18870/1/Unit-21.pdf
2. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4367345
3. http://eprints.nias.res.in/991/1/2003-mns-epw.pdf
4. https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/caste-system-in-india-
future-of-caste-system-in-india/39168#:~:text=Caste%20System%20in
%20India%3A%20Future%20of%20Caste%20System%20in%20India,-
Article%20shared%20by&text=The%20only%20visible%20change
%20is,intact%20for%20all%20practical%20purposes.
W13D5: Write short notes on Nature-Man- Spirit Complex. (10 Marks -
2017)

Introduction:

The concept of Nature Man Spirit (NMS) complex was proposed by LP

Vidyarthi in his book “The Maler: a study in NMS complex” in a hill tribe, (1963),
based on the cultural ecological approach of Julian Steward.

Body:

L P Vidyarthi studied the adaptation process with special reference to Maler (Mal
Pahariya)- a primitive tribe of shifting cultivators inhabiting the Rajmahal hills
of erstwhile Bihar region. (presently in Sahibganj district of Jharkhand)

● Attempt to understand the adaptation of the socio-cultural institutions

with the local environmental conditions.
● Interaction and influence of three interrelated factors in Maler Life.

PK Singh re-examined the concept in his study of Maler and came up with a
formula

● t*e*r*g= k( constant)
○ t= technology
 ○ e= environment
○ r= man to man dependence
○ g= man to god dependence

Inspite of many changes in maler life, the concept was constant and valid in time
dimension

Contemporary relevance

● It is an important contribution for applied anthropologist to formulation

and implementation of development programmes in tribal areas
● Theoretical & Methodological model for studying tribes and peasant
societies
○ Nicobarese study by VS Sahay
○ R K Prasad studied the Pahariya of Bihar
○ R K Sinha studied Pando of Madhya pradesh
● Resistance, rejection and Rehabilitation of Tribal community
○ Niyamgiri hill case
○ Coal mining protest in the Hasdeo Aranya region of Chhattisgarh

Criticism

● Marvin Harris gave the concept of Nature-Man- Culture complex. Concept

is restricted by replacing “Culture” with “Spirit”

Conclusion:

NMS complex helps in complete understanding of a society, their

complex problems and aids in better policy formulation and in turn mutual
and sustainable development

Value addition:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
320064643_Changing_Sacred_Status_of_Village_Pond_in_the_Context
_of_People-Pond-Spirit_Complex_An_Empirical_Study
W13D5: Sacred complex as a dimension of Indian civilization (10 Marks
2015)

Introduction:

Under the guidance of R.Redfield, LP Vidyarthi put forth the concept of Sacred
Complex in the book ‘Sacred complex of Hindu Gaya’ 1961

Body:

Sacred complex is the center of civilization where pilgrims from different regions
of India & different levels of culture interact.

Structure of Sacred Complex

According to the study of Gaya By LP Vidyarthi, it consists of

1. Sacred Geography includes sacred rivers stones trees buildings having

property of sacredness
2. Sacred performances pilgrims performs various specialised rituals like
Gaya shraddha, pind Dan, hawan, puja, prayers etc
3. Sacred Specialists performances are performed by priests, monks, florists,
etc

Sacred Complex as dimension of Indian Civilization

1. Both Cohn & Marriot(1958) and Vidyarthi(1961) have considered sacred

complexes & network of pilgrimages functionally important in the
integration of Indian civilization.
2. Vidyarthi developed the concept of the sacred complex as a dimension of
Indian civilization, whereas Mariot & Cohn developed the concepts of
‘Network & Centres’ to study the channels of integration of Indian
civilization.
3. Sacred Geography is further subdivided into clusters of sacred centres
containing various sacred objects & places which demonstrates the
continuity of India's great & little traditions.
4. It also exhibits several kinds of combinations between hindu & buddhist
traditions at different levels, however in modern era, secular zones are
expanding at the cost of sacred zone
 5. Interdependence & Reciprocal exchange is well established in Jajmani
Relationships with Priests & patrons of hindu universe.
6. Centers of civilization: Although common concept of sacred & equal
participation in the sacred performances varies with respect to semitic
religious places like Mecca, Jerusalem, yet Sacred complexes integrates
diverse cultural traditions into a common bond of a civilization in india
[Saraswati, 1982]
7. Saraswati in his study of kashi complex observed that it is not just
organisations of traditions but the Indian civilization which sustains the
co-existence of brahmanic & non-brahmanic traditions together.

Conclusion:

Thus the concept of sacred complex has become a very popular theoretical model for
studying traditional cities and places of pilgrimage as dimensions of Indian civilizat
ion.

Value addition:

Sacred Complex and Development: An Ethnographic Study of a Devta Institution

in Himachal Pradesh

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
324770590_Sacred_Complex_and_Development_An_Ethnographic_Study_o
f_a_Devta_Institution_in_Himachal_Pradesh

W14D1: Explain the impact of Buddhism and Jainism on Indian society. (20
marks, 2018)

Introduction:

Buddhism & Jainism emerged as an alternative religion in 6th BCE challenging

Brahmanical Supremacy and caste inequality. Although the population following
these is very less, it has impacted Indian society greatly.
Body:

Impact of buddhism on indian society

Art and
architecture of
Economic Political life of
life of indian indian society

Impact of Religious life

Modern life of indian
of indian Buddhism

Social life of Language and

indian education of
indian society
On social life

● Reduced the intensity of caste inequality

● Created unity and consciousness of kindness, humanity,peace.
Example:
Caste system was strongly opposed by Buddha , which motivated future leaders
like Mahatma Gandhi and Ambedkar to do the same.

On economic life

● Improved agriculture and emphasized on cattle protection

● External Trade increased prosperity of merchant and craftsmen
Example :
Agricultural prominence -improved economic prosperity in indian society

On political life
 ● It achieved political peace (ahimsa )and established a good international
relation
● It preached Dharma and Vijaya rather than Digvijay → promoting
universal peace faith of Ahimsa Paramo Dharma
● It inculcated democratic spirit in conflict resolution
Example:
The Indian flag carries the Ashoka’s wheel, and the national emblem has been
adopted from Buddhism.

On Religious life

● Introduced idol worship

● gave simple and popular religion - unlike hinduism
● influenced hindu philosophy ,logic and vedanta philosophy
Examples :
Mahayana followers worshiped the images of Buddha, which Hindu worshippers later
adopted.

On language and education

● encouraged development of regional languages( Pali)

● special importance on education of women and lower section
● viharas,monasteries functioned as center of spreading education
Example :
Taxila, Nalanda, and Vikramshila are all ancient Indian Universities

On art and architecture

● monasteries as flourishing centers of artistic activity

● favored Special type of architecture Stupas,viharas chaityas,
pillar ,carving,painting etc
● It introduced Culture of Bodhisattva
Example :
Ajanta, Ellora, Karle, and Bagh caves depicting Buddhist paintings
On modern life

● The preaching of buddhism in 8 fold path- influenced greatly on modern

life
● Panchsheel which governs the policy of the Government of india is based on
Buddhist teaching
● Buddhism always stood for universal peace and universal brotherhood and
will continue in future
● Presently Conversation are large (mostly the indigenous community of
indian society )to escape from ritual degradation
● Present day it's importance is needed for humans in the way of spiritual
discipline,kindness and ahimsa marg for peaceful life.

Impact of jainism on Indian society

Modern life of Economic life

indian society of indian
Social life
of indian

Impact of
Jainism on

Art and
Political architecture of
indian indian society

On social life

● It adopted liberal attitude towards lower caste and women

 ● It advised the master to treat their slaves in most humane way- a
favourable attitude
● Given ethical code of life -5 vows of mahavira
● Given importance social welfare

Example:
The establishment of charitable institution and contributing financial support to
it were given importance

On economic life

● It did not following farming as profession and prevented animal sacrifice

● It was unacceptable to artisans and craftsmen - their occupation treat to
plant life and other living creatures
● It imposed limitation on private property
● They are Specialized in trade and financial transaction
Example :
Vijayanagara empire during the middle of the 14th century A.D. It led to the
consequential increase in the number, importance and affluence of trade guilds.

On political life

● Concentrated especially in southern and western india

● Jain acharyas (saints who created Political environment based on ahimsa
culture )
Example:
The first historical emperor Chandragupta Maurya, who was the disciple of Jaina
teacher Bhadrabähu, established an efficient administration.

On art and architecture

● Jains built various great temples ,sculptures and Mathas in respect of

their Tirthankars.
Examples :
Dilwara, Jaina Temple of Mt Abu, Ellora Caves, Khajuraho
Sculpture -Gomateshwara in karnataka

● Jainism helped making progress of literature of many languages

Example :
Growth of parkrit Gujarati, Kannada and Marathi etc.

On modern life

● They are not socioculturally distinct from Hindus but ritual and doctrines
are distinct
● They don't function as unified religious group
● Jainsim is no longer a missionary faith but socially insulate
● Prominence of principle Ahimsa and Aparigraha

Value Addition: Citizens are only allowed to align themselves with one of the six
officially recognized religions — Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam,
Jainism and Sikhism. The 2011 census shows more than half — a number close to
4.9 million — of those who selected the “Others” religion option identified as
Sarna Dharma adherents. Comparably, India’s Jain population — officially the
country’s sixth-largest faith group — is slightly more than 4.5 million people.Some
hope giving Sarna Dharma official status could stem their faith’s existential
threats, ranging from migration to religious conversions.

https://thediplomat.com/2022/11/indias-tribes-seek-official-religion-status-
for-belief-system/

Conclusion:
Thus, Buddhism & Janinsm both promoted nonviolence, generosity & good
social behavior & emphasized on spirituality & rational thinking in order to
secure Individual Salvation & mitigate the evils of materialistic life.
https://jainworld.com/literature/jain-history/contributions-of-jainism-
to-indian-culture/
W14D1: Critically examine the ‘Indigenization of Christianity’ in India. (15
marks, 2022)

Introduction:

As per Conn’s definition, Indigenization is a process of translating Christian

message to a particular native culture and people so that the Christian faith
would grow in that local context.

Christianity was introduced to the Indian subcontinent by Thomas the Apostle,

who sailed to the Malabar region in the present-day Kerala state in 52 AD.

Body:

Indigenization of Christianity in India:

INDIGENIZATION FROM GRASS ROOTS:

Elaborate on
1. Worship posture
2. Language
3. Architecture
4. Ritualistic changes
5. Vital role of music and
6. Role of scriptures

Hindu Church of the Lord Jesus and S. Parani Andy’s National Church of Madras
(1886) were the first steps toward forming an indigenous Church.

Two Protestant theories - Creation of Indigenous Churches:

1. Indigenization: Foreign missionaries create churches - provide teaching,
buildings, finance - train local converts to take over these responsibilities -
now church becomes indigenous - becomes self-supporting, self-
propagating and self-governing (Three-Self Formula - Henry Venn)
 2. Indigeneity: Foreign missionaries don’t create churches, but simply help
local converts develop their own spiritual gifts and leadership abilities and
gradually develop their own churches - indigenous from the start.

Positive effects of Indigenization:

1. Indian Nationalism: First organized expression of Indian Nationalism (W.C.
Bonnerjee)
2. Indian Renaissance: Hindu leaders were strongly influenced by the teaching
of Jesus Christ. E.g. Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
3. Religious Syncretism: Christmas celebration in Hindu temples -
strengthening communal bonding. E.g. Kerala
4. Eradicating social evils: Scheduled Castes conversions to Christianity to be
a part of egalitarian society.
5. Introduction of English Culture: E.g. Serampore Mission, 1800.
 a. Impact of western ideas on the social, political and religious life of
Indians.
b. Christian Colleges in India (1833-1857): St. Xavier's College, the
Madras Christian College.
c. Missionaries first to promote women education in India - Kottayam.
6. Education of indigenous people: Christianity introduced Nagas to formal
education - vehicle of modernization.
7. Growth of language and literature: Revival of Tamil letters, first Malayam
dictionary, study of Telugu grammar.
8. Industrial Training: E.g. Basel Mission - industrial and technical training
for the benefit of their converts.
9. New Phase of HealthCare: Healing and wellness to people. E.g. Cruz de
Cochin hospital (1517)
10. Music: Indian Christian poets-Keerthanai (Christian Carnatic Music)
tradition - sung in Churches and family gatherings.
11. Diversification of Indian Cuisine: Change in food habits with European
influences.
12. Distinct Ethnic Minority: Anglo-Indians, French-Indians, Portuguese-
Indians.
13. Political values: Egalitarianism, Fraternity, etc.

Problems of Indian Christian Worship:

1. Homogeneity not complete through indigenization.
a. Alienated Indian Christian practices - worship and music, posture,
language, preaching.
2. Global Media Culture:
a. Broadcasting Western Christian worship, strengthening Western
heritage.
3. Strong roots in Westernized Christianity: Many churches and Christians
value the heritage of the church over the heritage of their homeland.
4. Politicization of faith:
a. Usurping Indian heritage religions - Christianity and Islam as alien.
b. Regionalism, communalism due to regional variations in faith
population.
 5. Over emphasis on three-self theory: Western missionaries handed over
huge mission compounds, hospitals, established churches to local Indian
leaders - but they sold out most of the mission properties.
6. Stratification of Christian communities based on castes - failure of social
mobility.
7. Conversion by luring or misleading- leads to conflict.
8. Disappearing tribal cultures due to conversion.

Conclusion:
Introduction of Christianity has transformed the socio-cultural, economic,
political aspects of India, and also itself has adjusted in accordance with regional
cultural norms.

W14D2: Illustrate the contribution of Irawati Karve to Indian Anthropology.

Make a special mention of her literary contribution (20M, 2022)

Introduction:
Irawati Karve has the honor of being India's first female anthropologist in
addition to her many other accomplishments.Her knowledge of rich Indological
tradition with an anthropological approach was one of her greatest
contribution.

Body:

Contribution of Iravati Karve to Indian Anthropology :-

Mrs.Karve has immensely contributed to social- cultural anthropology. Her

contribution can be categorized as:

1)-Study of Kinship system in India

2)-Dynamics of Group relations in village
3)-Social Dynamics of a Growing Town
STUDY OF KINSHIP SYSTEM IN INDIA:

Three concepts - linguistic regions, institution of caste and family

organization are necessary to understand any cultural phenomenon in India.

Iravati Karve on linguistics region - The kinship organization exhibits the

linguistic pattern, but in some aspects, deviations are observed.

Ex- Maharashtra region belongs to the area of Sanskritic languages but its
kinship organization is related to Dravidian or south Indian kinship system.

Karve on Joint family it is a group of people who generally live under one
roof,eat food cooked in one kitchen, hold property in common, participate in
common family worship and are related to one another as some particular
type of kindred.
● It has vertical as well as horizontal extensions.
● Its main characteristic feature is the indivisibility and common sharing
of property.
● She stated that every joint family has an ancestral seat or locus which
some member may leave for an indefinite period.

Problems addressed by karve on joint family -in majority of regions in india it

is an autonomous unit with its own economic organization, it provided
economic and social security .But impact of industrialisation resulted in
disintegration of bonds of joint family and village community.

Karve on Marriage system-. she basically categorized the country into four
different cultural zones in accordance with the marriage practices as:
the northern, the central, the southern, and the eastern.

a-In case of North, the rules of marriage lay down that brides should be
brought from families which are not related to blood.
b- Her analysis of southern marriage patterns, based on the chronological
division of the kin into older and younger kin, rather than on the principle of
generations, is an important contribution to Indian anthropology.

Karve on property succession and inheritance she devotes an entire chapter to

the comprehensive survey of property, succession and inheritance in the new
edition (1965).
● She explains the differences between the Dayabbaga system of Bihar and
Bengal and the Mitakshara system followed by the rest of Hindu India.

● She also dealt with the system in matrilineal Kerala.

DYNAMIC OF GROUP RELATIONS IN VILLAGE-

Her book Group Relations in Village Community (1963), describes a study

conducted by Karve and Damle (1963) in three villages in Maharashtra to
examine group relations in village community.

● The study reveals that the traditional values about the caste system
basically continued to define the status system. Help as regards
agricultural operations was generally received from people of one’s own
caste.
SOCIAL DYNAMICS OF A GROWING TOWN-

Karve and Ranadive (1965) conducted a study on the social dynamics of a

growing town and its surrounding area in the town of Phaltan of Satara
district and 23 villages around the town in Maharashtra.

Literary Contributions:
Karve wrote in both Marathi and English on topics pertaining to sociology and
anthropology as well as on non-scientific topics.She has studied various ancient
Sanskrit texts for insights into contemporary practice.Her writings are based
on Diffusionism .Ghurye’s influence is apparent in much of Karve’s work on
Indian society.

Literary work Area of study

>A study of various social institutions in India.

1.Kinship
Organization in India
(1953) ->dividing the country into four different cultural zones

in accordance with the marriage practices followed in

each, i.e.,

(1) the northern,(2) the central,(3) the southern, and(4) the

eastern.

2.The Bhils of West A Social and Economic Survey on Bhil tribe

Khandesh (1958)

3. Yuganta: The End of Sahitya (Literary) Academy Award in 1968

an Epoch (1968)
Study of mythical heroic figures of the Mahabharata
from historical, anthropological and secular perspectives
4.Hindu Society: An Based on her Field study and Interpretation of Religious
Interpretation (1961; texts.
1968)
pre-Aryan existence of caste system in Hinduism and
traces its development to its present form.

a parallel between society and a quilt

5.Group Relations in structuring of interpersonal and inter-group

Village Community relations by the factors of kinship, caste and locality
(1963)
E.g: Economic independence does not lead to social
equality.

In most of the villages, the landlord and tenant

belonged to the same caste.

Among those who borrowed money, the majority had

to go outside their own caste to borrow money

6.The Social Study in the town of Phaltan of Satara district and

Dynamics of a 23 villages around Phaltan.
Growing Town and
Its Surrounding Study the role of small town between the two
Area (1965) extremes, i.e., city and of the village

7.Maharashtra: Land various social institutions and rituals in

and People (1968) Maharashtra
 8.Marathi Lokanchi Sanskruti (The Culture of Marathi People),

Dharma (Religion),

Hindunchi Samajrachna (The Social Organization of

Hindus),

Maharashtra: Ek Abhyas (Maharashtra: A Study)

9.Prose On various topics particularly Women,

E.g:Paripurti, Bhovara, Amachi Samskruti,

Samskruti and Gangajal

Conclusion:

Irawati as a sociologist made a study of human social behavior. As an

anthropologist, she makes an insightful study of the physical, social, and
cultural development of humans.

W14D2:

Discuss the contributions of N. K. Bose in understanding tribal communities

and their place in Indian civilization (20 Marks, 2021)

Introduction:
N.K. Bose was a leading Indian anthropologist, who played a formative role in
"building an Indian Tradition in Anthropology".

He presented an ethnographical information base of various categories of

tribal groups in India. Also, drew inferences regarding their culture and place
in Indian civilisation.

Body:
Contributions of N. K. Bose in Understanding Tribal Communities:

Tribal Absorption into Hindu Society:

A) Through Caste:
1. Bose - field research - Juang tribesmen of Pal Lahara, Orissa - practised
shifting cultivation.
2. Juangs were outside fold of Hinduism, but clear indications - Hindu
religious ideas penetrated their culture.
a. Worshipping Hindu Goddess Lakshmi, offerings of sun-dried rice,
use terms satya, devata, dharma.
3. Yet they have their own language, marriage and funeral customs, and eat
beef - not considered by Hindus to be one of Hindu castes.
a. insight into ways tribes were being absorbed into the fold of Hindu
caste-based society.
4. Slow mode of absorption of Hindu rituals and other cultural traits by
tribals - Hindu Method of Tribal Absorption (1941)
5. Tribal Life in India (1970) - Kinnaur in Himachal Pradesh, Monpas of
Arunachal Pradesh - many Scheduled Tribes - came very close to either
Hinduism or Buddhism, or to both - yet retained polyandry which
differentiated them.

B) Through Religious Sects:

1. Influence of Bhakti Cult- Mundas of Tamar Pargana in Ranchi, Tana
Bhagats among Oraons.

Place of Tribals in Indian Civilization:

1. Indian civilization - mainly Hindu civilization - predominance of the
Brahmanical institution of caste.
2. Bose - profound observation -“original kind of civilization was built up here
[India] - communities were bound to one another by economic
interdependence, while each was encouraged to live by major cultural
values inherited from the past.”
3. The Structure of Hindu Society (1949) - Bose gives civilizational view of
Indian society - divided it into 3 parts.
a. Ethnography (tribal communities)
b. Indology (Hindu social life)
c. Social History
4. Ethnography - Tribal studies at Orissa & Chota Nagpur. Discovering theory
behind the pattern of culture. Tribal communities - not of the same nature
& don’t share same kind of relation with wider society. Uses 2 criteria to
classify tribes - level of technological development and degree of their
geographical and social isolation.
a. coexistence of two modes of social organization – ‘Brahmanical’ and
‘tribal’.
b. first had superior technological base, larger in scale and complex in
organization than the second.
c. higher technical efficiency & right given to all communities to
practice their distinctive customs - attracted tribal communities to
it.
d. E.g. Influence of Aryan or Brahminical civilization - greater in both
extent and depth among the Mundas and Oraons than Juangs.
5. Indology - Borrowed material from epics, Buddhist texts, etc - design of
Hindu society.
a. Reconstructed societal process from reading sacred literature - same
as those identified by ethnologist. E.g. Ramayana - Varna System.
6. Social History - Exploring the past.
a. Tribals - opportunity to come closer with Hindus because of
Gandhian struggle for freedom.
b. Interest in economic organization of the tribal people.
c. Classify tribes - mode of livelihood - relationship between the ‘tribal’
and the ‘non-tribal’ dimensions of Hindu civilization.
d. Tribal Life in India (1970) -
i. little difference in economic life of tribals and peasant and
artisan communities.
ii. difference between rural folk and urban classes is greater than
that between peasants and the tribal communities
(occupations).
 e. Tribal people under constant pressure to abandon their isolation in
favour of absorption into the wider society - economic
circumstances.
7. Peasant Life in India - a Study in Indian Unity & Diversity (1961) :
Pyramidal imagery of unity of Indian Civilization - differences at material
level narrowing at the ideological level.

Conclusion:
Bose not just revealed a certain pattern of culture but went on to discover the
theory behind it. This has helped in understanding the coexistence of tribal and
non-tribal society.

W14D3: Discuss the contribution of L.P Vidyarthi and D.N.Majumdar to the

study of Indian tribes. (15M)
Introduction:

L.P Vidyarthi and D.N Majumdar have made invaluable contributions to the study
of Indian tribes through intensive fieldwork.

Body:
Contribution of L.P. Vidyarthi to study of Indian Tribes:
1. Sacred Complex: “The Sacred Complex of Hindu Gaya” (1961)
2. Nature-Man-Spirit Complex: “The Maler” (1963): Constant interaction
between social organization, ecological conditions and religious complex.
3. Five-fold regional tribal grouping: Himalayan region (Akas, Daflas), Middle
India (Juangs, Kharia), Western India (Bhils, Gonds), South India
(Chenchus, Irulas) and Islands (Jarwas, Onges)
4. Structural features of tribal economy: L.P. Vidyarthi and B. K. Rai (1976) - 9
features - Forest Based Economy, Domestic Production, Simple Technology,
etc.
5. Tribal Studies:
a. “Cultural Contours of Tribal Bihar” (1966) - various aspects of social
institutions of tribes of Chota Nagpur.
b. ‘Tribal Culture of India” (1977) authored by him and B.K. Rai -
folklore, art, course of life, matriliny, polyandry in tribal India.
i. Classificatory system of tribal languages: Dravidian (Gondi,
Tulu), Austro-Asiatic (Mon-Khmer, Santhali), Tibeto-Chinese
(Tibeto-Burman), Indo-Aryan (Marathi, Oriya)
c. Cultural Diversities in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (1971):
Ranchi tribals brought to Andaman to work; live together and
continue their traditional customs & manners.
6. Political Anthropology: His notable contributions include -
a. “Dynamics of Tribal Leadership in Bihar” (1976)
b. “Students Unrest in Chotanagpur” (1976)
7. “Applied Anthropology in India” (1968) - effect of industrialization among
tribal societies.

Contribution of D.N. Majumdar to study of Indian Tribes:

1. Creative or Generative Adaptation: Supported tribal integration into
Indian society; social change shouldn’t be disruptive but should be in
continuity with existing cultural traditions.
2. Extensive Fieldwork:
a. Ho, Khasa, first hand studies of Korwa, Tharu, Gond, Bhils.
b. Studied cultures rather than problems.
c. Functionalist approach to study culture.
 d. Study on Ho, 3
e. Chotanagpur - focused on culture contact and acculturation - MARC
model - Man, Area, Resource and Cooperation. Harmony in all four
elements - functional unity. Unity breaks down - external pressures.
i. Hos were being influenced by external pressures.

A Tribe in Transition: A Study in First scientific study of impact of modern

Culture Pattern (1937) civilization upon Indian tribal people.

The Fortunes of Primitive Tribes Account of social and cultural life of various
(1944) tribes of Uttar Pradesh.

Himalayan Polyandry (1962) Discusses community development programmes

in Jaunsar-Bawar.

3. Nokpante (dormitory) of the Garos - a living institution till 1930’s -

gradually lost its vigour. Reasons: Christianity, development of formal
educational institutions & replacement of shifting cultivation with
agriculture.
4. First Indian anthropologist - impact of non- tribal culture on various
institutions of tribal life.
a. Khasa - completely assimilated or Hinduised tribes.
b. Transculturation - Ho of Singhbhum - reciprocal impact of tribal
culture on local Hindu castes.
5. Three classes of primitives - degree of social change:
a. Outside Hindu influence. E.g. Andaman tribes.
b. Adopted Hindu customs beliefs and practices - shown a degree of
association. E.g. Mundas.
c. Hinduised but maintain social distance. E.g. Gonds.

Value Addition:

L. P. Vidyarthi contribution in Tribal Development Policies

According to Vidyarthi,
1. Ecological system
 2. Traditional economy
3. Supernatural beliefs and practices
4. Recent influences on tribes

Vidyarthi classified Indian tribes into,

(a) The Forest Hunting Type
(b) The Primitive Hill-Cultivation Type
(c) Plain Agriculture Type
(d) The Simple Artisan type
(e) The Pastoral and Cattle Breeders Type
(f) Urban-Industrial Workers Type

● L.P. Vidyarthi as the Chairman of "Task force on Development of Tribal

Areas" set up by Planning Commission in 1972 >> Foundation of Tribal Sub-
Plan

★ D. N. Majumdar with T.N. Madan (An introduction to social Anthropology,

1985) has listed 8 ways of acquiring mates in tribes.
★ Member of the Research Programmes Committee of the Planning
Commission (Government of India) for administration by studying the
problems of backward areas.

Conclusion:

Vidyarthi’s action-oriented solutions and Majumdar’s descriptive ethnography

contributed in tribal studies and formulation of policies for tribal welfare.

W14D3: Assess the contribution of Verrier Elwin to Indian anthropology. (15

Marks -2011).

Introduction:
Verrier Elwin was a British self-trained anthropologist, ethnologist and tribal
activist, who began his career in India as a Christian missionary. He had done
research in social anthropology. The GOI awarded him the third highest
civilian honor of the Padma Bhusan in 1961.

Body:

Elwin’s Contribution to Indian Anthropology :

Verrier Elwin is known for his extensive study on tribal life and identity. His
writings on the adivasis of the various parts of India exhibit an intense sense
of compassion and affection for their existence. He believed in “Think like
Tribal to uplift Tribal”. Elwin wrote extensively not only about tribal customs
of India, but also on art, myth and folklore of the country.

His study was a combination of Historical Approach, Diffusionist approach,

Cultural materialism.

Anthropological works:

Work Detail

1.The Baiga (1939) On the Exploitation of their natural

resources and livelihood by the
state, and who had been forced to
adopt cultivation, which was not
preferred by them

2.The Agaria (1942) decline of a community of charcoal

iron-smelters heavily damaged by
taxation, factory iron and
administrative neglect

3. In ‘Maria murder and suicide’ events of homicide in a tribal

(1943) society

4.The Muria and their ghotul (1946) life in a dormitory, or ghotul- a

unique pattern of socialization
 where boys and girls are trained
with the lessons of sexual life

5. Bondo Highlander (1952) Study on the contestation and

conflict between individualism and
collective cooperation among the
everyday life of the community

6.‘The religion of an Indian tribe’ about rituals and belief system

(1955) among the Saora

7. ‘The Aboriginals’ (1943) concerns over the rights and

safeguards of tribal communities
towards their economic security
and protection

8. The Tribal World of Verrier An Autobiography and mentioned

Elwin (1964) about massive ethnocide happening
in Tribal world

9.Tribal Arts of Middle India(1951) A series of short comments on

various aspects of art among the
tribes of eastern Madhya Pradesh

Elwins’s Ideas on Tribal Integration:

1. Isolationist Approach-After Field study among Baiga’s in the form of

“National Park” to protect tribals from exploitation from outsiders, to
protect tribal culture from being swayed away by Hindu and christian
Missionaries . This approach was criticized by Ghureye.

2.Tribal Panchsheel: Along with Nehru, he laid the Idea of “Tribal Panchsheel”,
where he advocated for assimilation at a pace, and on terms, that suited the
tribals.
Elwin as an administrative Anthropologist:

1. After independence ,he worked as an Advisor on Tribal affairs of North

East India, his ideas are released in the Form of “Philosophy of
NEFA”(1957), where he advocated assimilation approach of tribal
development
2. He insisted on Micro planning applying Linguistic anthropology in the
field of Tribal Education. He was instrumental in establishing Ashram
schools and designing curriculum in Gondi Language, opening of
hospitals for leprosy affected people.
3. Elwin went on to become a member of several committees on tribal
affairs and also an editor of “Man in India”.
4. He served as the Deputy Director of the Anthropological Survey of
India .

Criticism:

Elwin’s critics say he was an anti-modern romantic whose influence on policy

further marginalized tribals.

Value Addition of assessment:

Verrier Elwin, the anthropologist and Indologist who lived in Shillong, wrote a
collection of 28 poems which was recently unearthed, and published by North
East Zonal Cultural Centre (NEZCC), Government of India.

Conclusion:

Elwin’s ideas and research had an overwhelming influence on Nehru’s vision

and policies on India’s tribes. An ordained priest in the Pune-based Christa
Seva Sangha, Elwin gave up his commitment to proselytize and dedicated his
life to research and to help preserve tribal life and culture.
W14D4: Write about the role of colonial administration in the development of
anthropology in India. (15M 2019)

Introduction:
During colonial rule, anthropological studies were carried out with the objective
of getting government officials acquainted with the Indian population.

This was done primarily through census reports, monographs, ethnography and
ethnological writings.

Body:

Role of Colonial Administration in Development of Indian Anthropology:

1. Colonial administration established Societies for Anthropological studies

in India.
● The Asiatic Society (1784) - William Jones
● Indian Antiquary (1872)
● Anthropological Society of Bombay (1886) - first journal where
number of anthropological studies were initiated.

2. Colonial administrators conducted & published census reports which had a

profound impact on further Indian Anthropological studies.
● Ibbetson: 1881 census report on Punjab - religion, race, caste and
tribes. Classify castes according to occupation.
● Risley: Head of census - People of India (1915).
Racial classification of B.S Guha followed Risley’s, classifying Indian
population into 6 major racial strains.

3. Colonial administrators published monographs to give an account of

Indian tribes.

The Chamars (1874) Briggs & George Weston

 The Khasis (1907) Gurdon

The Naga tribes of Hodson

Manipur (1911)

The Lushei Kuki clans Shakespear

(1912)

The Lhota Nagas (1922) J.P Mills

The Lakhers (1932) N.E. Parry

Maria Gonds of Bastar Grigson

(1938)

4. Anthropometric survey of Indian tribes which was later used for racial
segregation of the people.
● J. Shortt - anthropometric measurements (1869) on Kota, Toda, and
Kurumba - Kota situated in between.

5. First Linguistic Survey of India (1903-1928):

● Grierson - classified Indian languages into three groups - Indo-
Aryan, Dravidian, Dardic.
● Later, Suniti Kumar Chatterjee (1963) - 4 family linguistic
classification.

6. Established Archaeological Survey of India (1861) - gave insights into

Indian history through excavations at Harappa, Mohenjodaro.
● Alexander Cunningham - excavation & maintenance of Indian sites -
IVC.

CASE STUDY: Elwin - GHOTUL SYSTEM.

Conclusion:
Thus, colonial administration established the tradition of extensively
documenting the native culture, which in turn served as feeder of future Indian
anthropological studies.

Sources:
1. https://serialsjournals.com/abstract/45834_ch_28_f_-
_vinod_mudgal.pdf
2. https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/65630/1/Unit-5.pdf
3. https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/growth-of-indian-
anthropology-4-historical-phases/41674

W14D4: Contributions of K.S.Singh to Indian anthropology. (10 M 2020)

Introduction:
Kumar Suresh Singh (1935–2006), was an Indian Administrative Service
officer who is known for his oversight and editorship of the People of India
survey and for his studies of tribal history.
Body:

Contributions of K.S.Singh to Indian anthropology

1. Initially a student of history but moved into the world of anthropology by

doing a PHD thesis on Birsa Munda during which he learnt Mundari
Language.
2. Thesis was published on a book ‘ Dust storm & hanging mist’ 1966 which
talked about -
a. Changes in agrarian structure of adivasi society with the advent
of colonialism
b. Explained the exploitations of zamindars
c. Showed participation of different tribals like Kol & other marginal
non-tribals in Munda Rebelion
3. He Edited many published works of Anthropological survey of india ie
 a. ‘The mahabharata in the tribal & folk traditions of india’ 1993 ;
presented an overview on prevelanvce of Mahabharata & Krishna
in different songs in tribal india
b. ‘Tribal ethnography, customary law & change’ 1993 ; discussed the
ways how tribal societies maintain solidarity & settle disputes
c. ‘Economics of the tribes & their transformation’ 1982 ; pointed out
main reasons of transformation of Food gathering economy into
food producing one
■ Pressure of the Population
■ Deepening of cultural contact
■ Reservation of forest for commercial purposes
4. He is remembered for his contributions in ‘People of india’ project(1985-
1992), a 43 Volume work, documenting cultural, biological & linguistic
dimensions of 4635 communities all across india.

5. Major 4 projects contributed by him are

■ Tribal customary laws
■ The culture trait and the culture area survey
■ Linguistic trait survey
■ Study of human variation in India

Conclusion:
Thus, the glorious era of Indian anthropology is denoted by K.S. Singh with
people of india project at its core.

https://ansi.gov.in/people-of-india/
https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/obituary/article30210015.ece
https://www.downtoearth.org.in/interviews/tribals-conserve-to-survive-
25422
W14D5: Explain how structural transformation in economy is affecting
traditional social relationships in agrarian society (20 Marks, 2021)
Introduction:
Industrial revolution marks a major turning point in history as it influenced
every aspect of daily life, most notably average income, population, economy have
encountered unprecedented changes which showed a ripple effect on the world at
large.

Body
connector:
The structural transformation in economy has changed the traditional
social relationship in agrarian society

In the Pre British phase

Agrarian social structure based on economic function during pre british period
was characterized by -

● The absence of demographic pressure on land,

● The strong control of village council over land,
● An effective Jajmani System
● A Comfortable living for the majority of the people in villages.
● Based on Caste system the agrarian society was stratified
● Barter system built social relation

Social change include

● The Jajmani System operated to Bring together the agricultural castes

and artisan castes in the villages
Jajman and kamins relation -There is close and intimate relationship
between the jajman and kamin. This relationship is not purely
economical but it is sentimental and internal. A spirit of fellow feeling
and brotherhood develops under this system.
● The artisans rendered services to the upper caste landowners
● Division of labor was based on age and sex. Mostly the agriculture work
was male dominated
 ● Strong social relation bond because of trade

In the british period

During the Colonial Rule.the social change in agrarian society based on

economic functions include :-

● The agrarian society of India became Highly Stratified. The agrarian

classes includes (Landlords, Tenants, Peasant and Agricultural working
class)
● The britisher introduced the land tenure system (zamindari, ryotwari
and mahalwari) and
● They also took effective steps for opening up of road and railways
communications and promotion of export trade in certain agricultural
commodities.
● Industrialization - Industries gained prominence,
● Commercialisation of agriculture produce.

Social change include

● Extreme inequality,
● Migration led to break up in joint family ,
Joint family change -
● Subinfeudation in the landholding,
● High concentration of the land in the hands of rural rich,
● Landlessness and land-hunger of the peasants,
● Rack Renting and tenurial insecurity of the tenants and small peasants;
● Destruction of the traditional village and collage industries,
● Penetration of market and money agriculture.
● Peasant movement
After the post independence period

● The National Commission on Agriculture created the essential pre-

conditions for restructuring the rural economy with a view to putting it
on the path of progress and accelerated development.

● The structural reforms in the agrarian system and basic changes in

socio-economic relations of production brought comprehensive
1. land reforms and
2. Rural development programmes

● Agrarian reforms and rural development strategies in India which

aimed at bringing economic development with social justice in its
agrarian society,in turn brought regional disparities and sharp
inequalities among the agrarian people

Social change include

● land reform led to economic prosperity of rich peasants

● Feudalistics tenancy -capitalistic lease labor system.
● Emergence of Agrarian class structure (rich farmers ,middle
farmers ,poor peasant,landless laborers)
● Class inequalities between upper and lower strata increased
● Irrespective of the categorisation,agriculture laborers are extremely
insecure economically.
● Altered the sexual division of labour - which remained fundamental to
the economics of agrarian societies
● New forms of social organization - kinship as means of regulating social
life earlier showed the declined trend
● In Tribal village community

Scholars have noted that in rural areas tensions and conflicts have been
intensified between upper strata and lower strata of the agrarian
hierarchy.They pointed out that the process of agricultural modernisation and
rural development ,urbanization ,westernization and industrialisation have
consolidated economic interest of the upper strata of the agrarian society.

Value Addition: Madhya pradesh case studies

Conclusion:

Although structural transformations in economy has uplifted many from hunger

& rise in social ranking but it certainly increased tensions & conflicts in agrarian
societies

W14D5: “Globalization, on one hand has provided opportunities and on the

other hand thrown challenges to Indian villages.” Elucidate. (20M, 2022)

Introduction:

Globalization describes interdependencies of world's economies through multiple

factors such as technological, cultural, economic, institutional, social and
environmental.

Village studies have been of immense help to understand the impact of

globalization on Indian villages.

Body:

Opportunities to Indian Villages due to Globalization:

1. Technological innovation - Mechanization in agriculture.
a. Agricultural system of Iruvelpattu by John Harris & Nagaraj (1916-
2008) - Combine harvesters, Power tillers - change in mode of
production.
 2. Decline of Jajmani System - Market economy, daily wages, and hired labour
eroded steadily into the functioning of the traditional jajmani system.
a. F.G. Bailey (1955) study of Bisipara - witnessed changes due to the
coming of land into the market - extension of economic frontier.
3. Social Empowerment - In study of Patidars of Gujarat, Alice Tilche (2016) -
freed from agriculture through education, employment and emigration to
urban areas - integral to status calculations today.
4. Greater Mobility - Landowner-labour relationship diminished.
a. Chand and Srivastava (2014) - Jamgod Village, Madhya Pradesh.
Traditional agrarian relations favouring dominant caste broken -
labourers seeking contract employment.
5. Mass Media - Television, internet penetration provides information to
farmers - cultivation and animal husbandry.
6. Diversified income sources to villages:
a. Contract Farming - MNC - launching agro-business.
b. Introduction of exotic crops - E.g Dragonfruit
c. GI tagged handicrafts and products getting national and global
consumers. E.g Pashmina shawl
d. Scope for export increased.
e. Increase in remittances - financial inclusion of villages.
7. Rural Tourism - development of villages for agro-tourism. E.g. Morachi
Chincholi, Orchha.

Challenges to Indian Villages due to Globalisation:

1. Depletion of natural resources - land alienation conflicts. E.g. Niyamgiri

Hills - Dongria Kondh tribe unanimously voted against mining project.
2. Cultural degradation - intermingling of cultures - Western ideas and
culture disrupting social, ethical and Indian moral values.
3. Unemployment - highly prevalent among the rural population as labour is
mostly uneducated and unskilled.
4. Disappearing rural industries - Competitive global market - stiff
competition to handicrafts to maintain constant continuity.
5. Disintegration of joint family - Pauperized peasants and artisans in rural
areas travel to urban centres in search of employment - nuclearization.
 6. Neglecting local demand - Producing crops of international demand
leading to lack of self subsistence of villages. E.g. Wheat and rice
7. Social and Ecological cost of Globalization - import of food grains at
cheaper prices, unsustainable agriculture pushing farmers to indebtedness.
(Manohar et al., 2020)

Value Addition:

An Anthropological vision on the impact of globalization on indian rural women:

A critical reality by Ajeet Jaiswal(2014)

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
281060514_An_Anthropological_Vision_on_the_Impact_of_Globalization_o
n_Indian_Rural_Women_A_Critical_Reality

Conclusion:

Globalization has increased the complexities of India’s villages, which stays in a

transition between rural culture and urban one.

W15D1: Safeguards for linguistic minorities in India (15M, 2022)

Introduction:

Language is a harbour of culture and systems of knowledge. Various activities and

elements of life stem from one's own mother tongue.

National Commission for Linguistic Minorities defines linguistic minorities as

“Any group of people whose mother tongue is different from the principal
language of the State”.

Body:
As per census 2011, more than 19500 languages or dialects spoken in India as
mother tongue with 121 languages having 10000 or more speakers. Thus
Aijasuddin Ahmed (1999), points out towards linguistic pluralism in India
Three different kinds of linguistic minorities could be identified in India and they
are:

1. Linguistic minorities

2. Linguistic minorities with tribal affiliation

3. Linguistic minorities with religious affiliation

(A)Constitutional safeguards for linguistic minorities in India.

● Article 29: Protection of interest of minorities.

● Article 30: Right of minorities to establish and administer
educational institutions.
● Article 347: Special provisions relating to language spoken by a
section of population of a state.
● Article 350: Language to be used in representations for redressal of
grievances.
● Article 350 A: Facilities for instruction in mother tongue at primary
stage.
● Article 350 B: Special Officer for linguistic minorities.

(B) The Safeguards agreed to at the national level from time to time:

a. Education Ministers’ Conference, 1949

b. Government of India Memorandum, 1956

c. Southern Zonal Council Decisions, 1959

d. Chief Ministers’ Conference, 1961

e. Meeting of the Committee of Vice-Chairman of Zonal Councils, 1961

Other important safeguards:

● Translation and publication of important rules, regulations, notices, etc.,

into all languages, which are spoken by at least 15% of the total population
at district or sub-district level.
 ● Declaration of minority languages as second official language in districts
where persons speaking such languages constitute 60% or more of the
population.
● Advance registration of linguistic preference of linguistic minority pupils,
and inter-school adjustments.
● Provision for textbooks and teachers in minority languages; scheme of
safeguards.
● In NEP 2020,

1) Implementation of 3 language formula

2) Wherever possible, the medium of instruction until at least Grade 5, but

preferably till Grade 8 and beyond, is to be the home language/mother
tongue/local language/regional language

● No insistence upon knowledge of State's official language at the time of

recruitment; test of proficiency in the State's official language to be held
before completion of probation.

Value Addition:
The Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL), Mysore, a subordinate
office of the Ministry of Human Resource Development, is implementing a scheme
(SPPEL) for preservation and protection of languages spoken by less than 10,000
people. Under the scheme, grammatical descriptions, monolingual and bilingual
dictionaries, language primers, anthologies of folklore, encyclopedia, etc., of all the
endangered languages/mother tongues, especially those spoken by less than
10,000 persons are prepared.

Conclusion:
Cultural pluralism has been the essence of Indian civilization. India’s destiny lies
in pluralism and “Unity in diversity” hence for national integrity we need to
protect the linguistic minorities.

W15D1: What are the social and political problems of religious minorities in
India. (20M, 2020)

Introduction: India is home to a diverse

 set of religious and ethnic groups and they enjoy their basic civil and political
rights and freedom to pursue their beliefs but sometimes tensions do exist and get
aggravated by struggle for resources and political rivalries.

Body:
Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Buddhists, Jain and Zorastrians (Parsis) have been
notified as minority communities under Section 2 (c) of the National Commission
for Minorities Act, 1992. As per the Census 2011, the percentage of minorities in
the country is about 19.3% of the total population of the country. The population
of Muslims are 14.2%; Christians 2.3%; Sikhs 1.7%, Buddhists 0.7%, Jain 0.4% and
Parsis 0.006%.

Jagnath Pathy (1988) listed out the defining properties of minority groups.

● subordinate in someway to the majority,

● distinguishable from the majority on the basis of physical or cultural
features,
● collectively being regarded and treated as different and inferior on
the basis of these features, and
● excluded from the full participation in the life of the society.

Discrimination, prejudice and exclusion by the dominant group and self

segregation by the subordinate or minority constitute the basis for minority
identification (Pathy)

APPROACHES TO THE MINORITY PROBLEM

Assimilation Discrimination and Tolerance and

Constant efforts by the Annihilation Equality
majority to assimilate Discrimination leads preservation and
the minority. to assimilation pursuance of the
minority social and
cultural life.
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PROBLEMS OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES IN INDIA
1. Identity
● Because of the differences in socio-cultural practices, history
and backgrounds, minorities have to grapple with the issue of
identity
● This gives rise to the problem of adjustment with the majority
community.
2. Security
● Different identities and their small number relative to the rest
of the society develop feeling of insecurity about their life,
assets and well-being.
● This sense of insecurity may get accentuated at times when
relations between the majority and the minority communities
in a society are strained or not very cordial.
3. Equity
● The minority community in a society may remain deprived of
the benefit of opportunities of development as a result of
discrimination.
● Because of the difference in identity, the minority community
develops the perception of the sense of inequity.
4. Communal Tensions and Riots
● Whenever the communal tensions and riots take place for
whatever reason, minority interests get threatened
● Eg. 1969 Gujarat riots, 1984 anti-Sikh riots, the 1989 Bhagalpur
riots, 1989 Kashmir violence, Godhra train burning, 2002
Gujarat riots, 2013 Muzaffarnagar riots and 2020 Delhi riots.
5. Problem of perception: (labeling theory of emile durkheim)

6. Lack of Representation
● Muslims have a feeling among them that they are neglected.
7. Communal politics
● Political parties appeal to religious sentiments for vote bank.

Safeguards to religious minorities in india:

1. Constitutional Safeguards to minorities.(art 14, 15, 21, 25, 26, 27, 28 etc.)
2. PM’s 15 Point Programme for Minority
Welfare.https://www.minorityaffairs.gov.in/sites/default/files/pm15points_egu
ide.pdf
 3. National Commission for Minorities (NCM) was set up in 1992.
4. schemes:Nai Manzil ,Nai Roshni ,Minority Cyber Gram ,Hamari Darohar
etc

Value Addition:

Minority Rights and Conflict Prevention: Case Study of Conflicts in Jammu and
Kashmir, Punjab and Nagaland By Maya Chadda.

Conclusion: In spite of all these diversities there is underlying unity in Indian

society. The need of the hour is to realize the religiousness of all religion more
than the outer layer of rituals and traditions.

W15D2: Westernisation and Modernisation (10M, 2022)

Introduction:
Westernisation and Modernisation are exogenous processes of sociocultural
change in (Indian) society.

Body:

Similarities & Differences:

1. Origin (for both) - from a developed economy.
2. Westernization - ethically neutral; Modernization - good (M.N. Srinivas)
3. Modernization - complete transformation in attitude; Westernization -
change in behaviour may not reflect Westernization in attitude.

Westernization:
M.N. Srinivas used this concept in “A Note on Sanskritization and Westernization
(1956)”.
Westernization refers to “the changes brought about in Indian society and culture
as a result of over 150 years of British rule and the term subsumes changes
occurring at different levels- technology, institutions, ideology and values.”
Features:
1. Inclusive, complex, and many-layered concept.
2. Form and pace varies from region to region and from one section of
population to another.

According to Srinivas, Westernization in India occurred at three levels.

1. Primary - Link between Western stimulus and Indian response is direct.
2. Secondary - A much larger number underwent Westernization.
3. Tertiary - Rural folk, lower castes, etc. - exposure to Westernization
limited.

Changes:

Social Sphere - Influenced caste system and lessened rigidity

- Ignore rules of ritual pollution
- Promoted disintegration of joint family
- Induced social reform movements

Economic Sphere - Disintegrated cottage industries

- Promoted variety in cultivation
- Introduced new measures in land management

Political Sphere - Promoted democratic values and ideals

- National consciousness

Modernization:
According to Daniel Lerner, “Modernization is a process of change which is
mainly related to changes in the way of thoughts and attitudes, increase in
urbanization, increase in literacy, increase in per capita income and increase in
political participation.”

Modernisation studies deal with effects of economic development on traditional

social structures and values.
Lerner’s 5 dimensions of Modernization:

Technological Modern science and technology

Economic Consumerism, Occupational Mobility

Political Political participation, individualism

Social Urbanization, literacy, modern education

Psychological Rationalism, cosmopolitanism

Conclusion:
Today, we focus on modernisation rather than westernization. Only those
elements of Western or foreign culture are accepted by our society which suit our
own values and needs.

Sources:
1. https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/
S000033SO/P000290/M013970/ET/1495607084m_31_et.pdf
2. https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/41249/1/Unit-4.pdf
3. https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/society/indian-society/
modernisation-and-its-impact-on-indian-society/47106
4. https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/26993/1/Unit-2.pdf

W15D2: Concept of Sanskritization. (10 M 2020)

INTRODUCTION-
M. N. Srinivas in his book social change in modern India defined that
“Sanskritization is a process by which a lower caste or tribe or any other group
changes its customs, rituals, ideology and way of life in the direction of a higher
or more often twice‐born caste.”

BODY-
Premises of Sanskritization:
1.Social Change in Cultural terms not a structural change

2.Collective or Corporate Mobility

3.Two way process of cultural changes

4.As per Harold Gould prime motive force behind this is Factor of Repressed Hostility.

5.Observed among other religious communities also.

Pre conditions :

As per Srinivas:

1.Political and economic Impetus-to Emulate upper castes

2.Change in self Image of Caste and aspirations for higher status

3.Absence of opposition From upper castes

4.Other contributing factors like Transport and communication,modern democratic

values.

Models of Sanskritization:
1.Cultural Model –Adopting High status Hindu cultural Practices like
Endogamy,Sacred Thread etc

2.Varna Model

Brahmin Model Kshatriya Model Vaishya Model Shudra Model

Rituals,Marriage Giving up of Commercial Only the Antyaj or

ceremony,Diet etc Widow activities lower caste copy the
remarriage, Sudras.
sacred Thread,
worship of vedic Less Defining food
E.g:Lingayats of
deities. Habits, Observance
Karnataka
E.g: Telis in of fasting
Koris of U.P E.g:Maratas, Odisha
Khatris of Punjab, E.g:Bhangis of Delhi
 Kayasta in UP Kunbis in Laundry men in
western India Western U.P

3.Local Model- Copying Local Dominant Caste.

Impact of Sanskritization:
1.Change in Value System of Lower castes From Liberal & Progressive to conservative
and retrograde E.g:Dowry I place of Token Bride Price.

2.Movement towards orthodox Hindu Joint Family- Erosion of Cultural autonomy of

Women

3.Rigid commensality and change in food habits

4.Religion and religious practices- Donning of Sacred thread,Emphasis on

pilgrimage,Giving up of sacrifice of Pig at time of wedding etc

5. As per David Mandelbum – It acts as a ”Safety Valve”.

Criticism:
1.S.C.Dube :Limited Practical utility

2.Yogendra singh- Does not explained pan-Indian Pattern

CONCLUSION-
Thus, according to Yogendra Singh the process of Sanskritization is an
endogenous source of social change.

W15D3:
Panchayati Raj as a facilitator of social change in rural society. (15M,2019)

INTRODUCTION-
Panchayati Raj in India as a facilitator of social change played a significant role
to commence the process to offer empowerment to the poor. It gave an
opportunity for eradication of poverty. It also started improving the quality
of life of underprivileged society and that makes them self confident, conscious &
powerful.

BODY-

A new age of participatory governance and development was heralded in India

in 1958 after implementation of panchayati Raj system. The Panchayti Raj system
provides the administrative apparatus for implementation of programmes of
rural development.

Panchayati Raj as a facilitator of social change in rural society:-

1. Creation of Gram Panchayats- After 73rd Constitutional amendment GPs get

constituted,to provide basic services in the villages and plan for local
development.Since all eligible voters of rural village can participate in the Gram
sabha,it acts as a channel to include less privileged section of society and ensure
their participation at village level governance wherein they can advocate their
development aspirations.

2. Transformation of patriarchal society into more gender-neutral society-

Provision of one third reservation for women have empowered women in
participating in democracy.
Ex-schemes like panchayat mahila evam yuva shakti abhiyan (PMEYSA)-to create
a substantive representation of women in panchayat bodies.

3.Promotion of direct democracy and inclusive participation to eliminate social

evils caste system and khap panchayats etc.

4. Autonomy given to tribal areas in matters of administration have provided for

tailor made administration for tribals.
5.PRI are also firmly trying to prevent the child marriage,which is common
practice in india.

6. A remarkable number of SC/ST &OBC representative are introduced in

system,which has led change in their economic status.

ex- from Below poverty line to Above poverty line( schemes like
MGNREGA,SCRY,IAY,RGGVY)

7. Choices of health and education-With the devolution of powers and changing

existing social structures have led to improvement in health and education of
rural society.
Ex-Mid day meal schemes for health and education, Ayushmaan Bharath yojana
for health.

8. Decentralisation of powers have led to awareness about environmental

protection and Sustainable development.

9. Promoting development of social capital to promote cooperative social

development.

Diagram-

Limitations of PRI-
1. Ineffective implementation of powers of Gram sabha.
2. Lack of financial devolution by state governments in providing for local level
administration.
3. Invisibility yet potency of caste system in maintaining hierarchical and
patriarchal society
Eg-sarpanch pati
4. With regard to ST communities ,the single biggest problem they are facing is
the non-sensitive, non -humanitarian way in which central and state forest acts
are being used to oust and displace tribal communities without regard for the
integral relationship between them and the forest.

VALUE ADDITION-
Case study of Leepuram Gram Panchayet, Tamil Nadu
1. Social audit of PDS : helped in building a socially, politically aware &
participative community
2. Management of finances & resources :
Road toll tax + house tax + professional tax = Panchayat general funds
Combining with various schemes towards building & improvement of
infrastructure
3. Environment friendly initiatives & awareness :
20 solar powered street lights
Awareness campaigns on pollution, disposal of waste
CRUX : Public became more aware, knowledgeable & demanding
GP highly transparent & accountable

A Case Study on Leepuram Gram Panchayat - Centre for ...

cbps.in
› wp-content › uploads › Leepuram-GP-case-Study.pdf
PDF

CONCLUSION-
Nationwide efforts have been made to strengthen the Panchayati Raj system, and,
through it, promote social harmony, foster farmers’ welfare, support livelihoods of
the poor, and enhance rural development.

W15D3:
Discuss the impact of media on the social life of Indian villages (15M, 2019)

Introduction

Indian Villages are the soul of our nation. Based on the works of SC Dube, MN
Srinivas, we can say that, the social life of Indian villages is largely based on Jati,
sect, family, and kinship with systems like Jajmani and also maintains
occupational specialization with interdependence to have a cooperative society.

Body:

Ever since the arrival of the media, the social life of Indian villages has gone
through significant changes. Media means collective communication tools and
outlets used to store and deliver information or data to people. These
communication tools can be Print Media or Electronic Media.

Traditional media was a means of communication and information sharing but

modern media has progressed a lot, they do not just act as the primary source of
information about the world, but it leverages its network to form opinion among
the people on social issues/malpractices and mediates the interaction between the
societies and the institutions.

Impact of media on social life of Indian villages:

Positive impact:

1. Cultural homogenization: Increased cultural homogenization in the

villages, by the adoption of mainstream customs and rituals during
marriage and festivals.
2. Media has a role in preservation and continuity of culture by writing or
depicting various cultural elements and practices which are otherwise
unknown to people.
3. Traditional employment: Through media, Villagers have wider reach for
their products in the market which helps in increasing their income.
 4. Power structures: Changes in the traditional power structures through
increased awareness of the ills of existing power distribution and exposing
the exploitation of weaker sections.
5. Status and role of women: Increased educational status and role of women
in family by sharing stories on Nari Shakti (Women power) , the need of
their empowerment and stories of successful women through media.

Eg: Study by Paul Hartmann (1989), in Villages of AP, Kerala revealed that
those who are attracted to media have more liberal attitude towards
women in villages and thereby media is also influencing the social attitude.

6. Awareness of their rights: Media has helped the modern-day judiciary and
administration to establish greater contact with the rural folks and make
them aware of their rights, welfare schemes run for them etc. This has
helped in decreasing the dependence of people on traditional structures for
solutions to their problems.

Eg: Dongria tribe’s voice was heard through media on their protest against
Vedanta mining company.

7. Development of villages: Government’s and Global initiatives are advertised

through Media.
8. Education: Through the e-vidya program during Covid-19, students were
taught classes through dedicated channels.

Case study: Dhadkan 107.8FM is a community radio station in shivapuri,

MP, which is supported by UNICEF, It telecasts programmes on maternal
and child health, Local culture, Folk music and it also gives updates about
development projects taking place in the villages and also discusses on
developmental issues.

Negative impact:

1. It sometimes poses a threat of loss of culture.

2. Violence is observed in some places. The exodus of North-east people from
some big cities of the country was due to the juxtaposition of the Kokrajhar
riot in Assam with the killing of Muslims in Myanmar on social media.
3. Consumerism:
 Case study: Kirk Johnson studies on Panchgani village of MH showed that
“Humlog” serial on DD has increased consumerism. For them happiness
was in relationships earlier, but now It has been replaced with buying
goods.

4. Societal changes:

Case study: Das (1984) study published in Kurukshetra noted that 34% of
the population felt that people are having less family time due to TV’s and
26% became introverts.

5. Weakening of family ties and kinship networks because of the promotion of

individualism through Media. This has also led to an increase in nuclear
families and divorces in the village.

Value addition

1. CHALA HO GAON MEIN – COMMUNITY RADIO of Jharkhand

Palamau district of Jharkhand state was in news for drought,
backwardness, tribal population and also naxalite activities, It witnessed a
unique and innovative use of Radio as an important tool for empowerment.
It is run by National Foundation of India (NFI) with the help of an NGO -
Alternative for India Development (ADI) since 2001.
2. With new norms, TV channels must broadcast ‘socially relevant’ content
https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/centre-devises-new-
guidelines-for-tv-channels-broadcast-of-socially-relevant-topics-
compulsory/article66115553.ece

Conclusion

Though there are negatives associated, we can say that the media is acting as a
watchdog and is an instrument of social change. Media as a medium of
information has helped in tackling social issues/malpractices existing in the
social life of our villages.
W15D4: Elwin–Ghurye debate on tribes. (10 marks 2015)

Introduction:
Elwin - Ghurye debate revolves around the state’s policy towards Adivasi
communities. While the former favored protection of the ‘tribal way of life’ and
latter favored assimilation of tribes into ‘mainstream’ Indian society.

Body:

Elwin’s Policy of Isolation of Tribes:

Elwin’s study on Baiga (1939) made him realize that exploitation of these tribes
was severe and this community hopes to have a Baiga Raj, where they have their
own ruler and no interference and exploitation by the others. This study led Elwin
to adopt ‘leave them alone’, ‘national park approach’ or ‘isolation approach’.

Elwin in “The Aboriginals (1943)” divided tribes into 4 classes.

● First - most primitive and simple stage of all. E.g. Hill Marias
● Second - began to change in many small and subtle ways.
● Third - under influence of external contact - begun to lose their hold on
tribal culture.
● Fourth - retain old tribal name, totem rules and observe elements of tribal
religion, though they adopt full Hindu faith and live in modern style. E.g.
Gond Rajas, Bhil and Naga chieftains

Ghurye’s Policy of Assimilation of Tribes:

Ghurye criticized national park approach.

His “The Aborigines ‘So called’ and Their Future (1943)” made a case for the
complete assimilation of the tribes with rest of the Indian population. Misleading
to call the tribes as aborigines as they were actually only backward Hindus and
the solution to their economic, cultural and social problems lay in the overall
assimilation of the tribals into the Hindu society.

Ghurye argued that Hindu castes had been in a symbiotic relationship with tribes
since ancient times and they both remained intrinsic parts of the Indian
civilization.

He divided the aboriginals into three classes (1943)

● First - successfully fought the battle, and are recognized as members of a
fairly high status within Hindu society. E.g. Raj Gonds
● Second - large mass that has been partially Hinduized and has come into
closer contact with Hindus.
● Third - Hill sections, which have exhibited the greatest power of resistance
to alien cultures that have pressed upon their border.

In Elwin’s view, “The second class has suffered moral depression and decay as a
result of contacts from which the third has been largely free.”

The policy of isolation and policy of assimilation came to be widely debated. The
need to evolve a more comprehensive approach for tribal development soon after
Independence came to be widely recognized.

Value Addition:

Integration approach by Jawaharlal Nehru (The Discovery of India,1946)

Nehru on Elwin- Ghurye debate:

● Isolation approach to treat tribal is like ‘museum specimen to be observed
and written about'
● Assimilation approach means allowing tribes ‘to be engulfed by masses of
Indian humanity’
Conclusion:
Ultimately, a ‘controlled integration’ policy was adopted, emphasizing on
simultaneous protection and upliftment of tribes.
Sources:
1. https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/69296/1/Unit-3.pdf
2. https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/27230/1/Unit-19.pdf

W15D4: Concept of tribe and indian census (10 marks, 2021)

Introduction:
Lewis H. Morgan in his book ‘Ancient society’ 1877 defines tribe as a completely
organised society where all forms of social relation are dominated by kinship.

Body:

Anthropologists such as L.H. Morgan, Meyer Fortes, E.E. Evans-Pritchard,

Bronislaw Malinowski, and A.R. Radcliffe-Brown → conducted intensive micro-
level studies on tribes of world and tried to understand family, kinship, marriage,
religion, magic, economy, political institution, law and social relation of
primitive tribes

● A Tribe is a group of people living in isolated forests and hills.

● Their language is different from the language spoken by the mainstream
people.
● They live on hunting, fishing and food gathering.
● Socio-cultural institutions are highly influenced by their consanguine
relation.
● They have faith in animism, naturism and totemism.
● Their religions and rituals are influenced by magical practices.

Every tribe upholds its distinct culture, dialect and economic pursuits in their
own ecological setting.
Example : Tribes in Africa may not be similar compared with Tribes of India,
Australia or tribes of other parts of the world.
In India the concept of tribe is complex. Tribes of India are called ‘Scheduled
Tribes’ in the Indian constitution. The indigenous people of India prefer calling
themselves “Adivasi” (original inhabitants).

According to INDIAN CENSUS -Demographic and Distribution of Tribes in

India
Demographic

Demographic study of tribal populations has suffered seriously due to adoption of

arbitrary criteria of scheduling tribes .
According to 2011 Indian census
● The Indian tribal population is 8.6% of total population( 10.43 crore).
● The decadal population growth of the tribals from Census 2001 to 2011 has
been 23.66 %.
● 97% live in Rural areas ,10.3 % live in urban areas
● The literacy rate -59%
● The sex ratio is 990 females per 1,000 males.

In India their number and other demographic features vary from one state to
another.

Distribution

● The geographical distribution of tribal population is not uniform.

Categorised based on
1. Geographical distribution
2. Language
3. Biogenetic variability
4. Socio- cultural
5. Economic
6. Religious

● Tribes are found in all parts of India, except the states of Punjab and
Haryana and the Union Territory of Chandigarh, Delhi and Puducherry.
 ● The largest concentrations of scheduled tribe population are found in the
eastern, central and western belt covering the following nine states:
1. Madhya Pradesh (14.69%),
2. Maharashtra (10.08%),
3. Orissa (9.2%),
4. Rajasthan (8.86%),
5. Gujarat (8.55%)
6. Jharkhand (8.29%),
7. Chhattisgarh (7.5%)
8. Andhra Pradesh (5.7%) and
9. West Bengal.

● About 12% inhabit the Northeastern region, 5% the Southern region and 3%
the Northern states.
● The state with the highest proportion of scheduled tribes is Mizoram (94.5
per cent) and
● The union territory with the highest proportion of scheduled tribes is
Lakshadweep (94.8 percent).
● The largest number of tribal communities (62) is in the state of Orissa (total
705 communities )
● Bhils of Rajasthan are the largest tribal group in India, followed by Gonds
of Karnataka, Santhals of Jharkhand, and Meenas Of Rajasthan.
Conclusion
Even though a great degree of commonality exists among them in terms of socio-
economic life, their world view cannot be defined and conceptualized with
universal criteria
W15D5: Elucidate the problem of land alienation among tribals of India. 15 M
(2020)

Introduction

Land alienation means transfer of title and possession from one person to
another. In the context of tribals it means the tribal community losing ownership
and control of tribal land to the non-tribals.

Body

Kamal K. Misra’s Study of alienation of tribal lands revealed that tribal-to-

non-tribal transfer was 85.95%. It also revealed that prolonged indebtedness of
the tribal households was the main cause of tribal land alienation.

According to Dhebar commission(1961), land alienation is because of:

1. Lack of proper legislation from the government.
2. Lacunae in the implementation of existing legislations.
3. Ignorance of tribals.

According Ministry of rural development, 2000, around 10 lakh acres of tribal

land has been reported to be alienated.
Problems faced by tribals due to land alienation :
● Poverty
● Loss of habitat and livelihood of the tribal people.
● It leads to indebtedness and ends with the condition of bonded labour.
● It gives rise to trafficking and selling of daughters in the tribal areas.
(trafficking of women)
● Tribals are forced to migrate to urban areas thus breaking their lineage and
kinships and face Culture shock. Eg: Distress migration among many tribes
in Jharkhand.
● On large-scale displacement and continued oppression of tribals, often it
converts into ethnic and regional movements. (Unrest among the tribes ->
leading to join the LWE.)
 ● Violence breaks out in some areas - Eg: Adi Galo community protests at
Siang Dam, Assam.
● Ethnic clashes between the tribes. Eg: The kuki-Paite ethnic clash of 1997-
98 in Manipur.

Government measures to prevent land alienation:

1. Article 244(1) of the constitution, gives the governor the power to prohibit
or restrict the transfer of land by or among members of the Scheduled
Tribes.
2. Through PESA Act, 1996, Gram sabha or panchayats must be consulted
before tribal land acquisition.
3. Supreme Court through its samatha judgment gave clear directions to
protect the land rights of scheduled tribes in scheduled areas, thereby
protecting Schedule 5 of the constitution.
4. Right to fair compensation and transparency in land acquisition,
rehabilitation and resettlement act 2013, has been legislated.
5. NC SAXENA, planning commission member, recommended that un-utilised
tribal lands should be given back to the same community from whom it is
acquired.
6. XAXA, recommended that land acquisition for creating wildlife protection
areas should be allowed only if human and wildlife co-existence is
impossible and Gram sabha consent must be taken.

Value Addition
1. Left Democratic Front (LDF) govt in Kerala has handed over land pattas
(holdings) as per the land bank scheme and the Scheduled Tribes (ST) and
Other traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006
(FRA) under the Tribal Resettlement and Development Mission (TRDM).
This initiative marks the ambitious goal of becoming a state without
landless tribals.
Kerala: LDF Government Aspires of ‘No Landless Tribals’, Efforts Accelerated to
Achieve Goal | NewsClick

2. Case study
https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/how-tribal-people-are-alienated-
their-land-case-study-telangana-136437
Conclusion

Dr. B.D. Sharma says, we should reflect on our vision of development, only
when we connect with the pain of others, we can achieve development in an
inclusive manner.
Source:
1. https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/71394/1/Unit-5.pdf

W15D5: Elucidate the problems and challenges in educational attainment of

the scheduled Tribes (15 Marks, 2021)

Introduction:
Education is one of the primary agents of transformation towards development. It
is in fact, an input not only for economic development of tribes but also for
building inner strength among tribal communities to help them meeting new
challenges of life.

Body

Existing problems in educational attainment in scheduled tribes(ST)

1) Literacy rate : there has been a substantial increase in literacy rate from
16.3% to 59% in last 3 decades but STs are still lacking behind by 5% with
the national average 74.04%(Census 2011)
2) Communication problem : Acc to Vinoba Gautham 2003, appointment of
non tribal teachers in tribal schools, both the teachers & students couldn't
understand each other.(language barrier)
3) Lack of trained teachers : acc to Desai & patel 1981, although 18 out of 22
residential schools having 100% teacher’s strength but teacher’s
qualification was below 10th class which adversely affected students
achievement
 4) Basic amenities in school : Acc to Vijayalaxmi 2003, residential schools are
very poor in infrastructural facilities like toilets, drinking water, adequate
classrooms, poor meals provided by schools etc
5) Lack of Transport: Most tribal areas being hilly, inadequate roads & bridges
possess huge problems for students to reach school.
6) Nutritional problem : tribal childrens have higher levels of undernutrition
due to lack of balanced diet which hampers their physical & mental growth.
Socio-economic factors-
Attitudinal problems-
Lack of interest in formal education-(case study)

Major challenges to solve the educational problems

1. Lack of family support : Acc to Jayawal et al 2003, parents of lower
achiever were not strongly ambitious about childrens upward mobility
2. Economic burden : their main source of income being labor intensive,
parents involve their children in work rather than sending them to schools
3. Narrow mentality towards girl child's education
4. Child marriage is still prevelent
5. Non deliverance of scholarships, free stationery, bicycles etc.1 due to
corruption
6. Harassment by teachers on poorly performing students.

Measures taken by Govt to improve educational status in ST

1. Constitutional provisions
● Article 17 : abolition of untouchability
● Article 46 : enjoins upon the state the responsibility of taking
special care of the educational interests of the STs
● Article 350A : state to provide adequate facilities for providing
primary education in mother tongue
2. Samagra shiksha abhiyan : extending from pre school to 12th class
3. PM Poshan : ensuring nutrition encouraging education
4. Eklavya Model School: Residential School based on Navodaya Model
to be opened in each tribal block by 2022.
 5. Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship Scheme (RGNF): RGNF was
introduced in the year 2005-2006 with the objective to encourage the
students belonging to ST community to pursue higher education
6. Pre and Post Matric Scholarship Schemes
7. Vocational Training Center in Tribal Areas: The aim of this scheme
is to develop the skill of ST students depending on their qualification
and present market trends.

Value Addition:
Holistic Tribal Education: A Case Study of Kalinga Institute of Social
Sciences in Odisha, India

https://www.google.co.in/url?
sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjok-
mlm_n7AhVRXWwGHV_CDNEQFnoECAsQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2F2.zoppoz.workers.dev%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fkiss.ac.in
%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2017%2F09%2FHolistic-Tribal-Education-A-
Case-Study-of-KISS.pdf&usg=AOvVaw3ZhJ6VI14QRRF3J-g8Ubmt

Conclusion:

Recognising tribal culture, language, cognitive strength, curriculum and inherent

learning ability of children can revamp tribal education systems.

W16D1:
Discuss the significance and implementation of ‘Recognition of Forest Rights
Act 2006’. (15 marks, 2018)
Introduction:

The traditional rights of tribals and other forest dwellers were taken from them
right from 1850’s during British rule, a policy which continued through various
laws even in independent India.

The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of

Forest Rights) Act, 2006 was a landmark legislation that sought to restore the
rights of forest dwellers over land, community forest resources and habitats, and
the governance and management of forests.

Body:

Significance of FRA, 2006:

1. Autonomy and protection from harassment, eviction by the Forest

Department.
2. Symbiotic relationship that forest-dwelling communities had with the
forest, in line with Nature-Man-Spirit Complex.
3. A 2015 report - Rights and Resources Initiative, Vasundhara and Natural
Resources Management Consultants - FRA has potential to restore rights of
forest dwellers to over at least 40 million hectares or 100 million acres of
forest land in 170,000 villages, i.e. one-fourth of the villages.
4. Community rights over forest resources gives economic liberation to the
villages.
5. Over 4.1 million claims for individual, community, and CFR rights have
been filed (MoTA, March 2017). Nearly 1.8 million, or 43%, have been
approved and enacted.
6. Expands mandate of the Fifth and the Sixth Schedules of the Constitution
that protect claims of indigenous communities over tracts of land or forests
they inhabit.
7. Alienation of tribes was one of the factors behind the Naxal movement. The
act through identifying Individual Forest Rights and Community Forest
Rights tries to provide inclusion to tribes.

FRA has been in existence for 15 years but many tribal communities and
traditional forest-dwellers are still fighting for individual and community rights
for forest land and resources due to issues in implementation.

1. Proofs of evidence - Initial stages of implementation - insistence on

satellite images as evidence while other admissible proofs were ignored, as
happened in Gujarat resulting in mass rejections of claims.
 2. Extent of land reduced - Though entitled to rights of land to extent used
before 2005, Kadar community in Coimbatore was granted a mere 1.5 cent
each, though they are in possession of much more.
3. Denied individual rights - Few individuals belonging to tribal communities
in Theni district - working for the government as Anganwadi workers -
denied individual rights that they’re government servants.
4. Women representation - Equal rights in titles issued under the Act for
women. On the ground, women are less in this regard.
E.g. Rupai is one among 21 single women who received individual land titles
under FRA. First instance of single women gaining such rights anywhere in
Odisha.
5. Bureaucratic lapses - Sub-divisional committees and divisional committees
aren’t meeting regularly - Madurai district. E.g. In 2012, people of Pandi
were notified that the government had lost all of their applications and
documentation.
6. Decline in quality of forest produce - In Chhattisgarh, earnings from
activities - tendu leaves were affected due to influx of labourers from Bihar
who were willing to work for low wages.
7. Compensatory afforestation rules dilute rights of forest dwellers - Analysis
of 2479 Compensatory Afforestation plantations in 10 states (e-Green
Watch website) - over 70 per cent of these plantations set up on forest lands
instead of non-forest lands.
8. Wildlife Conservation Measures - Protectionist policies under Wildlife
Protection Act deprive forest-dwelling communities from access to
resources - traditionally dependent.

Way Forward:
1. Proper recording of forest right claims.
2. Integrating government schemes with beneficiaries.
3. Accelerate deregulation of minor forest produce.
4. Ensure forest dwellers get benefits of MSP.
5. Empower Gram Sabhas.

Value addition:
How FRA helped India’s tribal forest communities during COVID-19
https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/forests/how-fra-helped-india-s-forest-
communities-during-covid-19-74440

Study by the Community Forest Rights - Learning and Advocacy (CFR-LA )

Around 50 gram sabhas in the Gondia district of Maharashtra organized a

federation that guaranteed competitive prices and bonus for the communities for
their produce collection. It earned Rs 2.5 crore by selling Tendupatta, an MFP,
while taking precautions against the spread of COVID-19.

Conclusion:
Thus, FRA represents crucial policy reversal recognising the forest dwellers as the
custodians of forests and their ecology.
However, the status of forest dwellers would improve when comprehensive
actions are taken to implement it.

Sources:
https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/forests/10-interventions-
government-must-make-to-protect-forest-rights-64863

W16D1: Explain the social and religious consequences of contact between

tribal and non-tribal populations. (15M 2022)

Introduction
The tribes in India are distinct in racial, linguistic and cultural terms due to
geographical segregation; they experienced varying levels of contact with the
non-tribal population from the ancient times.

Body
Surjit Sinha (1957) has highlighted the contribution made by the tribal
communities to Indian civilization. Many of the tribes have links with great
traditional texts (as reflected in origin myths), Hindu temples, and deities.
Eg: Ramayana describes tribes inhabiting Dandakaranya.
The Erukala community of Andhra Pradesh claim that they are the
descendants of ‘Ekalavya’ of the Mahabharat epic.

NON-TRIBAL MIGRATION INTO THE TRIBAL AREAS

In the earlier part of the 19th century, traders from non-tribal towns developed
business interests in tribal areas. Non-tribals were encouraged by rulers to settle
down in the tribal area for serving the police, revenue and forest personnel.

RELIGIOUS CONSEQUENCES:
1. Various scholars highlighted the varying levels of continuity and contact
between Hindu society and tribal communities.
For eg: koch-rajbongshis of Assam and West Bengal.
N. K. Bose “Hindu Method of Tribal Absorption” ⇒ process of
accommodation of tribals into Hindu fold without abandoning their
cultural practices.
2. In the tribal areas of Visakhapatnam district, there is presence of tribals
who are followers of the Ollek faith also known as Mahima Dharma.
3. Islamisation of tribes : Gonds during muslim rule.
4. The number of Christians in all tribes has increased steadily:
Eg: In East Godavari and Visakhapatnam districts, Valmiki have embraced
Christianity in large numbers.

SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES:
1. SANSKRITIZATION:The Raj Gonds of Adilabad region in Telangana were
the first group of aboriginals who came in contact with Rajputs and got
Sanskritized
2. PRESENCE OF CASTE PRACTICES: Untouchability, hierarchy, ritual
purity, sub-caste endogamy, occupational specialization, are some of the
features that are found among tribal communities.
Eg: Yanadi comprises two endogamous groups, the Challa and Manchi. The
Manchi Yanadis are numerically dominant and also claim superiority in
the tribal hierarchy (A.P. Reddy, 1984)
 3. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL MOBILITY:Adoption of new social or cultural
practices, which are considered to be superior and prestigious.
4. IMPLICATIONS FOR TRIBAL WOMEN : Increase in the amount paid as
bride price and entry of dowry. Deforestation and land alienation resulting
in growing proletarianization of tribal women, rendering them subject to
wage exploitation, bonded labour and even flesh trade (Rao and Rao, 1988).
5. THE DYNAMICS OF IDENTITIES :The non-tribals who settled in tribal
areas attempt to get identified with tribals groups pursuing similar
occupations.
Eg: The acceptance of tribal status by a relatively high caste, the Kapu.They
identified themselves as tribals by suffixing a local prefix ‘Konda’ (hill)

Value addition:
Case study on Bilingualism and Intergroup Relationship in Tribal and
Non-Tribal contact situations.(by Ajit K.Mohanty and Jayashree saikia)

The BODO-ASSAMESE CONTACT SITUATION

*A study of Bodo and Assamese high-school students, drawn from Bodo-majority
BTC areas and Assamese-majority areas in Assam

Conclusion
Thus, the presence of hierarchy, caste like features & number of non-tribal beliefs
& practices in different tribes reveal the continuity & contact between non-tribals
& tribals.
W16D2: Discuss the social disabilities suffered by scheduled castes. (15 Marks,
2013)

Introduction:
Scheduled castes (SCs) refer to those castes, races or tribes (or parts thereof), as
are deemed under Article 341 of the Constitution as SC.

Body:
D.N Majumdar says, “untouchable castes are those who suffer from various social
and political disabilities, many of which are traditionally prescribed and socially
enforced by higher castes.”

Social Disabilities Suffered by Scheduled Castes:

The scheduled castes constituted the lowest strata of Indian society. They had
been subjected to a variety of disabilities, deprivations and oppressions under the
traditional system. They were placed outside and down below in social and ritual
hierarchy under the ‘varna’ model of society.

Purity and Pollution -

● As per Louis Dumont, untouchables are deemed impure since they are low-
ranking and work menial jobs.
● G.S. Ghurye in “Caste and Class in India (1957)” - Among the people of
Kerala, a Nayar may approach a Nambudiri Brahmin but must not touch
him; while a Tiyan must keep himself at the distance of thirty-six steps
from the Brahmin, and a Pulayan may not approach him within ninety-six
paces.
● The government has caste-related data of 43,797 persons identified as
involved in manual scavenging, and over 42,500 of them belong to the
Scheduled Castes (2021).

Custodial Violence -
● 15 lakh Kuravar people in Tamil Nadu and the whole community have been
criminalized. They continue to face false cases, custodial torture and
sometimes custodial murders.

Civic disabilities -
● G.S. Ghurye in “Caste and Class in India (1957)”- Some parts of the Maratha
country, castes have been allotted to distinct quarters of the village -
Brahmin-ali, or wada, Prabhu-ali, Sonar-ali, etc. The depressed classes -
Mang, Mahar, etc. forced to live on the outskirts of the village.
● In his study of Gujarat villages, I.P. Desai (1976) found that the practice of
untouchability, restriction on entry into temples and upper caste houses,
and separate source of water supply prevailed in 47, 90 and 64 percent
respectively of the total number of 69 villages.
● Dalit groom and wedding procession attacked for riding horse-drawn
carriage in Haryana (2016).
 ● Separate teams (football, volleyball, basketball, handball and athletics) for
the general category and Scheduled Castes-Scheduled Tribes have been
formed in Kerala (2022).
● Villagers ‘purified’ a water storage tank in Karnataka since a Dalit woman
drank water from it (2022).

Victims of Communal Violence -

● Dalits continue to face social discrimination and exclusion and are targets
of communal violence - Khairlanji Massacre (2006)

Educational disabilities -
● Thorat Committee report - 72 percent of the SC/ST students mentioned
some kind of discrimination during teaching sessions. About 69 percent of
the SC/ST students - don’t receive adequate support from teachers. About
one third give caste background as a reason for avoidance by the teachers.

Employment disabilities -
● Discrimination and harassment faced by Dalit employees from higher caste
Managers in workplace due to internal enforcement of caste hierarchy -
seen in Cisco Systems, USA (2020).

Caste inequality in healthcare -

● Children from scheduled castes and tribes are more likely to die before the
age of five than children from more privileged castes - International
Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (2019) - inequities faced by parents
due to lack of maternal education, household income level (30% of
scheduled castes live below the poverty line), place of birth and access to
prenatal care.
● Studies (Marisa et al., 2018) document longer wait times for health care for
scheduled castes and tribes at private hospitals, compared to more
privileged castes.
● “Turning Promises Into Action: Gender Equality In The 2030 Agenda", a UN
report - points out that the average age of death for Dalit women in India is
39.5 - 14.6 years younger than for higher caste women.

Religious disabilities -
● Dalits were forced to walk barefoot in Rattehalli and were barred from
entering inside the village temple (2019).
● Dalits at Gata village in Rajasthan’s Tonk district were prevented from
cremating the body of an old woman at the public crematorium, as the
 people belonging to dominant Jat community destroyed the funeral pyre
(2020).

Atrocities against Scheduled Castes -

● NCRB’s Crime in India Report 2021 - Atrocities against Scheduled Castes
(SCs) have increased by 1.2% in 2021 with Uttar Pradesh reporting the
highest number of cases followed by Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
Crimes against women showed an increase of 15.3% over 2020 - cruelty by
husband, assault, kidnapping and rape.

Value Addition:

Devdasi cult and the women of scheduled caste

Devadasi Cult- a girl is dedicated or married to an idol or object of worship or a

temple.
This cult is prevalent even today throughout India and more particularly in south
Karnataka especially in the districts of Belgaum, Bijapur, Gulbarga, Bidar and in
Maharashtra -Solapur, Kolhapur, Satara and Sangli where a number of scheduled
caste women are dedicated to temples.

The findings of the paper are as follows-

1. Major reasons behind the persistence and continuity of this cult.

-Religious, social and economic factors
-Caste, deep rooted patriarchy
- fulfillment of the sexual needs of the upper class.

2. Major impacts of this cult on scheduled caste women.

- exploitation in the name of religion.
- after certain age, women are turned into Commercial Sex Worker.
- Health issues- HIV AIDS and other issues relating to reproductive health
-leading a miserable life without any hope and support.

The possible measures to eradicate this deep rooted religious cult.

 - Awareness
- Education
- Addressing the issues of poverty and unemployment
- rehabilitation and correctional centers to be set up
- Values and attitudinal changes
- Superstitions and blind beliefs should be eradicated from minds

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46533238_Exploitation_of_Sched
uled_Caste_Women_A_Devadasi_Cult

Conclusion:
While SCs have been subjected to various social disabilities, various factors such
as modern education, industrialisation, urbanisation and awareness initiatives by
government, media, etc. have diluted them.

W16D2 : Examine the factors responsible for exploitation of Scheduled Caste

in India. (20 Marks, 2016)

Introduction:
Article 341 of the Indian Constitution, talks about such castes, races or tribes
which are deemed to be Scheduled Castes in relation to the specific state or union
territory they reside in. The term “Dalit” is used interchangeably with the
scheduled caste. They make up 16.6% of Indian population or 201 million
according to 2011 census.

Body:
According to Victor Premasagar, the term Dalits' expresses"weakness, poverty
and humiliation at the hands of the upper castes in the Indian society.”
Example-The scheduled caste slaves like the Adi-Dravidas in the south and
Chamars in the north were tied labourers.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR EXPLOITATION OF SCs

1.Discrimination Education:
*According to a 2014 report by the Indian Government Research Institute, Dalits
constitute nearly half of primary school dropouts. In Karnataka State, 48% of
school dropouts are Dalits. Among state schools, 88% discriminated against Dalit
children, while 79% required Dalit students to sit in the back of the classroom. In
79% of schools, Dalit children are forbidden from touching mid-day meals. They
are required to sit separately at lunch in 35% of schools, and are required to eat
with specially marked plates in 28%. In high schools, higher caste students are
often advised not to mingle with Dalits.

*There have been incidents of Dalit teachers and professors being discriminated
against and harassed by authorities, upper castes colleagues as well as upper
caste students in different education institutes of India.

*Even in universities most of the faculty vacancies reserved for them are lying
vacant and students are often discriminated.

*The recent incidents of suicides of Rohith Vemula and Payal Tadvi substantiate
the above claims of discrimination against Dalit students

Healthcare and nutrition:

Discrimination also exists in access to healthcare and nutrition. Medical field
workers do not visit 65% of Dalit settlements. 47% of Dalits are not allowed entry
into ration depots; 64% are given less grain than non-Dalits; and 52% are given
grains from a distance.

UNTOUCHABILITY-

The 1989 Prevention of Atrocities Act (POA) is an acknowledgement by the Indian

government that caste relations are defined by violence. The Act denoted specific
crimes against Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes as "atrocities" and created
corresponding punishments. Its purpose was to curb and punish violence against
Dalits. The list of atrocities included humiliations such as the forced
consumption of noxious substances. Other atrocities included forced labour,
denial of access to water and other public amenities and sexual abuse.

The Act called on states with high levels of caste violence (said to be "atrocity-
prone") to appoint qualified officers to monitor and maintain law and order.

*According to a 2014 survey, 27% of the Indian population still practices

Untouchability. Across India, Untouchability was practiced among 52% of
Brahmins, 33% of communities traditionally called Other Backward Classes and
24% of non-Brahmin forward castes. Untouchability was also practiced by
people of minority religions - 23% of Sikhs, 18% of Muslims and 5% of Christians.

*According to state wise data, Untouchability is most commonly practiced in

Madhya Pradesh (53%), followed by Himachal Pradesh (50%), Chhattisgarh (48%),
Rajasthan and Bihar (47%), Uttar Pradesh (43%), and Uttarakhand (40%). In
Madhya Pradesh, Dalits are not allowed to touch food and water at common
gatherings. Dalits are prohibited from entering temples in 80% of villages.

Socio-Economic Problems and Disabilities:

Scheduled castes faces discrimination and some face inhuman nature. The idea of
ritual purity/pollution manifested through untouchability is the key point of the
highly discriminating nature of the caste system. Entire population assigned as a
'unclean' occupations like scavenging, flaying, tanning, etc. and converted into
untouchables.
The main socio-economic problems affecting the bulk of the scheduled caste
population are:
1. Chronic indebtedness
2. Land alienation/ landlessness
3. Lack of education
4. Lack of productive assets
5. Forced labour and prostitution
6. Lack of 'minimum wages'
7. Child labour, etc.
*Rising income and growing educational achievements may have led many Dalits
to challenge caste barriers, causing resentment among upper caste groups,
leading to a backlash.
There is also a possibility of the rise due to high registration and recognition of
such crimes.

POLITICAL-

*Dalit movement, like identity movements across the world, has really narrowed
its focus to forms of oppressions.Most visible Dalit movements have been around
issues like reservations and discrimination in colleges, and these are issues that
affect only a small proportion of the Dalit population.

*Today Dalits are perceived as a threat to the established social, economic and
political position of the upper caste. Crimes are a way to assert the upper caste
superiority.

MIGRATION
*Dalit women are most vulnerable to abuse and exploitation by employers,
migration agents, corrupt bureaucrats and criminal gangs.The enslavement
trafficking also contributes to migration of large proportion of Dalit women.

Steps taken by the government to improve the situation of SC and ST

The Constitution provides a three-pronged strategy to improve the situation of
SCs and STs:

Protective arrangements: Such measures as are required to enforce equality, to

provide punitive measures for transgressions, to eliminate established practices
that perpetuate inequities, etc.
Examples: The Untouchability Practices Act, 1955, Scheduled Caste and
Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, The Employment of Manual
Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993, etc.
Affirmative action: Provide positive (preferential) treatment in allotment of jobs
and access to higher education as a means to accelerate the integration of the SCs
and STs with mainstream society. Affirmative action is popularly known as
reservation.
* scholarship for pre-matric,post-matric & Higher education for empowerment of
schedule caste students.

Development: Provide resources and benefits to bridge the socioeconomic gap

between the SCs and STs and other communities. Major part played by the
Hidayatullah National Law University,TISS etc.

Conclusion:
Despite the constitutional provisions & welfare provided by modern democracy,
SCs still remain underdeveloped, therefore to overcome the historical
discrimination & socio-economic problems of SCs , it is necessary to strengthen
the concerned departments to ensure effective implementation of policies for the
development of SCs.

Value Addition:
CASTE AND PATRIARCHY AND EXPLOITATION OF SCHEDULED CASTE
WOMEN: Dr. PRATIBHA.B.DESAI
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Pratibha-Desai-3/publication/
46533238_Exploitation_of_Scheduled_Caste_Women_A_Devadasi_Cult/
links/585a332208aeffd7c4fdfddc/Exploitation-of-Scheduled-Caste-Women-A-
Devadasi-Cult.pdf

W16D3: Critically evaluate the state of implementation of constitutional

safeguards for the scheduled castes. 15 M (2020)
Introduction:

Scheduled Castes are among the most exploited group of people due to a
range of reasons. Though the origin of this social practice is yet unknown, but
many attempts made to remove it have failed due to various reasons.

Body

Scheduled Castes include all the communities or parts of the group declared
by the President as Scheduled Caste through a public notification under Article
341. The Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment is the nodal Ministry to
oversee the interests of the Scheduled Castes.

Constitutional Safeguards for the Scheduled Castes

Recognizing the inequality in our social structure, the makers of the

Constitution have placed a special responsibility upon the State to provide
protection to the weaker sections of society.

1. Article 15 and 15(4): to prevent discrimination in public life and

provide equal access to all with power to make special provisions for
advancement of Scheduled castes and others.
2. Article 16, 16 (4), 320 and 335: to provide special safeguards in public
employment with equality of opportunity and power to the state for
making special provisions to ensure adequate representation.
3. Article 17: to abolish untouchability.
4. Article 46: to promote the educational and economic interests of
weaker sections including SCs and protect them from social injustice.
5. Article 243d: Reservation of seats for SCs & STs in Panchayats.
6. Article 330 and Article 332 of the Constitution respectively provide
for reservation of seats in favor of the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes in the House of the People and in the legislative
assemblies of the States.

Since the coming of the constitution in force significant success is achieved in

terms of enhanced:

1. Educational opportunities by significant increase in the level of education

including the best of educational institutions;
 2. Employment opportunities through reservation in government jobs and
public sector enterprises,
3. Leadership role by opportunities to get elected as MP/MLA etc. including
as ministers in the government and play vital role in the law making;
4. Work at ground level as a leader in panchayats and Urban local bodies;
5. Establishment of National Commission for Scheduled Castes under Article
338 to provide safeguards against the exploitation of Scheduled Castes with
a number of legislative measures to protect them like SC and ST
(Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 or Manual Scavengers and their
Rehabilitation Act, 2013.

But despite all these measures the social disabilities suffered by them are still
visible.

● Despite having reservation in education and availability of a number of

promotional scholarships, the literacy rate among the SCs is 66% when
compared to the national average of 74%.
● The restrictions on temple entry, use of public resources and
discrimination in offices and schools is still visible.
● High concentration of SCs are still in menial works. Eg : According to SECC
2011, around 1.82 lakh people were engaged as manual scavengers in rural
areas with an overall figure of around 7.94 lakh across India.
● Because of lower representation outside government jobs the poverty ratio
is still higher among them as compared to others.
● According to NSSO 2011-12 data, the unemployment rate was highest
among SCs in India at 7.3%. Among the secretaries in Ministries, only 1 out
of 89 belonged to the SC community.

Value addition
Nutritional status of scheduled caste pre-school children

The study is based on primary data obtained from a sample of 100 scheduled caste
families, randomly selected from two blocks of Samastipur district of Bihar clinical
symptoms and hemoglobin level were in the study. Analysis of the study shows:

● 63.7% male and 71% female children were severely malnourished

● 29.3% male and 13.0% female children under moderate malnutrition
● 6.6% male and 6% female children under mild or chronic energy deficiency
 ● Girls were showing more clinical symptoms like night blindness, liver
enlargement, anaemia, rickets etc than boys

Conclusion:

The recent amendments made in SC and ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act is

a positive step and if proper awareness is created among the Scheduled Castes for
their rights and strict protection measures available for them, a sincere attempt
can be made towards true enjoyment of Constitutional safeguards.

Sources:
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/presence-of-scs-sts-in-govt-jobs-
still-inadequate-centre-tells-supreme-court/articleshow/86822033.cms

https://www.statista.com/statistics/702170/scheduled-caste-literacy-rate-
india/

W16D3: What are the Constitutional safeguards to protect the interests of

Indian tribes. 15 M

Introduction:
As per the 2011 census, 10.42 crore Indians are notified as 'Scheduled Tribes' (ST),
which constitute 8.6% of the country's total population.

After independence and adoption of Constitution of free India, various

constitutional provisions were made for the welfare and development of tribals.

Body:

Definition and Specification of Tribes

1. Art. 342 - President specifies tribes to be deemed as Scheduled tribes.
2. Art. 366 - Scheduled tribes notified under Art. 342

Social Safeguards
1. Art. 14 - Equality before law and equal protection of law.
 2. Art. 21 - Protection of life and personal liberty.
3. Art. 23 - Prohibits traffic in human beings and forced labour.
4. Art. 24 - Prohibits employment of children below 14 years in hazardous
employment.
5. Art. 25 - Freedom to profess, practice and propagate religion.

Issues - Report of the Planning Commission on “Bonded Labour Rehabilitation

Scheme from Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Uttar
Pradesh” (2010) - 83 percent of the rehabilitated bonded labourers belong to SC
and ST communities. Sample survey done by Labour department of Telangana
(February 2019) - between 80-90 percent of child labourers in the state belong to
SC/ST communities.

Educational and Cultural Safeguards

1. Art. 15 - Prohibition of discrimination on the grounds of the religion, race,
cast, sex or place of birth.
2. Art. 15 (4) - State is permitted to make any special provision for the
advancement of the Scheduled Tribes who are socially and educationally
backward.
3. Art. 15 (5) - State can make special provision for advancement of Scheduled
Tribes regarding their admission to educational institutions both in public
and private except minority educational institutions.
4. Art. 19 - Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech and
expression.
5. Art. 29 - Protection of language, script and culture of minorities.
6. Art. 46 - State should promote with special care in educational and
economic interests of the Scheduled Tribes.
7. Art. 350 - Right to submit a representation for the redress of grievance to
any officer of the Union or a State in any of languages.

Issues - Human Rights Watch study - students belonging to the Ghasiya tribal
community (UP) suffer discrimination from fellow students and teachers - 58
Ghasiya students were placed in the same grade, irrespective of their ages, and
ordered to sit separately from the other students.

Employment Safeguards
1. Art. 16 - Equality of opportunity for all citizens in employment.
2. Art. 16 (4) - Reservation in posts and services.
 3. Art. 16 (4A) - Reservation in matters of promotion in favour of Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
4. Art. 335 - Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes claim in the appointment
to services and posts.

Issues - National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) - showed that unemployment rate
among Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs) and minorities have gone
up between July 2018 and June 2019.

Economic Safeguards
1. Art. 46 - Promote educational and economic interests of Scheduled Tribes.
2. Art. 275 (1) - Union Government can provide special grants for the welfare
of Scheduled Tribes.
3. Art. 339 (2) - Union Executive can issue directives to states to draw up and
execute schemes for the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes.

Issues - Mawasi community, Madhya Pradesh, is deprived of many facilities -

depend on forest produce - limited access, face scarcity of food due to loss of
traditional livelihood.

Political Safeguards
1. Art. 164 - Minister in charge of tribal welfare in Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh and Orissa.
2. Art. 243 (D) - Reservation of seats in Panchayati raj institutions.
3. Art. 243 (T) - Reservation of seats in Municipality.
4. Art. 244 - Special system of administration for certain areas designated as
“Scheduled areas” and “Tribal areas.”
5. Art. 330, 332, 334 - Reservation of seats in Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha.
6. Art. 339 (1) - President can appoint a Commission to report on the
administration of the Scheduled Areas and the welfare of Scheduled Tribes.
7. Art. 371 (A-F) - Special provisions for Nagaland, Assam, Manipur, Sikkim,
Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh.

Issues - Tribal Advisory Council post 2019 State elections hasn’t been constituted
in Odisha despite being home to the third largest tribal population of India. 80-
plus BITs signed by India - doesn’t contain provisions on the rights of tribals.
Agency to Monitor Safeguards
1. Art 338A - National Commission for Scheduled Tribes

To uphold the constitutional spirit, several historic legislations have been enacted
- Forest Rights Act - 2006, SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, The
Provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the scheduled Areas) Act, 1996.

Conclusion:
Thus, Constitutional safeguards provide for protective discrimination, that is
indispensable for tribal development, empowering the State to intervene and
address the issues faced by them whenever required.

Sources:
1. https://www.firstpost.com/india/adivasis-and-the-indian-state-tribal-
groups-particularly-vulnerable-to-bonded-labour-strict-enforcement-
needed-to-prevent-exploitation-7257231.html
2. https://www.firstpost.com/india/for-mawasi-tribe-in-mps-satna-
limited-access-to-forests-results-in-livelihood-loss-and-a-generation-
forsaking-tribal-knowledge-7049551.html
3. https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/protecting-the-rights-of-
tribals/article17372134.ece

W16D4 Critically assess the existing plans and programmes meant for tribal
welfare. (15 Marks 2020)

Introduction
Out of the total population of India, STs constitute 8.6%(2011 census). To protect
their distinct social , economic and cultural practices and identities and to
integrate them with mainstream Indian society various welfare measures have
been initiated.

Body

Various Govt Schemes for the tribal welfare

1. State Grants
 ● Special Central Assistance to Tribal Sub Plan (SCA to TSP) : Primarily
meant for family-oriented income-generation schemes in sectors of
agriculture, horticulture ,sericulture and animal husbandry cooperation.

● The Grants under Article 275(1) of the Constitution of India are for
promotion of the welfare of Scheduled Tribes and up gradation of the
levels of administration in Scheduled Areas to bring them at par with
the rest of the State

2. PESA 1996 : enables self rule in tribal areas of 9 states under 5th schedule

3. FRA 2006 : provides Community rights over forest resources & Autonomy and
protection from harassment, eviction by the Forest Department

4. Economic assistance
● Grants-in-aid are released to State Tribal Development Cooperative
Corporations (STDCCs) and Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development
Federation of India Ltd. (TRIFED) to give Institutional Support for
Development & Marketing of Tribal Produce
● Van Dhan Vikas Kendra and Van bandhu Kalyan Yojana: Mechanism
for Marketing of Minor Forest Produce (MFP) through Minimum
Support Price (MSP) and Development of Value Chain for MFP’ as a
measure of social safety for MFP gatherers
● National Scheduled Tribes Finance and Development Corporation
(NSTFDC) & STFDCs : To identify economic activities of importance to
the Scheduled Tribes & provide skilling in order to generate employment
& raise income levels

5. Education
● Establishment of Eklavya model residential schools & ashram schools in
tribal sub plan areas : to enable them to avail reservations in high and
professional jobs.
● Pre matric & post matric scholarships for Students having less than 2.5l
family income annually -encourages students & their family by reducing
economic burden of Education
● NATIONAL OVERSEAS SCHOLARSHIPS (NOS) for ST students for
studying abroad
 ● Scheme of Strengthening Education among ST Girls in Low Literacy
Districts
● Vocational Training in Tribal Areas to develop the skills of the ST youth
for a variety of jobs as well as self employment

6. Health & nutrition : under National Health Mission

● Ayushman bharat- health & wellness centers to deliver comprehensive
primary healthcare
● Asha programme provides for recruitment of Asha in hilly & tribal
regions
● High priority districts identified whose composite health index are
below state average, will receive more resources
● Swasthya portal - one stop solution presenting health & nutrition
status of tribal population

Despite the welfare schemes, tribal societies have remained obscured from the
development in india & many recurring issues faced by them which are as follows

1. Involuntary migration & displacements with low or no compensation

Ex 72 tribal villages in gujarat were displaced for building statue of unity
2. Loss of forest rights & traditional livelihood
Ex In Chhattisgarh, earnings from activities - tendu leaves were affected
due to influx of labourers from Bihar who were willing to work for low
wages.
3. Rise of poverty & indebtedness
Ex- acc to Global multidimensional poverty index 2021, ST had the highest
poverty level 50.6% in india.
4. Increased rate of illiteracy & dropouts from educational institutions
Ex. Literacy rate of ST being 59% are still lacking behind by 15% with the
national average 74.04%(Census 2011)
5. Increased rate of undernourishment & mortality rate
Ex. according to NHFS 2015-16, under 5 mortality among tribal population
was 57.2 per 1000 live births.

Reasons for these issues

 1. Neglect & lack of special attention of tribal areas in spite of constitutional
provisions
2. Very inadequate allotment of funds Ex. financial allocation of 100 Cr in Van
Bandhu kalyan yojana
3. Inadequate administrative machinery to integrate all the sectoral schemes
4. Lack of coordination & integration of inter & intra departmental levels within
state & centre as well
5. Lack of effective personnel policy of the govt in tribal areas
● Frequent transfers of key personnels
● Less to none incentives for working in tribal areas
● Lack of specialized training
6. Less emphasis on adoption of scientific planning & implementation based on
research findings
7. Excessive politicization of tribal issues
Conclusion
Therefore to achieve the dream of inclusive development of Indian society and to
meet the objectives of the welfare state it is important to implement the tribal
welfare measures in letter and spirit.

Value addition:

AN IMPACT OF TRIBAL SUB-PLAN SCHEME ON TRIBAL COMMUNITY- study

of Gujarat in specially Dang District. Which is an important area in the Tribal
Sub-plan Area

https://www.journalijdr.com/sites/default/files/issue-pdf/9425.pdf

W16D4: Major problems of nomadic and semi-nomadic groups (15 Marks

2022)

Introduction
The Nomadic tribes maintain constant geographical mobility while semi-nomads
are those who are on the move but return to fixed habitations once a year, mainly
for occupational reasons.
Body
There are nearly 1,500 nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes and 198 denotified
tribes, comprising 15 crore Indians, according to the Renke Commission, 2008.

Types of nomads:
1. Food gathering nomads: Eg - Challa Yanadi of Andhra Pradesh, the
Malapandaram of Kerala, and the Birhor of Bihar
2. Pastoral nomads: Eg - Toda of Nilgiri
3. Trader nomads: Eg - iranis , kalbelias of Andhra pradesh
4. Mendicant nomads: Eg- The Gulgulias, the Dommaras,

Problem faced by nomadic and semi nomadic tribes

1. Development scenario and Nomad communities: The changing
development scenario is promoting land acquisition, town planning and
 development of major urban parts. Therefore, the communities out of the
city and village are deprived from their settlement.
2. Policy implementation and Nomadic communities: The state government
failed to implement land reforms that recognize the customary rights of
nomadic communities.
3. Bad treatment by local administration:
- Due to the stigma of criminals bestowed upon them in the past.

4. Lack of Social Security Cover:

-They don't have a permanent settlement. so, they lack social security cover
-They were not issued Ration Cards, Aadhaar cards etc. so, they are not
getting benefits under Government welfare schemes.
5. The caste categorization is not very clear
- some of the communities are included under the SC category,
in some other states they are included under OBCs
Eg. Banjaras, kaikadis
a. There are many anomalies in terms of identification of these
communities from state to state
b. There is a lack of awareness about these tribes and about authority
looking after their grievances
6. Health systems and Nomad communities:
-Increasing malnourishment is another scenario.
-Maximum malnourished in Maharashtra
7. Psychology on subhuman status and Nomad communities:
- Due to the sub-human treatment received for so many years,
- mental health also affected which has put weakened their morale
8. As a result of all these problems many communities are facing decline in
population

Government’s Initiatives to address these:

1)Development and Welfare Board for Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic

Communities (DWBDNCs) has been constituted for Development and Welfare of
these Communities for a period of three years extendable up to 5 years.

DWBDNCs has following responsibilities:

 ● To formulate and implement Welfare and Development programmes, as
required, for Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Communities.
● To identify the locations/areas where these communities are densely
populated.
● To assess and identify gaps in accessing existing programmes and
entitlements and to collaborate with Ministries/implementing agencies to
ensure that ongoing programmes meet the special requirements of
Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Communities.
● To monitor and evaluate the progress of the schemes of Government of
India and the States/UTs with reference to Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-
Nomadic Communities.

2)Nanaji Deshmukh Scheme of Construction of Hostels for DNT Boys and

Girls

3)Dr. Ambedkar Pre-Matric and Post-Matric Scholarship for DNTs

Inspite of 75 years of independence and recommendations of previous

commissions, Nomadic Tribes and semi nomadic tribes in India are still living a
miserable life. They are far away from the developmental processes and human
rights violation is a reality of their everyday life.

Conclusion
In the light of the above, there is an urgent need for these communities and
its leaders to come together and deliberate and zero down on the problems of the
community and also explore possible options.

Value addition
Contemporary Issues of Nomadic and Denotified Tribes in Maharashtra
(Analytical Review)

Recommendation:
1. There should be one Ashram Shala (Residential Schools) in each taluka
having concentration of the nomadic population.
2. There should be an awareness campaign among NT DNT on hygiene and
cleanliness to prevent spread of diseases among them.
 3. There should be reservation in Governance bodies such as
Panchayat/Municipal, Zilla Parishad, State and National level for elected
representatives from nomadic and denotified communities.
4. The government should establish cultural development centres to promote
and conserve the cultural tradition of the nomadic and denotified tribes.

W16D5: Compare the nature of tribal movements between North-East and

Central India. Briefly mention the current status of existing tribal movements
in these areas (15 Marks)

Introduction:
While tribal movements in the North-East were based on asserting political
autonomy, in Central India they took place due to socio-economic disabilities
faced by tribes.

Body:

Nature of tribal movements in North East India:

In North-East region, large number of tribal people have not been assimilated
with the mainstream culture due to physical inaccessibility, socio-linguistic and
religious distinctiveness.

1. Tribal revolts are in favour of political autonomy, and didn't concern much
with nationalist struggle.
a. Naga movement - notion of Naga autonomy or self determination
originated with the formation of Naga Club in 1919 - Naga National
Council - Nagaland as a separate state in 1963.
2. As British entered North East much later than non-frontier tribal areas,
movements in North East India aren’t forest-based or agrarian revolts,
focused on ethnic identity.
a. Khasi revolt (1830) - After British occupied hill regions and wanted to
build a road through Khasi hills, tribes stopped the road construction
project by attempting to drive outsiders away and stop the project.
 b. Kuki revolt (1917-1919) - British pressed Kukis, Lushais, Nagas into
service as part of Imperial army’s labour corps during World War 1.
Kukis refused - preserve Manipur’s sovereignty - British subjugated
their territory & divided it between British India and British Burma.
3. Frontier tribal revolts continued for a longer time than non-frontier tribes.
a. Bodo Movement - Suffered at hands of dominant Assamese
community in terms of allocation of resources, land and dismal
electoral representation from the colonial era - culminated into Bodo
movement.

Nature of tribal movements in Central India:

Against rising economic and social disparities, tribals started raising their
collective voice in independent India. The tribals especially in central India had
reacted sharply against their exploiters. These movements were directed towards
freeing their land from all those who exploited them economically and culturally
(Roy and Debal 2004). They were displaced from their own Jal, Jungle and Jameen
and fought with mainstream people.

Land:
1. Tribals revolted against rise in land revenue demands and economic
deprivation by the British. E.g. Chuar Rebellion (1766-1772)
2. Rebelled against British expansion over their territory. E.g. Pahariya
rebellion (1778)
3. Resenting policy of annexation resulting in loss of livelihood. E.g. Ramosi
uprising (1822-1829)
4. Transfer of land from tribals to outsiders on a large scale. E.g. Kol uprising
(1832)
Exploitation:
1. Tribals feared exploitation under the British regime. E.g. Bhil revolt (1818-
1831)
2. Against Zamindari system which made tribals lose their land and turned
them into bonded labourers. E.g. Santhal Insurrection (1855-1857)
 3. Against exploitation by moneylenders and forest contractors. E.g. Munda
Revolt (1895-1901)
Policies:
1. Protest against policies of British - farming revenue policy. E.g. Ho uprising
(1820-1837)
2. Opposing taxes imposed by British. E.g. Tana Bhagat Movement (1914)
Separate formation of a state:
1. Jharkhand Movement due to forest alienation, job deprivation, and influx of
outsiders, etc.

Current Status of Existing Tribal Movements:

The basic issues behind tribal movements in India after independence are forest
alienation, training and job deprivation due to influx of the outsiders, cultural
submergence, and unbalanced development.

North East India: Karbi insurgency, Bodoland statehood demand, Kukiland,

Greater Nagalim.
Central India:
Protest against mining projects. - E.g. Chhattisgarh tribal protest against coal
mine projects.
LWE - Exploitation and alienation experienced by the tribes at the hand of the
state machinery, landlords, industrial enterprises. Core of insurgency is focussed
in Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand, with significant activity levels in Bihar, Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra and Orissa.
Bhil Pradesh - voice for a separate State for tribal people from tribal belt of
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra - many schemes haven’t been
beneficial as people from their community have scattered - effort to unite their
community in the original place.

Conclusion:
Thus, we can say that tribal movements in India have been mainly based on
ethnicity, acculturation and modernity.
Value addition:
Major Agreements Signed to Bring Peace and Prosperity to the Northeast

January 27, 2020 demand for a separate state for

Bodo Accord Bodos – Bodoland.

Bru-Reang Agreement January 16, 2020 To resolve the 23-year-old Bru-

Reang refugee crisis.

National Liberation Front August 2019 NFLT factions surrendered,

of Tripura (NLFT) agreed to join the mainstream
Agreement and to abide by the Constitution
of India.

Karbi Anglong Agreement September 04, 2021 To resolve the long-running

dispute in the Karbi regions of
Assam.

https://pib.gov.in/FeaturesDeatils.aspx?NoteId=151186&ModuleId%20=%202

W16D5: What are the significant factors responsible for tribal unrest? (15
Marks)

Introduction

Tribal unrest is agitated over the exploitations, ever since the days of the colonial
era they have been revolting against the establishment for various reasons,
unfortunately this has continued in independent India as well.

Body

Various social, political, economic, and legal factors have contributed to the
problem of tribal unrest.

1) Governmental failures-
 ● Lethargy, indifference, and lack of sympathy from administrators and
bureaucrats in dealing with tribal grievances.
● Lack of legislation to prevent the passing of tribal land into the hands of
non-tribals.
● Ineffective government measures to rehabilitate tribal population

2) Political indifference

● Tribal leaders have very little significance in mainstream political parties.

● Though the tribal people's political participation is increasing periodically,
a great section of that society show their apathy towards their involvement
in administration.
● Tribes are showing their unwillingness due to their bad economic, political
and social background. Though those who are in power from their
community are not helpful for new participants.

3) Absence of efficient tribal leadership

● Lack of interest and dynamism among the political elite to solve tribal
problems.
● Tribal political leaders within political parties depend entirely on non-tribal
leaders

4) Unjust forest policy

● Harshness of forest laws and regulations.

● Certain acts like grazing of cattle were prohibited

5) Alienation of tribal land

● The Forest Act was enacted mainly to facilitate the acquisition of forest
areas that could supply timber to the railways.
● Tribes lost their lands to non-tribal moneylenders and landlords,
reducing their status to that of laborers in their own fields.
6) Irresponsibility and lack of accountability of the Agencies of Tribal
Development
● Delay in implementation of recommendations made by high level bodies.
● Discrimination in implementation of reformatory measures.

7) Forceful cultural impositions

● Conversion , christian missionaries
● imposition of dominant regional languages, religious practice.

These factors led to severe economic exploitation, grabbing of land, sexual abuse,
and conversion have caused for strong reaction among tribals (tribes revolted).

Major types of tribal movements:

● Religious and social reform movements

● Movements for statehood within the Indian Union or for autonomy for
tribal areas.
● Insurgent movements for independence from Indian Union Movements for
asserting cultural rights

The important tribes involved in revolt in the 19th century were Mizos, Kols,
Mundas, Khasis, Garos, Santhals, Nagas and Kondhs.

After independence also many tribal revolts took place in the North- East frontier
and central India.

Some contemporary movements are Jharkhand, Gond, Naga, Mizo and Bodoland
movements.

Conclusion:
According to L.P Vidyarthi, Anthropologists as social doctors & engineers can be
instrumental in preventing cultural impoverishment, economic disparities &
demographic imbalance, that lie at the roots of tribal unrest today.

Value addition:

The tribal people of five villages in Raavikamatam mandal staged a ‘vanta varpu’
(cooking in the open) protest outside the Raavikamatam Mandal Revenue Office at
Raavikamatam in the district on Monday demanding issuance of Recognition of
Forest Rights (ROFR) pattas for the lands on which they were cultivating cashew
atop Somalammakonda.

https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/tribal-people-stage-
protest/article33497122.ece

W17D1: Explain the impact of Hinduism on tribal people of India. 15M (2020)

Introduction

Historically, tribes are an important part of Indian mythology and society.

E.g. Ekalavya in Mahabharat, Sabari in Ramayana are from Bhil tribe, Gonds
consider themselves as the descendants of Ravana or Arjun wife Chitrangada- a
Naga princess, are linked to shared history.

Body

Today, around 90% of the tribals identify their religion with Hinduism.
Because of this, the influence of Hinduism on the tribal social structure,
institutions, traditions and kinship networks is most significant.

As studied and described by Nirmal Kumar Bose in 'Hindus Method of

Tribal Absorption', the whole process goes through the gradual steps by extending
a position in the caste system. It provides occupational security (agri-
pastoralists) to tribals in Hindu social system. Therefore, the impact of Hinduism
on tribes is biggest as well as at different levels among different tribes.
Impact of Hinduism on Tribal People of India

1. On Religion: In Hinduism, tribals have the freedom to keep their own religion
and dogmas. It enriches polytheism and only few specialized processes for them
are to be performed by the Brahmins only, while rest are carried out by them.
Some tribes have adopted Hindu God as well. E.g. SC Roy in his study of Oraons
observed that the old sun god is replaced by Shiva and Parvati.

2. Role of Brahmanism: G S Bhatt observed that brahmins, by providing services

and introducing Hindu beliefs to tribals, have propagated genesis of ‘every tribe is
caste’. Thus, rekindles hope in caste to ‘readopt and revive lost cultural elements’
and follow their rituals and taboos

3. On Identity: Some of the tribes are totally assimilated in Hindu Varna

structure. Among the tribals Kshatriya is the most sought out hierarchical position
by tribals. E.g. Khasa (as studied by DN Majumdar), Tharu (studied by SK
Shrivastava) or Bhumij (studied by Surajit Sinha) identify themselves as
Kshatriya.

Haimendorf in “The Reddis of Bison Hills - A study in acculturation”, said that,

British introduction of plough cultivation brought Reddis as Kshatriya in caste
system

Also, some are assimilated but maintain old traditions e.g. Mundas.

4. Tribe-Caste continuum:

G S Bhatt, while observing ‘tribe caste’ points out that where tribes have
transformed into caste, it retained tribal ethos and values. Religion and magic
assimilated into each other

Surajit Sinha (1962) on his ethnographic study of Bhumij put forward ‘Tribal
Rajput continuum’, where he observed diffusion of Rajput model among central
Indian tribes like Bhumij, Gond, Munda etc

Griffith while studying Hinduisation of Kol tribes (UP & MP) observed that these
tribes are apparently forming miniature caste system with tribe

5. Transculturation : The tribal traditions, customs, beliefs, gods etc have changed
significantly. Many tribes have given up non-vegetarian food habits. The Youth
Dormitories have either ended or decreased in functionality because of new taboos
on sexual mating, i.e., stricter control over premarital and extramarital sex
relations.

Eg: Majumdar observed the concept of transculturation among Ho of Singhbhum.

6. Position of Women: Tribal societies are ideally egalitarian societies with equal
participation from women in economic activities. With the increased contact of
tribals with Hindus the participation of tribal women in the economic sphere as
well as her position in society has reduced. The land rights of the tribal women
from the parents' properties have also reduced.

7. Marriage Practices: With Hinduism, the marriage bonds have become more
sacred and monogamous. It reduces the divorces in tribal families. At the same
time, because of the reduced economic role of women the old systems of acquiring
mates through bride price, service etc. are replaced by the dowry system in tribes
like Gonds, as studied by Prashant Bansode (in Gonds of Yavatmal, MH).

8. Kinship networks: New marriage rules and property rules are followed by
tribals due to borrowing of cultural practices from neighbouring Hindu society.
E.g. Lambadi (a tribe of south India) now allows cross-cousin marriage, while
earlier it was taboo.

Value Addition:
Hinduisation and Identity Conflict: The Missing Case

Conclusion:

Thus, the contact of Hindu society has produced significant changes in the tribal
population's way of life and socio-cultural features.

Sources:
1. Ignou
2. Mandar patki notes
https://indiafacts.org/are-indian-tribals-hindus-the-figures/
W17D1: Describe the impact of Buddhism on tribal population of India. 15 M

Introduction:
Buddhism founded by Lord Buddha, emerged as a distinct religion in 6th Century
BCE. Despite gaining patronage of prominent ancient rulers, it saw a decline from
the Indian mainland in the Medieval period.

Body:

Tribes under influence of Buddhism:

1. Bodh of Himachal Pradesh
2. Arunachal Pradesh tribes -
a. The Monpas, Sherdukpens of Bomdila and Tawang in West Kameng
and the Membas - Mahayana stream of Buddhism.
b. The Khamtis, Singpos and Tangsas of Lohit and Tirap region -
Hinayana Buddhist practices.
3. Lepchas, Bhutias, Sherpas of Sikkim
4. Brokpas of Ladakh
5. Mog (Burmese origin), Chakma, Barua and Uchai of Tripura

Religious Impact:
1. Sacred shrines called Gompas epitomize the glory of Buddhism in Ladakh.
They are centers of worship, and the monks or lamas perform their duties
as per the ancient established routine oblivious of the worldly matters
around them.
2. Khovas' are influenced by Tibetan Buddhism and have begun to employ
lamas for the performance of rituals. (Haimendorf)
3. Both Buddhist lamas and Lepcha shamans preside at many important
ceremonies in Lepcha life, each to perform their individual rituals.
4. Rituals followed by the Buddhists of Sikkim reflect the philosophies of
Tibetan Buddhism, along with a curious blend of Hindu, Buddhist and
primitive cultures. E.g. Vow of togetherness - Hindu culture, No concept of
Divorce - Buddhism.
 5. Although Buddhist by religion, the Chakmas have made a curious blending
of Buddhism, Vaishnavism and even Islam in their prayer and religious
couplet.

Social Impact:
Haimendorf in “Tribes of India (1982)”,
1. Unlike the Christian converts among the Nyishis, Khovas who are attracted
to Buddhism do not opt out of the social life of their community and
continue to participate in the traditional tribal rituals.
2. The Sherdukpens combine their adherence to Mahayana Buddhism with the
communal worship of tribal deities whose cult lies in the hands of priests
entirely distinct from the lamas.
3. Among the Monpas, elements of the ancient Bon religion coexist with the
dominant Buddhist faith, and the parallel practice of both religions within
the same communities has not sparked off any conflict.

Art and Cultural Impact:

1. Cham Dance of Ladakh - masked and costumed ritual with its roots
strongly connected to Buddhism. Before the performance, Gods and deities
of Buddhism are evoked.
2. Thangka Paintings of Sikkim - preaching Buddhism's greatest principles,
depict representations of many Buddhist Gods, Goddesses, and ideologies.
3. Khampti dance of Arunachal Pradesh - dance-drama that reflects the rich
culture of the Buddhists in the territory and unfolds the myths and stories
of moral values.
4. Largest Monastery of Tibetan Buddhism in India - Tawang, Arunachal
Pradesh - statue of Lord Buddha dominates the sanctum.

Value Addition:

Impact of Buddhism on the Monpa Community of Arunachal Pradesh, India

http://www.socialresearchfoundation.com/upoadreserchpapers/5/106/160801
0948231st%20kesang%20degi.pdf
Monpas, habitants of Tawang and West Kameng district of AR, practice
Mahayana form of Buddhism and their language belongs to Bodic speech family.

The findings of the study reveals that after accepting Buddhism many changes
took place in the socio-cultural and economic life of the Monpas.

Impact on Before accepting Buddhism After accepting Buddhism

Religion propitiated supernatural beings by Stopped performing such

performing rites and animal rites.
sacrifice.

Marriage -higher divorce rate -reduction in divorce rate -

-polygamy and polyandry less practice of polygamy
-reduction in polyandry

Food and -more of non-veg diet -vegetarian diet

drinking habits -tradition of taking alcohol -giving up alcohol

Education -Traditional knowledge only -spread of new concepts

(Tawang Monastery)

Society -more crime against women -women have equal status at

par with men
- lesser crime rate

Economy - doing some business like selling - more in business and other
meat, fish etc activities, gave up selling
meat,etc

Property only sons have the right to inherit Both sons and daughters can
inheritance parental property inherit.

Conclusion:
Thus, the impact of Buddhism on Indian tribes has been limited and
geographically restricted.
W17D2: Discuss with appropriate examples how tribal unrest may be
understood as emerging out of an incompatibility between tribes and nation-
state. (20M 2019)

Introduction

The nation-state is a situation when the boundaries of nation and state

become same, i.e. when all people of a state consider themselves to be a part of
the nation, it becomes a nation-state. Such shared feeling among people of
state is easier to form when all the people belong to one ethnic identity, shared
cultural thought or common historical experiences.

Body

However, India is a multi-ethnic nation and melting pot of numerous races

and ethnic identities. Ethnic identities being more significant among the tribes
and the uniqueness in cultural perspectives of each tribe, the tribal unrest has
remained a concern since the formation of the modern nation-state started in
India.

Factors causing the incompatibility between the nation and state:

1. Internal factors: Primitive agriculture, Marriage practices etc.

2. External factors: Exploitation by money lenders, missionaries and
government officials. Restrictive foreign policies, Displacement caused
by industrialization, urbanization, loopholes in laws and policies.

Today, we can see two broad types of unrests in India: They are

● Unrest in Central India

● Unrest in North-East

1. Unrest in central India is due to:

 ● Increased outside influence, leading to exploitation of poor tribals
through land alienation, Forced displacements with little or no
rehabilitation.
● Poor implementation of constitutional securities.
● Bureaucratic apathy to tribal grievances and corruption.
● Loss of tribal identity and cultural practices.
● Harsh forest policies for tribals with no control on contractors.

These forests give them food, resources for their art and craft, and part of their
socio-religious beliefs (Identified by LP Vidyarthi as Nature-Man- Spirit
Complex).

Because of this clash of interests between the state and tribals, much tribal
unrest has taken place in the region. The unrest in the Niyamgiri Hill region
from Dongria Kondh tribe against the bauxite mining in the region (because of
the sacred nature of the hill and being the source of livelihood) is an example
where the nation-state seems incompatible with the tribals.

2. Unrest in North-East is due to:

● Ethnic consolidations by some people against the rest.

● To get control of the government and all resources.
● Exclusive use of rights to be given to one tribe only.
● Relative isolation for long from the mainstream.

The unrest or long-going conflict in Nagaland, where the tribal objective of

separate Nagaland or Nagalim (Greater Nagaland) and even in the
neighbouring political entities like Arunachal Pradesh there is incompatibility
between tribes and the nation-state.

Disturbances between the nation and some neighbouring north-east states for
Inner- line permits in order to protect local culture by restricting the
migration from outside and have exclusive use rights on local resources with
participation in local political and administrative institutions.

Similarly, the incompatibility of tribes with nation-state is visible through the

breaking up of many tribal communities because of large scale displacement
caused by the large-scale industrial projects, dams, roads, mines etc. built in
the Central India with lack of participation from tribals with poor
rehabilitation and exploitation despite having protective measures under 5th
Schedule of constitution.

Value addition
Tribal unrest seen around the world
1. Erstwhile USSR
a. From the time of Lenin various tribes got reservation and better
status in the country. Later when aspirations were not fulfilled they
revolted
i. Eg: Kurds, chechens
2. USA and Australia
a. Here the indigenous group faced distribution, large-scale killing and
racism with no right to vote till 1930. Many tribes like Red Indians
and Zuni Indians were kept in sanctuaries. This gave rise to fierce
resistance
3. Africa and Saudi Arabia
a. Condition of tribes here is far better. According to scholars like
Bhandare, Hazare etc. Saudi Arabia is perhaps the only tribal nation
state in strict sense
Eg. Bushman of kalahari, Amazonian tribes ,
Nuer

Conclusion

Some of the recent steps like Forest Rights Act (2006), PESA, Right to Fair
Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and
Resettlement Act (2013) etc. with increased social infrastructure development
(educational and health infrastructure) along with higher participation in
economic infrastructure can help in reversing the cycle of deprivation,
disconnect and displacement of tribals leading to discontent or tribal unrest.

Sources:
https://mdoner.gov.in/contentimages/files/ARC_7thReport_Ch12.pdf
W17D2: Critically examine the relationship between tribal communities and
the Nation-State on issues of governance. (20 Marks - 2012)

Introduction:
The relationship between tribal communities and nation-states is an important
factor in determining the survival of tribal cultures and identity. The
understanding of tribes in the 21st century requires a critical gaze from the lens of
political dynamics of nation states.

Body:

Relationship between tribal communities and the nation-state on issues of

governance:

1. India - Ancient times - various tribes were autonomous but after

colonization they were subjugated. After independence - they were given
constitutional protections - 5th, 6th schedule, various legislations like FRA,
2006, SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, The Provisions of the
Panchayats (Extension to the scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 and policy
initiatives such as MADA, ITDAs/ITDPs to address diversities among the
tribal regions.

Issues: Jaintias exhibit developed structure in terms of political governance

however Garos are slightly less developed. ADCs of Meghalaya have often
been indulged into conflicts with the government in terms of provision of
grants. In addition to this, corruption and conflicts has also affected
development of Meghalaya and did not meet health and living standards.

Autonomy movements in North East - Naga autonomy, Bodoland statehood

movement, Kukiland, Greater Nagalim. Central India - LWE.

2. Australia: The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Heritage Protection

Act 1984 (ATSIHP Act) enables the Australian Government to protect
 cultural heritage under threat, if state or territory laws have failed to
protect it.

Issues: Many Aboriginal communities and families fracture and break

down because Aboriginal people cannot deal with their current situation,
but also because many governments have neglected basic services and
infrastructure for decades - high unemployment, high crime rates,
ineffective government programs.

3. Africa: Colonial powers encouraged tribal jealousies as part of a divide-

and-rule strategy. The government oversees tribal life through district and
provincial commissioners to whom the chiefs are responsible. Operation of
tribal law is sanctioned as long as it does not interfere with national
programs or policies. However, national law is clearly supreme over tribal
law.

Issues: Conflicts between Dinka and Nuer have been exacerbated by civil
war opposing South Sudanese separatists and Sudan government. In
Botswana, government sponsored projects in Central Kalahari Game
Reserve had come at cost of displacing Basarwa Bushmen who were forced
to relocate in resettlement villages. In Botswana and Namibia, around
80,000 Bushmen have been subjected to displacement and assimilation
policies of the state endangering their cultural identity and traditional
livelihood.

4. USA - 573 sovereign tribal nations have a formal nation-to-nation

relationship with the US government. Tribal governments are important
members of American governments. Today, tribal governments maintain
the power to determine their own governance structures, pass laws, and
enforce laws through police departments and tribal courts.

Issues: In Guatemala - Maya, who were officially recognized for their

Rights of Indigenous Peoples and identity after decades of civil war are still
being marginalized in access to land and resources.
 Several obstacles to tribal self-governance based on three thematic areas
that have been identified in recent years: (1) outmoded bureaucratic
processes; (2) lack of federal agency coordination; and, (3) regulations and
laws that prevent tribal governments from equitable access to federal
programs on par with state and local governments.

5. Saudi Arabia - In Saudi Arabia no official laws or regulations were issued

that refer exclusively to the Bedouin tribes. In civil and criminal cases that
are dealt in Shari‘a courts, the principles of Islamic law are applied.
However, in rural areas, tribal law still holds a strong position among the
settled, semi-settled, and nomadic populations.

Value addition:

Tribal Governance and stability in Yemen

https://carnegieendowment.org/files/yemen_tribal_governance.pdf

Survival of Yemen in the past against all odds, periods of political instability and
transition can be attributed to the role of the tribal system-resolving conflicts,
preserving order, and providing social safety nets.

Using the Customary Law system, 90% of conflicts over resources, development
services, and land are prevented and resolved. Tribal mediators have played an
important role in promoting political dialogue and building consensus among
political groups.

Certain challenges faced by tribal system-

1) younger generations -less understanding of tribal traditions.
2) Misuse of the position of Tribal sheikhs.
3) The Yemeni regime portrays tribes as an obstacle to development
4) Tribes-deprived of basic services, ignored and marginalized.

The Western policymakers need to recognize the importance of tribal governance

systems and utilize it to promote national reconciliation, stability, and state
building.

Conclusion:
In many countries, the domestic laws have come into conflict with international
laws concerning indigenous peoples and tribes. However, the relation between
tribes and nation states is a highly contentious one, with newer laws being
passed, scrapped and reenacted to suit the needs of the state.

W17D3: Discuss the objectives of Integrated Tribal Development Projects

(ITDPs). How far have these objectives been achieved? (2022)

Introduction
Being implemented since the Fifth Five Year Plan under Tribal Sub Plan, ITDPs
are contiguous large areas of the size of one or more Development Blocks in which
ST population is 50% or more of total population.

Body

Integrated Tribal Development Project (ITDP):

ITDAs/ITDPs are administrative units adopted by a number of States for the

purpose of delivery of programmes and services to tribal individuals, households
and habitations.

Responsible for infrastructural development, income generation activities, health

and education related service delivery as well as implementation of Forest Rights
Act within their areas.

For each Integrated Tribal Development Project (ITDP), an Integrated Area

Development Plan focusing attention on the specific problems of the area and the
tribal people has been formulated.
There are 194 Integrated Tribal Development Project (ITDPs) / Integrated Tribal
Development Agencies (ITDAs) spread over 19 States / Union Territories in the
country.

Objectives:

Integrated Tribal Development Projects (ITDPs) are government-funded

initiatives that aim to improve the quality of life and socio-economic conditions
of tribal communities in India. The main objectives of ITDPs are as follows:

1. Promote socio-economic development: ITDPs aim to uplift the socio-

economic conditions of tribal communities by providing access to
education, healthcare, employment, and other basic amenities.
2. Protect the rights and interests of tribal communities: ITDPs aim to protect
the rights and interests of tribal communities by promoting their cultural
and social traditions and by ensuring that they have a say in the
development process.
3. Promote sustainable development: ITDPs aim to promote sustainable
development by supporting tribal communities in their efforts to preserve
and protect their natural resources and by promoting sustainable
agriculture and other economic activities.
4. Enhance the socio-economic status of tribal communities: ITDPs aim to
enhance the socio-economic status of tribal communities by providing them
with access to credit, marketing facilities, and other support services.
5. Promote tribal culture and traditions: ITDPs aim to promote tribal culture
and traditions by supporting cultural festivals and other events, and by
preserving and promoting traditional art forms and handicrafts.

Overall, the main objective of ITDPs is to improve the quality of life and socio-
economic conditions of tribal communities and to empower them to participate in
the development process.
Primary objective of ensuring an integrated implementation of development
programmes for tribals in the sub-plan areas.
a. reducing poverty
b. improving educational status
c. eliminating exploitation of the tribal families.

Evaluation of the objectives:

1. Jenu Kuruba tribes living in Karnataka’s Kodagu (2022) - residents of the

settlement are devoid of all the facilities including education, health
facilities, and free ration. Toddlers and children aged between 5 and 11 who
have never stepped into a school or known education. The residents do not
receive any assistance under the ITDP department and are leading a
miserable life with the worst living conditions.
2. Denial of hostel admission for children : Recently (2021), parents from
Kumbalappara tribal hamlet near Nilambur were against the officials of the
Integrated Tribal Development Project (ITDP) for not admitting their
children at a tribal hostel of their choice.
3. A study by Integrated Tribal Development Programme (ITDP) states that
10000 acres of tribal land in Attappady had been alienated as of 1977. After
that, the amount of land grabbed from tribal people has only multiplied.
The illegal sale of protected tribal lands continues unhindered.
4. ITDP has taken the initiative of distributing caste certificates for students
in Palghar, Maharashtra as local tribal students found it extremely difficult
to get their caste certificates required for further education or jobs.
5. Wadi model of tribal development: Adani Dahanu Thermal Power Station
(ADTPS) and Adani Foundation in association with NABARD initiated
“Integrated Tribal Development Project” in selected villages of Dahanu
Block (2022) - economic upliftment of tribals covering 1000 land owing
tribal families phased over 7 years, for developing 1 acre “Wadi” and also
benefit at least 100 landless tribal families with livelihood support -
sustainable and replicable model for poverty alleviation, particularly for
tribal communities.
6. To spread awareness about government schemes and projects, the ITDP and
the state health department have joined hands with tribal welfare NGOs
 like Thampu in Attappady, Kerala. This reduces tribal people’s dependence
on agents for applying for benefits as seen in case of Dharni village,
Maharashtra.

Xaxa Committee Recommendations:

1. Institutions of ITDAs/ITDPs and micro projects support to tribal schools

should be strengthened to prevent dropouts.
2. Tribal health councils should be constituted at the block or ITDP level,
district, state and national level. These should be empowered to shape the
health plans and monitor implementation.
3. The Andhra Pradesh model for ITDAs should be used as a reference point
for restructuring of ITDAs to ensure effective delivery of benefits to the
tribal people.

Value Addition

ITDPs and Adivasis: Reflective notes from the field

https://www.academia.edu/34107312/ITDP_and_Adivasis_Reflective_notes_
from_the_field

The article focuses on the ground realities of the ITDPs vis-a-vis the Adivasis in
Gadchiroli district of Maharashtra. It reflects on the plethora of problems faced by
Adivasis, and what they think about the ITDPs in resolving problems.

The article deals with the following questions-

1) How far is the importance of Adivasi culture and traditions considered while
designing the welfare schemes?
The scheme is not in consonance with the culturally sensitive patterns of land
ownership.
ITDP- supports only single name land holders
Adivasis- land holdings are predominantly at an extended family level- excluded
as a beneficiary by design of the scheme.
2) What are the challenges related to successful claims of these ITDP schemes?
The positive impact of these schemes was found to be <50% at implementation
level.
Challenge- Officials at the implementing agencies are insensitive and have an
arrogant attitude to the Adivasis.

3) Do these schemes really provide socio-economic development on egalitarian

terms?
Schemes for vocational trainings are mechanisms ensuring continuous supply of
cheap labor for the labor-hungry urban market space
The traditional livelihood means are not protected and overthrown for the
requirement of the urban populace.

Suggestions-
- Setting up a continuous monitoring agency.
- The Govt. and the development machinery must reach out to the Adivasi
communities for understanding their genuine felt needs.

Conclusion
ITDPs are responsible for the implementation of the schemes meant for socio-
economic development and protection against exploitation of STs. However, their
achievements are skewed across states.

W17D3: Discuss the intervention of Non-Governmental Organizations for

empowering tribal women (15 Marks, 2021)
Introduction
Non- Governmental Organization (NGO) aka non-profit organization is
defined by The World Bank, as ‘private organizations that pursue activities to
relieve suffering, promote the interests of the poor, protect the environment,
provide basic social services, or undertake community. They have immensely
contributed to vocational training and women’s empowerment.
Body
 Adivasi women are doubly excluded from the mainstream development
process. Unless and until empowerment or assertive changes take place
in tribal women, balanced development is not possible.

Women's empowerment has been the essential concentration for both

government and most NGOs. Deliberate activity advanced by NGOs
occupied with improvement assumes a noteworthy job towards country
improvement which is subordinate to the dynamic support of the
volunteers through Non-Government Organizations (NGOs).

Interventions by NGOs:

1. It helps in bridging the gap between government and tribal people

Example :

Project for Chenchu (a PVTG) Livelihood Enhancement (CHELE) - both by

the government agencies and NGOs

- The initiative aimed to train the Chenchu women in the sustainable

gathering of non-timber forest products such Adda leaf, amla, tamarind,
and soap nut, and the Chenchu men in the sustainable and safe collecting of
wild honey.

- With the assistance of NGOs, this project aimed to close the gap between
government initiatives and the general public and fully exploit the potential
of both.

2. Creating awareness in tribals about their rights:

Ama Sangathan

- supported by - Agragamee, this movement was Led by the women's group,

Mandibisi Mahila Mandal, for rights over minor forest produce in the
remote Tahsil of Kashipur in the fifth Schedule District of Rayagada and
Orissa. - they crusaded against the exploitation of middlemen.

- later, became the first tribal women's enterprise in processing and

marketing agricultural and MFP in Orissa. - Now, tribal women are
members in state counsels, with tribal youth also having joined hands, and
have begun a network for a collective voice.
3. To provide employment among the tribal women

Vaagdhara

- initiatives include:

a. This NGO and along with under the leadership of the Gram Panchayat of
village Koba in Anandpuri block of Banswara district, rajasthan helped
women earn livelihood by Making face masks during COVID-19 lockdown

b. i-Saathi - an attempt towards digital literacy of tribal women where a

group of selected young, educated female volunteers and SHG members are
empowered to use internet in their daily lives and act as change agents
When these women turned digitally literate, they used internet
infrastructure provided by VAAGDHARA to access internet which really
makes their life resourceful.

4. Focus on Skill development / Upgradation:

Microcredit for Mothers in Andhra Pradesh:

Nature – A Local NGO, was chosen by a Neatherlands based public charity

organisation, to partner them for implementation of the project
“Microcredit for the Mothers” to improve livelihood, capacity building and
popularise thrift among 1000 tribal women in ananthagiri mandal. The
women were from Kotia Konda, Dora, Valmiki, Bhagata and Paidi Tribes.

The women are trained on how to market better and collect more non -
timber forest produce like tamarind, turmeric, amla and ginger. Value
addition and inculcating entrepreneurship will be the focus area in the
project.

Other Focus areas of NGOs include:

1. Providing health care to the women

Around 85% of women in Jharkhand’s Torpa block, suffer from anemia.

This means profuse bleeding during periods, fatigue and various kinds of
aches and pains. Till health activists working in this tribal area hit upon a
 simple idea — persuade the women to revive a tradition from their
grandmothers’ time — cooking in iron kadhais.

In just six months since NGO Professional Assistance for Development

Action (PRADAN) along with Public Health Resource Network introduced
the idea, 2,000 families have purchased iron woks that cost a few hundred
rupees and are known to increase hemoglobin levels.

2. Role in promoting tribal education

Eg: Shakti foundation helped hatti tribes of HP to have access to education

Criticism

1. There is no linkage and coordination among different ngo that are

working in same geographical area
2. Fragmentation, powerlessness, corruption, nepotism and internal
weakness are some of negative trait of ngos
3. Misappropriation of funds in many NGOs

Value addition:

1. Adivasi Mahila Vikas Sansthan: Adivasi Mahila Vikas Sansthan is an NGO

that works towards empowering tribal women in the states of Madhya
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. The organisation provides education and
vocational training to tribal women and girls, and also works towards
promoting their health and well-being.
2. Saath: Saath is an NGO that works towards empowering tribal women and
girls in the states of Gujarat and Rajasthan. The organisation provides
education and vocational training to tribal women and girls, and also
works towards promoting their health and well-being.
3. SRIJAN: SRIJAN is an NGO that works towards empowering tribal women
and girls in the states of Odisha and Jharkhand. The organisation provides
education and vocational training to tribal women and girls, and also
works towards promoting their health and well-being.
 4. PRADAN: PRADAN is an NGO that works towards empowering tribal
women and girls in the states of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Madhya
Pradesh. The organisation provides education and vocational training to
tribal women and girls, and also works towards promoting their health and
well-being.
5. Jan Swasthya Sahyog: Jan Swasthya Sahyog is an NGO that works towards
empowering tribal women and girls in the state of Chhattisgarh. The
organisation provides education and vocational training to tribal women
and girls, and also works towards promoting their health and well-being.

1. The Ministry of tribal affairs gives financial grants to NGOs to

empower the tribes. For instance
a. Award of special incentives (ASI) to NGO for improvement of
infrastructure
b. Development of PTGS
c. Grant in Aid to Voluntary Organisations
d. Strengthening among ST girls in low literacy districts
2. https://ngo.tribal.gov.in/

Conclusion
NGOs serve as a safety net and are essential to the advancement of tribal
communities by enhancing the reach of government schemes and in filling the
critical gaps of service deficient tribal areas. While they lack magical abilities to
instantly fix every issue, they can nonetheless serve as excellent development
catalysts.
W17D4: Examine the strengths and weaknesses of anthropology in the context
of its role in tribal and rural development. 20 marks (2018)

Introduction
David Mandelbaum (1980): hallmarks of anthropology (holism, cultural relativism,
participant observation) facilitate an in-depth understanding of every aspect of
the subject's life, with desired objectivity and empathy.

This makes an anthropologist well suited to work for tribal and rural
development.

Body
Role of Anthropology in Tribal Development - Strengths:

1. Intertwining ecology and economy in tribal development - Vidyarthi

explained how the ecological basis of forests and the slash-and-burn
cultivation shaped the socioeconomic life of the Maler tribe - NMS complex
- asserted that Maler culture originated, developed and flourished in the lap
of nature.
2. Committee on Forest and Tribals - under Dr. B.K. Roy Burman, submitted
its report in 1982 with emphasis on the importance of forest in tribal life -
that tribal rely on forest for not only their basic needs viz. fuel, fodder and
wood but they also earn one third of their income from sale of minor forest
products - National Forest Policy, 1988.
3. Aid in Policy making - S.C. Roy was elected as a member of Bihar
Legislative Council for several terms (1921 to 1937). Emphasized the need to
utilise anthropological knowledge and perspective about various tribes to
resolve the administrative problems faced by poor and down-trodden tribes
in India.
4. Scheduled Areas - It was on Elwin’s advice that the Government of India
created Scheduled Areas and Inner Line Areas which were not accessible to
outsiders without a permit.
5. Gain Insiders View - Verrier Elwin’s study on Baiga (1939) - exploitation of
these tribes - isolation approach. Wrote ‘A Philosophy for NEFA’ to
 formulate policy and a philosophy for the administrative and work staff of
NEFA and to introduce new or uninformed NEFA personnel to facts about
the area and its people. The deep understanding of the tribes of NEFA was
necessary to administer them. Complying with the advice of Elwin, Nehru
formulated the Tribal Panchsheel.
6. Studying tribal problems and suggesting solutions - "Task force on
Development of Tribal Areas" under L.P. Vidyarthi (1972) – altogether a new
approach was adopted towards tribal development - Tribal Sub-plan -
integrating the developmental activities of the government and the semi
government organizations by financing through Integrated Tribal
Development Project.

Role of Anthropology in Rural Development - Strengths:

1. Anthropologists apply a holistic approach in understanding rural problems
to suggest the development requirement of a particular community, village
or ethnic groups. They assume that there is a connection in social relations,
social organizations and development.
2. Villages as tool for planning rural development - M.N Srinivas noted
villages are invaluable observation-centres where he/she could study in
detail social processes and problems to be found occurring in great parts of
India. E.g. S.C Dube “Indian Village”, M.N Srinivas “India’s Village”, McKim
Marriott “Village India”.
3. Concepts like Dominant Caste, Sanskritization given by M.N Srinivas helps
us to understand caste dynamics of rural India which is essential to bring
rural development plans.
4. Aids in rural development through its felt needs approach - changes
deemed necessary by people to correct the deficiencies they perceive in their
community through developmental schemes - Rural drinking water
programme.
5. Contribution of anthropologists has been conspicuous in highlighting the
failure of top-down approaches, inculcating social and cultural sensitivity
in project formulation, building bridges between rural society and
development administration.
6. Anthropology has developed novel and innovative ways of assessing the
developmental needs of the local people by generating data and suggestions
 from the rural tribal populations by techniques like Rapid Rural Appraisal
Participatory Rural Appraisals.

Weakness:
1. Limited number of applied anthropologists in policy making - Applied
anthropologists are said to function as analysts, consultants,
administrators and are involved in diverse settings but the number of
anthropologists employed in planning, policy making, and development
administration is limited.
2. Micro Vs Macro Studies - Generally, it is believed that anthropologists are
committed to gradualism which is not popular with planners and
policymakers, who think that anthropologists are neither accustomed nor
fully equipped to think in terms of planning. Development is a macro-
phenomenon, planned and executed in national contexts, while the
expertise of anthropologists is at micro-level.
3. Traditional ways of life Vs Modernization - Misconceptions exist that
anthropologists seek to preserve traditional ways of life when people seem
to seek faster modernisation.
4. Adherence to extreme cultural relativism - Cultural relativism angle to
understand culture, anthropologists may not support external measures
that might lead to destruction of culture and may include government
efforts.
5. Isolation Vs Integration - Anthropologists have been kept away from
development agencies by labelling them as isolationists, conservationists,
etc.
6. Time consuming data collection tools - Anthropological approach for
fieldwork involving long term stay and participant observation is not
popular with development administrators, as they want feedback and
inputs at the earliest for grounding time bound action programmes at the
earliest.

1. Janaki Abraham: As mentioned in my previous response, Abraham worked

on rural development in the state of Kerala in the 1980s and 1990s, studying
the impact of development initiatives on the lives of rural women and
 advocating for policies and programs that would support their
empowerment.
2. James C. Scott: Scott, a political anthropologist, has studied the impact of
development initiatives on rural communities in India, particularly in the
state of Tamil Nadu. His work has focused on the ways in which
development initiatives can have unintended consequences, and the
importance of considering the perspectives of local communities in the
development process.
3. Akhil Gupta: Gupta, an anthropologist and political scientist, has studied
the role of development initiatives in shaping the lives of rural communities
in India. His work has focused on the ways in which development
initiatives can both empower and disempower local communities, and the
importance of considering the cultural and political context in which
development takes place.
4. Arjun Appadurai: Appadurai, an anthropologist and cultural theorist, has
studied the impact of globalization on rural communities in India, and the
ways in which rural people have responded to and been affected by
economic and cultural changes. His work has highlighted the importance of
considering the complex and diverse experiences of rural communities in
development initiatives.

Conclusion
Angela Cheater: anthropology has become too important to be left to
anthropologists alone.
The need is to promote an anthropological approach at all levels of
administration to achieve inclusive tribal and rural development.
W17D4: Briefly describe the anthropological perspective on development. How
have anthropologists contributed to India’s rural development? (2022)

Introduction

For anthropologists dealing with development, the interest lies in policies

and programmes. They analyse the impact of global, national, and regional
processes on local populations. They also deal with issues related to economic
development, different types of inequality, poverty, hunger, issues related to
environment, international migration, identity, ethnic conflict, resettlement,
displaced people, refugees, and human rights.

Body

For anthropologists, development is not just using new technologies

for increased production, but involves a change in objectives, outlook, ideas
and relationships.

Anthropological perspective on development, helps in:

1. Providing cultural understanding: Anthropology can help policymakers

understand the cultural context in which policies will be implemented, and
the potential impacts of those policies on different groups within the
community. This can inform the design and implementation of policies that
are more culturally sensitive and relevant to the community.
2. Identifying root causes of problems: Anthropology can help policymakers
identify the root causes of problems, rather than just addressing symptoms.
This can inform the development of more comprehensive and effective
policies that address the underlying causes of problems.
3. Involving local communities in policymaking: Anthropology emphasizes the
importance of involving local communities in the policymaking process. By
working closely with community members, anthropologists can help ensure
that policies are responsive to the needs and priorities of the local
community.
4. Considering long-term impacts: Anthropologists often take a long-term
perspective on policy making, considering both immediate and long-term
impacts on the community. This can help to ensure that policies are
sustainable and have a lasting positive impact on the community.
Role of Anthropologists in India’s rural development:

Anthropologists apart from tribal studies, they enhanced their scope of

study into village studies as well.

• The conceptual base which is needed for rural development is provided by

Anthropology by following studies

1. Caste studies.
2. Understanding agrarian social structure
3. Social change because of panchayat raj institutions and media.
4. Village Studies
5. Influence of globalization on market mechanisms in Indian villages.

1. Caste studies: Anthropologists like L.P. Vidyarthi, Yugender Singh, SC

Dubey, M.N.Srinivas, Bailey and others tried to provide temporal and spatial
understanding of caste based social stratification. The concept of dominant
caste which is essential for understanding the local and regional economical
and political aspects is provided by this discipline.

2. Agrarian social structure in a given society evolves over a long period of

time. It is shaped historically by different socio-economic and political
factors. The works done by Anthropologists helps in understanding this.

3. Social change: M.N. Srinivas gave concepts like sanskritization and

westernization, through which social change is observed in rural areas.

Traditional and changing patterns of settlement and inter-caste relations,

indigenous and exogenous processes of socio-cultural change in India, social
change because of Panchayati Raj and media, all these are studied by
various anthropologists which helped in gaining a perspective and work
towards rural development.

4. Village studies: Understanding Dominant caste and village factions: SC

Dube’s studies on Shamirpet village gave proper insights on dominant caste
and village factions.

5. Anthropology also helped in understanding the relationship between Little

Tradition and Great Tradition, impact of globalization on Indian villages.
 • All the studies of anthropologists will also help in policy formulation and
policy implementation which will be inclusive in nature.

Conclusion

The contribution of anthropologists has been conspicuous in highlighting

the failure of top-down approaches, inculcating social and cultural sensitivity in
project formulation, building bridges between people and development
administration.

W17D5: Discuss the regionalism and demand for autonomy in India from
anthropological perspective with respect to Kashmir / Nagaland /
Bodoland / Gorkhaland agitation. 20 M (2020)

Introduction:
Regionalism is the expression of a common sense of identity and purpose by
people within a specific geographical region, united by its unique language,
culture etc.

Positive: encourages people to develop a sense of brotherhood and oneness which

seeks to protect the interests of a particular region and promotes the welfare and
development of the state and its people
Negative: it implies excessive attachment to one’s region which is a great threat
to the unity and integrity of the country.

Body:
Reasons for Regionalism in India:
1. Geographical factor
2. Language
3. Historical and Cultural factors
4. Caste and Religion
5. Economic factors
 6. Politico-Administrative factors
Because of the regional sentiments created by these factors, demands for greater
autonomy, secession or reorganisation of states are made including the ones as
discussed below:

Kashmir:

Jammu and Kashmir is an example of plural society (religious, cultural, linguistic,

ethnic, tribal diversity) and political aspirations.

Aspects of the ‘Kashmir issue’:

1. Not just a dispute between India and Pakistan, it involves the issue of
Kashmiri identity known as Kashmiriyat and the aspirations of the people
of J&K for political autonomy.
a. Pakistani leaders thought the Kashmir region ‘belonged’ to Pakistan,
since the majority population of the State was Muslim ideologically
 different from the people who thought themselves as Kashmiris above
all.
2. Popular resentment in the State against the inefficient administration
since the early 1980s.
3. Separatist politics which surfaced in Kashmir from 1989 has taken different
forms and is made up of various strands -
a. One strand of separatists who want a separate Kashmiri nation,
independent of India and Pakistan
b. Groups that want Kashmir to merge with Pakistan (religious
extremist)
c. third strand which wants greater autonomy for the people of the
state within the Indian union (people of Jammu and Ladakh region,
who complaint of neglect and backwardness due to control of power
in Srinagar)

Nagaland:
Ethnicity played a dominant role in Northeastern identity politics, with the North
Eastern Region containing distinct ethno-cultural groups.

Background:
1. Primordial values of the tribal people which were based on their tradition,
laws, customs - gap between their traditional values and upcoming modern
culture.
2. A feeling of alienation as well as deprivation was fostered among the tribal
people of North East India.
3. Economic backwardness of the North-Eastern region fortified their feeling
of deprivation in comparison to other regions of the country.

The Naga movement:

● Naga covers sixteen major Mongoloid tribes - belong to the Indo-Mongoloid
family - don’t have a common language or dialect
● The development of Naga ethnicity was consequently crystallized through
the Naga movement
● Feeling of discontent since the imposition of British rule and then intention
to protect their distinctiveness, reached a climax in the Post-Independent
Period
● Based on extreme ethno-nationalism which was articulated by Naga
National Council, by fostering the sense of Naga oneness
○ June 1947 the NNC made a demand that Naga Hills would cease to be
a part of India on attainment of independence
○ After a long conflict with the Indian Union, a separate State of
‘Nagaland’ was created in 1963 (Status of Special Category State
under Article 371 A)

Bodoland:
● Assam’s demographic division consists of inhabitants migrated from Tibet,
Burma, Thailand, Bengal and assimilations of their populations created the
greater Assamese Nation.
 ● Assamese weren’t the original inhabitants of Assam, rather the Bodos, the
Koches, the Morans, the Chatias, the Ahoms, these tribal’s were the original
inhabitants in this particular State.

As a result, Assam became a land of different kinds of separate identity

movements as well as sub-regional movements, including hills and plains of
Assam like Bodoland movement.

● The Bodos are believed to be the earliest settlers of Assam (branch of the
great Indo-Mongoloid people of Assam), indigenous religion -Bathau (an
animistic type)

Economic backwardness of Bodos:

● Primarily a rural community dependent on natural resources and the
majority of the households are still sticking to their traditional occupation-
agriculture - rudimentary; high dependence for subsistence
● Living in remote location, deprived opportunities to receive education, lack
of markets and avenues for economic activities

Bodo Movement:
Bodos were rescued by the efforts of some of their community leaders and reset in
the right track again to march ahead -
● First organised demand for a Bodo state (1967-68).
● 2020 Accord: The Central government signed a tripartite agreement with
the state government and different Bodo groups for a “permanent” solution
to the Bodo issue - provides for more legislative, executive, administrative
and financial powers to Bodoland Territorial Council.
Gorkhaland:
● Gorkhaland consists of Nepali-speaking people of Darjeeling, Kalimpong,
Kurseong and other hilly districts of West-Bengal.
● People belonging to these areas have ethical, cultural and language
differences with the Bengali community of West-Bengal - demand creation
of Gorkhaland State.

● Cultural differences:
 ○ People of Nepali-Indian Gorkha ethnic origin in the Northern part of
West Bengal demand a state on the basis of their cultural identity,
which is very different from Bengali culture.
● Socio-economic backwardness:
○ Improvements in basic amenities like education, health, water
supply, sanitation and employment is stagnated in the hill regions
● Cultural imposition:
○ In 2017, West Bengal government’s decision to impose Bengali
language in all the schools from Class I to IX, attracted violent
agitation in the region.
● Political aspirations:
○ State government’s failure to conduct the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill
Council (DGHC) elections created mistrust among the public and
raised their aspiration of self-governance.

Conclusion:

M.N. Srinivas (Nation Building in Independent India, 1976): Regionalism is a

multidimensional issue and should be tackled with sympathy, care and
appreciation for long suppressed aspirations.

W17D5: Critically examine the concept of communalism and its relevance for
multireligious and multiethnic polity of India. (20 Marks 2015)
Introduction:

Communalism, in a broad sense, means a strong attachment to one’s own

community. In popular discourse in India, it is understood as unhealthy
attachment to one’s own religion.It’s an ideology that, in order to unify the
community, suppresses distinctions within the community and
emphasises the essential unity of the community against other
communities.

Body:

Anthropological perspective about communalism:

Malinowski- Religion is a potent force of solidarity ,but when this solidarity turns
into open hostility it takes shapes of communalism

Gyanendra pandey(1990)- Suspicion, fear and hostility between religious

communities

W C Smith-Society->Religious communities-whose interest differ and opposed

Geertz (1960) in the study of religion of Java –Religious pluralism->Ideological

conflicts bound to occur

Reasons for Communalism:

Historical : Mughal Rule-> Aurangazeb, Divide and Rule policy of British

Economic: In case of India there are difference in Economic achievement between

Hindus and Muslims, these differences are ignited by political ideological and
segregational factors e.gL1962 Jabalpur Riots

Psychological Reasons-Inherent Fear of Minorities about losing their Identity,

Apprehensions of Majority about Change in Demographic profile in Future.

Divisive politics-Uneven development,class divisions,poverty and unemployment

aggravates insecurity in common man-> vulnerable to political manipulation.

Ideological Differences: Polytheism and Idolatry of Hinduism V/s Monotheism and

Dietary practices of Islam

Characteristics:

Ideology based on prejudices, Drives masses towards violence,Negates concept of

pluralism

Types :

Political leaders tend to implicitly promote the idea of divisions among the
Communalism communities. This gives rise to political communalism where
different sets of people are divided into political lines and
ideologies

Social When the societies’ beliefs divide these into different groups and
 Communalism lead to rivalry among each other, it further leads to Social
Communalism

Economic The difference in economic interests of the groups of people or

Communalism communities, leading further clashes in the society

Dimensions:

T.K Ooman has mentioned six dimensions of Communalism

Dimension Feature

Assimilationist a small religious group or groups are integrated or

assimilated into a larger religious groups

Welfarist When a community works for the welfare or betterment of a

particular community

Retreatist When a community proscribes its members to participate in

the politics or abstain from politics

Retaliatory When, in rivalry, one community harms or injures people of

other community

Separatist When the demand for a separate identity surfaces or a group

of people demand separation from a larger group

Secessionist To have a separate political identity, a group of people can

demand secession from a state or a nation

Positive Aspects:
Affinity of an individual towards his own community involves efforts for the social
and economic upliftment of his community.This is more beneficial in case of
Vulnerable sections like tribes, minorities.

Effects of Communalism on the multi-Religious and multi ethnic polity of

India:

India is home to 8 religious groups and more than 2000 ethnic groups.

1.Communal politics resulting in politics of Threat and hate speeches.How ever at

some instances it gives Bargaining power for Minorities in politics.

2.communal Violence-Rationality of Rioters Disappears in the irrationality of

Violence E.g: Gujarat Riots(2002)

3.Segregation of communities,hindering the mobility of people -> socio economic

deprivation.

E.g: Open Call Given by some Religious outfits not to eat in hotels of other
Religious communities.

4.Forced Conversions and Dragging of smaller sections into the fight of bigger
religious Groups

E.g: Competition among Hindu outfits and Christian Missionaries over Tribal
conversions

5.Hampering of Cultural integration -> Honour killing E.g: Murder of SC boy and
Muslim Girl by Relatives of Girl in Hyderabad.

5.Secular Fabric and Religious tolerance of country under threat- Issues like Hijab
Controversy in Karnataka Educational Institutions.

6.Image of the country at International level under Threat-When India is Aspiring

for Global Leadership our Policies should be accommodative to all religious Groups.
Conclusion:

The battle of preserving and promoting "unity in diversity" in India is far

from being lost. It can be won not because of the coercive power of the
Indian state, but because of the inherent strength and resilience of Indian
society.