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Psychophysiology - 2022 - Brummelman - Early Physiological Indicators of Narcissism and Self Esteem in Children

This study investigates the early physiological indicators of narcissism and self-esteem in children, proposing that they are fundamentally distinct traits. The research, involving 113 children assessed at ages 4.5 and 7.5, found that children predisposed to narcissism exhibited elevated physiological arousal in social-evaluative contexts, while those with high self-esteem showed reduced arousal. These findings suggest that narcissism is linked to social-evaluative concerns, whereas self-esteem is associated with a sense of comfort in such contexts.

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Psychophysiology - 2022 - Brummelman - Early Physiological Indicators of Narcissism and Self Esteem in Children

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Received: 22 July 2021

| Revised: 2 April 2022

| Accepted: 4 April 2022

DOI: 10.1111/psyp.14082

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Early physiological indicators of narcissism and self-esteem

in children

Eddie Brummelman | Milica Nikolić | Barbara Nevicka | Susan M. Bögels

Research Institute of Child

Development and Education, Abstract
University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, A common belief is that narcissism is a manifestation of high self-esteem. Here,
the Netherlands
we argue that self-esteem and narcissism are fundamentally distinct and have
Correspondence unique early physiological indicators. We hypothesized that children predisposed
Eddie Brummelman, Research Institute to narcissism would show elevated, whereas children predisposed to high self-
of Child Development and Education,
University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box
esteem would show lowered, physiological arousal in social-evaluative contexts.
15780, 1001 NG Amsterdam, the We tested this in a prospective study including 113 children, who were first as-
Netherlands. sessed at age 4.5, a critical age when children begin evaluating themselves through
Email: [email protected]
others' eyes. At age 4.5, children sang a song in front of an audience while being
Funding information videotaped. Children's physiological arousal (skin conductance, heart rate, and
This study was supported by an
heart rate variability) was assessed while children anticipated, performed, and
Innovation Research Vici NWO grant
(453-09-001) from the Netherlands recovered from the singing task. At age 7.5, children's narcissism and self-esteem
Organisation for Scientific levels were assessed. Consistent with our predictions, children predisposed to
Research to Susan M. Bögels. Eddie
Brummelman was supported by the
higher narcissism levels showed elevated skin conductance levels during antici-
Jacobs Foundation. Milica Nikolić pation. Their skin conductance levels further rose during performance (but less
was supported by an Amsterdam so than for other children) and failed to return to baseline during recovery. By
Brain and Cognition Talent grant
and a Netherlands Organisation for contrast, children predisposed to higher self-esteem levels showed lowered skin
Scientific Research VENI grant (VI. conductance levels throughout the procedure. The effects emerged for skin con-
Veni.201G.017).
ductance but not heart rate or heart rate variability, suggesting that arousal was
sympathetically driven. Effects were larger and more robust for self-esteem than
for narcissism. Together, these findings uncover distinct physiological indicators
of narcissism and self-esteem: Narcissism is predicted by indicators reflecting
early social-evaluative concerns, whereas self-esteem is predicted by indicators
reflecting an early sense of comfort in social-evaluative contexts.

KEYWORDS
childhood, heart rate, heart rate variability, narcissism, self-esteem, skin conductance

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
© 2022 The Authors. Psychophysiology published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society for Psychophysiological Research.

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2 of 18 BRUMMELMAN et al.

1 | I N T RO DU CT ION narcissism and self-esteem (Brown & Zeigler-Hill, 2004)

and when they encourage individuals with high narcis-
Since the 1960s, with the rise of individualism, society sism levels to report their self-esteem truthfully (Myers
has become increasingly focused on children's self-esteem & Zeigler-Hill, 2012). In fact, when looking at individu-
(Brummelman & Sedikides, 2020). This is understandable als with high narcissism levels, there are about as many
given the benefits of self-esteem for children's adjustment who have high self-esteem as those who have low self-
(Orth & Robins, 2014). A growing body of literature shows esteem (Brummelman et al., 2016; Nelemans et al., 2017).
that children with higher self-esteem, on average, experi- Thus, it is perfectly possible for children with high levels
ence less anxiety and depression (Sowislo & Orth, 2013), of narcissism to have low levels of self-esteem. When in-
behave less aggressively (Donnellan et al., 2005), and dividuals with high narcissism levels do report high self-
perform better in school (Zheng et al., 2020). Yet, some esteem, their self-esteem tends to be fragile and unstable
researchers believe that elevated levels of self-esteem can (Geukes et al., 2017; Rhodewalt et al., 1998; Zeigler-Hill
resemble narcissism: a sense of superiority and entitle- et al., 2010). Collectively, these findings suggest that self-
ment (Baumeister et al., 2003). Challenging this view, we esteem and narcissism are distinct.
argue that self-esteem and narcissism are fundamentally Stable individual differences in self-esteem and nar-
distinct, and that each has unique early physiological indi- cissism tend to emerge around the age of 7 (Thomaes &
cators. In this prospective study, we tested the hypothesis Brummelman, 2016). At this age, children have acquired
that narcissism and self-esteem are predicted by distinct two critical cognitive abilities. First, children this age can
early-childhood patterns of physiological arousal during form global evaluations of their worth as a person (e.g., “I
social exposure. like myself”; Harter, 2012). Second, children this age can
use social comparisons for the purpose of self-evaluation
(e.g., “I am better than others”; Gürel et al., 2020; Ruble
1.1 | Separating self-esteem & Frey, 1991). Although both abilities may emerge ear-
from narcissism lier (e.g., in the preschool years; Cimpian, 2017; Cimpian
et al., 2017), there is yet no substantial evidence that these
Self-esteem is defined as a sense of one's worth as a per- abilities generate stable individual differences in self-
son (Orth & Robins, 2014), whereas narcissism is de- esteem and narcissism at this younger age. Thus, from
fined as a sense of superiority and entitlement (Krizan the age of 7, individual differences in self-esteem and nar-
& Herlache, 2018). In its extreme form, narcissism can cissism can be assessed reliably (Harter, 2012; Thomaes
manifest as a narcissistic personality disorder, which et al., 2008). Once self- esteem and narcissism have
is rarely diagnosed in minors (American Psychiatric emerged, they tend to remain relatively stable over time
Association, 2013). However, we study narcissism as (De Clercq et al., 2017; Trzesniewski et al., 2003).
a non- clinical, everyday personality trait that is nor-
mally distributed in the general population (Thomaes &
Brummelman, 2016). We focus on grandiose (rather than 1.2 | Early indicators of self-esteem and
vulnerable) narcissism, which is characterized by bold- narcissism
ness, extraversion, and boastfulness (Derry et al., 2020;
Miller et al., 2017). A common but misguided belief is that Despite emerging around the age of 7, it is possible that
narcissism is an extreme form of self-esteem. In the early self-esteem and narcissism have certain indicators that
days of psychology, psychologists often used the terms nar- surface earlier in development, before the traits them-
cissism and self-esteem interchangeably (Pulver, 1986). selves emerge. It is generally assumed that stable individ-
Since then, psychologists have often characterized narcis- ual differences, including self-esteem and narcissism, are
sism as an inflated, exaggerated, or excessive form of self- rooted in temperamental traits that have a biological basis,
esteem: “the dark side of high self-esteem” (Baumeister emerge early in life, and remain relatively stable over time
et al., 1996, p. 5). These labels suggest that self-esteem rep- (Shiner, 2005). Clinical case studies and observational
resents a continuum, with narcissism at its upper end. If research suggest that, even before self-esteem and narcis-
these views are correct, then narcissism and self-esteem sism have fully developed, children can show behaviors
should correlate highly and there should be no individu- that can forecast their later self-esteem and narcissism
als who have high narcissism but low self-esteem levels. levels (e.g., Bleiberg, 1984; Harter, 1990; Kernberg, 1989).
Contrary to these predictions, narcissism and self-esteem For example, in one prospective study, children's temper-
are only modestly correlated (Campbell et al., 2002; amental traits at age 3 and 4—such as their desire to be
Thomaes et al., 2008), and this correlation becomes even at the center of attention and their tendency to overreact
weaker when researchers use more valid measures of to minor frustrations—predicted narcissism levels at ages
|

14, 18, and 23 (Carlson & Gjerde, 2009). In another pro- high narcissism levels do not receive the positive evalua-
spective study, similar temperamental traits at ages 1 to 3 tions they desire, they may feel disappointed in themselves
did not predict self-esteem levels at ages 40 and 50 (Blatný (Thomaes et al., 2010) and even blush—a hallmark of
et al., 2015). Thus, narcissism and self-esteem seem to shame (Brummelman et al., 2018). Thus, unlike children
have unique early indicators. with high self-esteem levels, children with high narcis-
What, then, separates the indicators of self-esteem from sism levels tend to be worried about the impressions they
those of narcissism? To address this question, we build on make on others. Supporting this view, children with high
social- cognitive developmental theories of self- esteem narcissism levels report an elevated fear of negative eval-
and narcissism (e.g., Brummelman & Sedikides, 2020; uation (Thomaes et al., 2008), which is captured by items
Tracy et al., 2009). These theories hold that self-esteem such as “I worry about what other children say about me”
and narcissism are rooted in distinct sets of socially rel- (Greca & Stone, 1993).
evant mental representations (e.g., beliefs, emotions, We theorize that these individual differences in social-
action tendencies). Broadly, these theories characterize evaluative concerns can arise early in development. By
self-esteem as a secure sense of worth, and narcissism as their second birthday, children are already sensitive to
a fragile sense of superiority. These individual differences social evaluation (Botto & Rochat, 2019). Over the next
arise early in development and manifest physiologically in few years, children learn to act strategically to elicit pos-
social-evaluative contexts. They manifest physiologically itive social evaluations (Heyman et al., 2021; Silver &
because the human nervous system is programmed to Shaw, 2018). From the age of 4, children are aware that oth-
handle threats, not only physical threats, but also social ers might evaluate them positively or negatively (Burhans
threats, such as negative evaluation (e.g., Dickerson, 2008; & Dweck, 1995). They start evaluating themselves through
MacDonald & Leary, 2005). Indeed, social-evaluative con- the eyes of others, estimating whether they are evaluated
texts share a common element: They pose a threat to the positively or negatively (Selman, 1980). At the same time,
fundamental goal of maintaining a positive self in the eyes children start to realize that others' evaluations of them
of others (e.g., Bowlby, 1969; Leary & Baumeister, 2000; can be conditional on their behaviors and achievements
Rochat, 2009). (Burhans & Dweck, 1995). As a result, they can experience
Specifically, we theorize that self-esteem is character- intense social-evaluative concerns, even in the absence
ized by reduced, whereas narcissism is characterized by of explicit evaluations by others (Lewis, 2003; Nikolić
increased, social-evaluative concerns. Children with high et al., 2016). By assessing children's social-evaluative con-
self-esteem levels are generally satisfied with themselves cerns at this critical age, we may be able to identify early
(Harter, 2012). They see themselves as intrinsically wor- indicators of later self-esteem and narcissism in children.
thy and tend to assume that others value them for who
they are (Leary & Baumeister, 2000), even when they
fail to live up to others' expectations of them (Baldwin & 1.3 | Capturing social-evaluative
Sinclair, 1996; Brummelman & Sedikides, 2020). As such, concerns
children with high self-esteem levels tend to believe that
others value them unconditionally (Kernis et al., 2000), Together, these lines of research are consistent with our
and they tend to be securely attached to others (Menon hypotheses derived from social-cognitive developmental
et al., 2018). Consequently, they tend to not fear other peo- theories, namely that self-esteem is characterized by re-
ple's evaluations of them (Thomaes et al., 2008). duced, whereas narcissism is characterized by increased,
By contrast, children with high narcissism levels feel su- social-evaluative concerns. However, capturing social-
perior to others, but they do not necessarily see themselves evaluative concerns in young children can be challeng-
as intrinsically worthy. Unlike children with high self- ing, because not all young children are able to verbalize
esteem levels, children with high narcissism levels assume these concerns (Luby et al., 2007) and children with high
that others value them only when they live up to others' ex- narcissism levels may deny or suppress social-evaluative
pectations of them (Tracy et al., 2009). Children with high concerns, especially if those concerns would reveal some-
narcissism levels tend to believe that others value them thing fragile or vulnerable about them (Brummelman
conditionally (Assor & Tal, 2012; Curran et al., 2017), and et al., 2018). We therefore used physiological measures
they tend to be insecurely attached (Menon et al., 2018). of children's arousal in a social-evaluative context. Such
Unsurprisingly, these children often employ strategies measures do not rely on children's verbal abilities and cir-
to elicit positive social evaluations (Grapsas et al., 2020; cumvent narcissistic impression management strategies.
Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001). For example, they try to be at Consistent with our hypotheses, evidence links self-
the center of attention, brag about themselves, and show- esteem to reduced physiological arousal in social-evaluative
off (Thomaes & Brummelman, 2016). When children with settings. For example, when adults with high self-esteem
|

levels are socially rejected, they show reduced cortisol re- mechanism, with skin conductance reflecting sympathetic
activity (Ford & Collins, 2010), which suggests reduced activation, heart rate variability reflecting parasympathetic
stress levels (Miller et al., 2007). Similarly, when adults withdrawal, and heart rate reflecting a mix of sympathetic
with high self-esteem levels perform a challenging task activation and parasympathetic withdrawal (Kreibig, 2010).
in front of a critical audience, they show reduced cortisol Unsurprisingly, then, the associations between these phys-
reactivity (Pruessner et al., 1999; Pruessner et al., 2005) as iological measures tend to be weak (Dieleman et al., 2015;
well as reduced activity in the neural stress system (Kogler Fabes et al., 1993), which shows that they capture different
et al., 2017). These findings suggest that individuals with aspects of the same stress response. Thus, by assessing these
high self-esteem levels experience reduced social-evaluative processes simultaneously, we provide a comprehensive un-
concerns, which can be captured physiologically. derstanding of children's physiological arousal in a social-
By contrast, evidence links narcissism to elevated phys- evaluative context.
iological arousal in social- evaluative settings. Although Moving beyond prior research in adults, our aim was
there is yet no consistent evidence that narcissism is related not to identify cross-sectional physiological correlates of
to chronically elevated stress hormone levels (Wardecker narcissism and self-esteem. Rather, our aim was to iden-
et al., 2018), there is some evidence to suggest that indi- tify early physiological indicators of narcissism and self-
viduals with high narcissism levels show elevated stress in esteem (i.e., physiological indicators that can be detected
social-evaluative contexts. For example, when adults with at an age before narcissism and self-esteem emerge). This
high narcissism levels give a presentation in front of an au- has never been done before, so our study is the first to
dience, they tend to show elevated cortisol levels (Edelstein identify physiological precursors (rather than merely cor-
et al., 2010); and when they experience emotional distress, relates) of narcissism and self-esteem. We used a prospec-
they tend to show elevated alpha-amylase levels (Cheng tive research design, so that we could examine whether
et al., 2013). Both responses reflect acute psychosocial stress and how physiological arousal in a social-evaluative con-
(Miller et al., 2007; Rohleder et al., 2004). Similarly, when text in early childhood (age 4.5) would predict individual
adults with high narcissism levels are ostracized by others, differences in narcissism and self-esteem 3 years later (age
they tend to show increased activity in the social-pain areas 7.5), the age at which such individual differences first
of the brain (Cascio et al., 2015). Also, when children with emerge (Thomaes & Brummelman, 2016).
high narcissism levels lose status among peers, they tend to
show increased corrugator supercilii activity (i.e., frowning),
which reflects negative affect (Grapsas et al., 2021; also see 1.4 | Present study
Grapsas et al., 2022). Although pertaining to different age
groups and distinct biological systems, these findings con- Using a prospective design, we examined, for the first time,
verge to suggest that individuals with high narcissism levels the early physiological indicators of self-esteem and narcis-
experience elevated social-evaluative concerns, which can sism in children. At age 4.5, children stood on a stage and
be captured physiologically. sang a song. We assessed children's skin conductance, heart
Building on and extending these findings, our aim was rate variability, and heart rate while children anticipated,
to capture young children's social-evaluative concerns by performed, and recovered from the singing task. These
assessing their physiological arousal in a prototypical social- physiological measures have high temporal precision, al-
evaluative context: performing on stage in front of an audi- lowing us to examine how arousal levels change from be-
ence while being videotaped (Dickerson, 2008). This task is fore to after the singing task. Three years later, at age 7.5, we
known to elicit arousal in children (Seddon et al., 2020) but assessed children's narcissism and self-esteem levels.
more so in some children than in others, which enables us We hypothesized that, in a prototypical social-
to investigate individual differences in children's responses evaluative context, children predisposed to high narcis-
to this prototypical social- evaluative context (Krämer sism levels would show elevated physiological arousal,
et al., 2012; Schmitz et al., 2011; Tuschen-Caffier et al., 2011). whereas children predisposed to high self-esteem levels
We measured children's skin conductance, heart rate, and would show lowered physiological arousal. We had no a
heart rate variability, because these processes are implicated priori hypotheses about whether these associations would
in stress and anxiety (Appelhans & Luecken, 2006; Chen & be similar or different across physiological measures (i.e.,
Drummond, 2008). When children are impacted by stress or skin conductance, heart rate variability, and heart rate)
anxiety, they tend to experience increased skin conductance and task phases (i.e., anticipation, performance, and re-
(i.e., sweating), increased heart rate, and reduced heart covery). We did explore whether associations would differ
rate variability. Reduced heart rate variability is thought to between physiological measures and task phases, because
reflect dysregulated emotional responding (Appelhans & this offers a completer and more nuanced picture of early
Luecken, 2006). Each process reflects a distinct biological physiological indicators of narcissism and self-esteem.
|

2 | M ET H OD country of origin, χ2 (1, N = 113) = 0.23, p = .631, or in

terms of parents' country of origin, χ2s ≤ 9.39, ps ≥ .208,
2.1 | Participants age, t(107) = −0.01, p = .996, or educational level,
t(111) = 0.21, p = .837.
Participants were 113 children (87% Dutch origin, 53%
girls) who took part in a larger longitudinal study (for a
detailed description of the sample and measures, see de 2.2 | Procedure
Vente et al., 2011), including all children who completed
the 4.5 or the 7.5 years measurement. Families were re- 2.2.1 | Social performance task
cruited during the pregnancy with a first child through
midwives, advertisements in magazines, and leaflets at At the age of 4.5 years, children visited the lab with one of
pregnancy courses and baby shops. All parents spoke their parents, who was present throughout the procedure.
Dutch or English fluently. Children could not participate A wooden stage was placed in the room, with a standing
if their birth weight was < 2000 g or if they had any neuro- microphone and a spotlight in front. Children were told
logical deficits. Parents (93% of Dutch origin, ages 24–64; that they were going to sing a song on stage. They were
M = 37.14, SD = 4.36) had a relatively high educational asked to dress up with pop-star-like clothes and accesso-
level (M = 6.84, SD = 1.16, range: 1 = primary education, ries that we provided, such as a shiny blouse and jacket.
8 = university). The study was approved by the Ethics An unknown person entered the room while carrying a
Review Board of the University of Amsterdam. Parents large, Hollywood-style camera, and children were told
provided active informed consent for themselves and their that their performance would be videotaped.
child. Our study was not preregistered. We report all data Then, during the anticipation phase, children sat
exclusions (if any) and all measures we analyzed to an- on the podium for 2 min. Next, during the performance
swer the current research question. phase, children stood on stage and sang a song of their
An a priori power analysis, conducted with the own choosing in the presence of three audience members:
SimR package in R for multilevel models, using Monte their parent, the experimenter, and the camera person
Carlo simulation (Arend & Schäfer, 2019; Green & who videotaped the performance. Children were then in-
MacLeod, 2016), with a small-to-medium expected effect troduced to the audience by the experimenter: “Let me in-
size (r = .21; see meta-analysis by Richard et al., 2003) troduce you to the audience. Ladies and gentlemen, today
and three repeated measures within individuals (i.e., an- we have a special performance by the famous [child's first
ticipation, performance, and recovery) showed that we name], who will sing [name of song]!” Because children
needed 105 participants to obtain a power of (1 –β) = .80 used a standing microphone, they did not move exces-
at α = .05, two-tailed. Despite our directional hypotheses, sively (e.g., they did not dance or walk). The experimenter
we used two-tailed testing to provide a conservative test of gently encouraged children to continue singing if they
our hypotheses. sang for less than 60 s. Children sang for an average of 82 s,
Due to attrition, each of our main analyses was con- SD = 45 (range = 17–270). Finally, during the recovery
ducted with a total of 71 children (see 2.3 Data Analysis). phase, children sat on the podium for 1 min. During the
Of these children, 88% were of Dutch origin and 54% self- anticipation and recovery phase, children were not video-
identified as a girl, and their parents (93% of Dutch origin; taped by the camera person.
ages 26–64; M = 37.14, SD = 4.52) had a relatively high
educational level (M = 6.82, SD = 1.14, range: 1 = primary
education, 8 = university).1 There was no significant differ- 2.2.2 | Physiological assessment
ence between the full sample and this final sample in
terms of children's sex, χ2 (1, N = 113) = 0.08, p = .779, or During the 2- min anticipation, 1- min performance,
1 and 1- min recovery periods, children's physiological
These demographic data refer to 74 children. Each of our main
analyses was conducted with a total of 71 children. Out of these 71
responses were recorded and analyzed with Vsrrp98
children, 68 were identical across analyses (i.e., these children had software (Molenkamp, 2011). Data acquisition was per-
complete narcissism and self-esteem data, as well as data on at least one formed by a National Instruments NI6224 data acquisi-
of the task phases for all physiological measures), but the remaining tion card, which sampled at a rate of 200S/s per channel.
children differed across analyses. Three children were included in the Electrocardiography was recorded using a standard
heart rate and heart rate variability analyses, because they had data on
Lead-II configuration. R waves were automatically de-
heart rate and heart rate variability (but not skin conductance). Three
children were included in the skin conductance analyses, because they tected and corrected for artifacts. The raw ECG signal
had data on skin conductance (but not heart rate and heart rate was filtered at a high-pass frequency of 0.5 Hz, second-
variability). order Butterworth. Next, a second-order bandpass filter
|

at 17 Hz was applied to extract the r-tops from the signal. response format (Yeager & Krosnick, 2012). The SPPC, a
After filtering, the QRS detector was applied between 5 continuous measure, is the most frequently used scale to
and 150 milliseconds. Heart rate was calculated as the assess children's self-esteem, and it has been validated ex-
number of R waves per minute. Heart rate variability was tensively for use in Dutch children (e.g., Muris et al., 2003;
calculated as the square root of the mean squared differ- Van Dongen-Melman et al., 1993). Responses were aver-
ences (RMSSD) of successive normal-to-normal (NN) in- aged across items (Cronbach's α = .65), with higher scores
tervals (Malik, 1996). Electrodermal activity was recorded indicating higher levels of self- esteem. Average scores
in micro-Siemens with two curved Ag/AgCl electrodes ranged from 1.50 to 4.00 (M = 3.29, SD = 0.55) and reflect
placed on the middle phalanx of the middle and index fin- slight non-normality (skewness = −0.85, SE = 0.25; kur-
ger of the child's left hand. Invalid recordings (e.g., heart tosis = 0.59, SE = 0.50). This average level of self-esteem
rate > 220) were coded as missing data points. in our sample was slightly lower than in other recent
studies on self-esteem in community samples of children
(Grapsas et al., 2021; Harris et al., 2018).
2.2.3 | Narcissism and self-esteem

Three years after the lab visit, at the age of 7.5, children 2.3 | Data analysis
were invited to complete questionnaires. An experimenter
provided children with instructions and was present to Of the 113 children, two did not visit the lab at 4.5 years,
answer children's questions. Children completed the 22 did not complete questionnaires at 7.5 years, and one
questionnaires individually, in silence. Narcissism was completed the narcissism but not the self-esteem ques-
assessed using the 10-item Childhood Narcissism Scale tionnaire at 7.5 years. Of the 111 children who visited the
(CNS; Thomaes et al., 2008), which assesses narcissism as lab at 4.5 years, eight refused to sing. Of those who sang,
single, unified personality trait. Sample items include: “I nine children had completely missing physiological data
think it's important to stand out” and “I am a very special and seven children had missing physiological data for one
person” (1 = not at all true to 4 = completely true). The or two task phases, both due to malfunctioning electrodes.
CNS, a continuous measure, is the most frequently used There were no significant differences in narcissism or self-
scale to assess children's narcissism as a non-clinical, eve- esteem between children who did versus did not refuse
ryday personality trait (rather than as a disorder; Thomaes to perform, t(87) = −1.01, p = .315 and t(12.13) = −0.16,
& Brummelman, 2016), and it has been validated ex- p = .873, respectively. Also, there were no significant dif-
tensively for use in Dutch children (e.g., Brummelman ferences in narcissism, self-esteem, or duration of per-
et al., 2018; Thomaes et al., 2008). Responses were aver- formance between children whose electrodes did versus
aged across items (Cronbach's α = .78), with higher scores did not malfunction, t(80) = 0.06, p = .953, t(79) = −0.28,
indicating higher levels of narcissism. Average scores p = .779, and t(100) = −1.62, p = .109, respectively, or
ranged from 1.00 to 4.00 (M = 2.30, SD = 0.67) and reflect between children who did or did not have missing physi-
adequate normality (skewness = 0.55, SE = 0.25; kurto- ological data for some of the task phases, t(73) = −0.98,
sis = −0.05, SE = 0.50). The average level of narcissism in p = .330, t(72) = −0.57, p = .573, and t(91) = −0.67,
our sample is consistent with other recent studies on nar- p = .503, respectively.
cissism in community samples of children (Brummelman To account for the nested structure of our data, we con-
et al., 2018; Brummelman et al., 2021; Brummelman, ducted our primary analyses using multilevel regression
Thomaes, Nelemans, Orobio de Castro, Overbeek, & models with restricted maximum likelihood (REML) es-
Bushman, 2015; Grapsas et al., 2021). Rather than clas- timation including a random intercept, with task phase
sifying children as narcissistic or non- narcissistic, we (Level 1: anticipation, performance, recovery) nested
analyzed narcissism as a continuum, ranging from low to within individuals (Level 2), in IBM SPSS Statistics for
high levels. Windows, Version 25.0. We did not include a random
Self-esteem was assessed using the six-item Global Self- slope, since the variance of the slope was not significant
Worth Subscale of the Self-Perception Profile for Children and including it reduced model fit. Since these analyses
(SPPC; Harter, 1985). Sample items include: “Some kids account for missing data on the dependent variable, they
are happy with themselves as a person” and “Some kids included those children who had both (a) complete nar-
like the kind of person they are.” Following others (e.g., cissism and self-esteem data and (b) physiological data on
Brendgen et al., 2004; Thomaes et al., 2008), we used a at least one of the task phases, leading to a total of 71 chil-
simplified response format with a 4-point Likert scale dren in each main analysis.
(1 = I am not like these kids at all to 4 = I am exactly like Because narcissism and self-esteem were positively re-
these kids) rather than a more complex “some/other” lated, r = .33, p = .001, we included them in the same
|

models, thus accounting for their shared variance. This heart rate increased, B = 2.79, 95% CI [0.24, 5.33],
is important because narcissism and self-esteem consis- t(132.56) = 2.17, p = .032, r = .19, skin conductance in-
tently operate as mutual suppressors; in those cases, their creased, B = 3.09, 95% CI [2.29, 3.88], t(133.77) = 7.70,
unique associations with outcomes are revealed only when p < .001, r = .55, and heart rate variability decreased,
controlling for the other variable (Lawson & Robins, 2021; B = −6.04, 95% CI[−9.84, −2.34], t(133.90) = −3.14,
Paulhus et al., 2004). In our case, the analyses with nar- p = .002, r = .26. On average, from performance to re-
cissism as the main predictor included self-esteem as a covery, heart rate decreased, B = −4.08, 95% CI [−6.61,
covariate, and vice versa. Narcissism and self-esteem were −1.55], t(132.20) = −3.19, p = .002, r = .33, heart rate
standardized. We ran separate models for each dependent variability increased, B = 7.04, 95% CI [3.25, 10.83],
variable (i.e., heart rate, heart rate variability, and skin t(133.00) = 3.68, p < .001, r = .52, and skin conductance
conductance). We first ran models to test the main effect did not change significantly, B = −0.57, 95% CI [−1.37,
of task phase, narcissism, and self-esteem. We then ran 0.23], t(133.39) = −1.41, p = .161, r = .12.
separate models to test the narcissism × task phase and
self-esteem × task phase interactions. Significance level
was set at .05, two-tailed. 3.2 | Primary analyses
Our analyses include two dummy variables for task
phase. Task phase dummy 1 compared the anticipation 3.2.1 | Narcissism
with the performance phase. Task phase dummy 2 com-
pared the recovery with the performance phase. By in- There were no significant main effects of narcissism on
cluding these dummy variables in our analyses, we were heart rate, heart rate variability, or skin conductance. The
able to examine whether the associations of narcissism narcissism × task phase interaction was not significant
and self-esteem with physiological responses differed be- for heart rate, F(2, 130.19) = 0.12, p = .889, or heart rate
tween task phases. variability, F(2, 131.01) = 0.42, p = .656, but was signifi-
cant for skin conductance, F(2, 131.33) = 3.26, p = .042
(Figure 1a). We conducted two follow-up tests (Aiken &
3 | R E S U LTS West, 1991).
First, we examined the association between narcissism
Table 1 displays descriptive statistics and correlations. and skin conductance within each task phase. Narcissism
Correlations between heart rate, heart rate variability, was associated with higher skin conductance during an-
and skin conductance levels were weak, attesting to their ticipation, B = 1.72, 95% CI [0.52, 3.39], t(78.56) = 2.05,
independence. For each physiological measure, correla- p = .043, r = .23, but was not significantly related to
tions between anticipation, performance, and recovery skin conductance during performance, B = 0.73, 95% CI
phases were strong, indicating high test–retest reliabil- [−0.93, 2.40], t(78.36) = 0.88, p = .381, r = .10, and re-
ity. There were no significant sex differences in narcis- covery, B = 1.29, 95% CI [−0.37, 2.96], t(78.37) = 1.55,
sism, t(89) = −1.26, p = .209, self-esteem, t(88) = −0.62, p = .126, r = .17.
p = .539, or any of the physiological measures, ts ≤1.95, Second, we examined how skin conductance changed
ps ≥ .055. Our multilevel models are presented in Tables 2 from anticipation to performance, and from performance
and 3, showing main effects (Tables 2 and 3: Models 1, to recovery, for children low (1 SD below the mean) and
3, and 5), narcissism × task phase interactions (Table 2: high (1 SD above the mean) in narcissism. Children with
Models 2, 4, and 6), and self-esteem × task phase interac- low narcissism levels showed a steep increase in skin con-
tions (Table 3: Models 2, 4, and 6). ductance when going from anticipation to performance,
B = 4.16, 95% CI [3.02, 5.31], t(131.65) = 7.19, p < .001,
r = .53, and a modest decrease in skin conductance when
3.1 | Preliminary analyses going from performance to recovery, B = −1.18, 95% CI
[−2.32, −0.03], t(131.37) = −2.03, p = .045, r = −.17. By
The social performance task successfully induced physi- contrast, children with high narcissism levels showed a
ological arousal (see Table 1 for means and standard de- smaller increase in skin conductance when going from
viations across task phases). There was a significant main anticipation to performance, B = 2.20, 95% CI [1.16, 3.24],
effect of task phase for heart rate, F(2, 132.45) = 5.33, t(131.45) = 4.18, p < .001, r = .34, and no significant change
p = .006, heart rate variability, F(2, 133.63) = 7.93, in skin conductance when going from performance to re-
p = .001, and skin conductance, F(2, 133.68) = 33.38, covery, B = −0.06, 95% CI [−1.10, 0.98], t(131.30) = −0.12,
p < .001. On average, from anticipation to performance, p = .909, r = −.01.
| 8 of 18

TABLE 1 Means (M), standard deviations (SD), and correlations among main variables

Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
a
1. Duration 81.83 44.75 –
2. HR -anticipation 113.16 24.12 −.03 –
3. HRV -anticipation 41.55 20.16 .06 −.04 –
4. SC -anticipation 14.70 7.37 .11 .16 −.15 –
5. HR -performance 116.96 22.68 .03 .91** −.15 .15 –
6. HRV -performance 37.45 24.05 .04 .16 .69** −.10 .01 –
7. SC -performance 18.20 8.39 .12 .14 −.18 .94** .12 −.12 –
8. HR -recovery 112.40 24.60 .12 .90** −.05 .12 .91** .14 .08 –
9. HRV -recovery 43.05 22.64 .01 −.01 .86** −.10 −.15 .67** −.09 −.16 –
10. SC -recovery 17.36 8.09 .20 .13 −.11 .88** .10 .08 .93** .07 −.07 –
11. Narcissism 2.30 0.67 .10 −.04 −.02 .11 −.09 .05 −.03 −.08 −.03 .07 –
12. Self-esteem 3.29 0.55 −.03 −.09 .09 −.38** −.05 .07 −.39** −.08 .00 −.30* .33**
Note. N = 68–90.
Abbreviations: HR, heart rate; HRV, heart rate variability; SC, skin conductance.
*p < .05; **p < .01.
a
Duration of performance in minutes.
BRUMMELMAN et al.

TABLE 2 Associations between task phase and physiological variables as a function of narcissism, controlling for self-esteem

Heart rate Heart rate variability Skin conductance

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6

Intercept 117.18 (3.05)*** 117.19 (3.05)*** 37.23 (2.79)*** 37.21 (2.79)*** 17.04 (0.81)*** 17.08 (0.81)***
Task phase dummy 1 −2.79 (1.29)* −2.81 (1.29)* 6.04 (1.92)** 6.07 (1.93)** −3.09 (0.40)*** −3.18 (0.40)***
Task phase dummy 2 −4.08 (1.28)** −4.09 (1.29)** 7.04 (1.91)*** 7.08 (1.92)*** −0.57 (0.40) −0.62 (0.40)
Narcissism −1.82 (3.14) −2.07 (3.23) 0.04 (2.71) 1.02 (2.93) 1.25 (0.81) 0.74 (0.84)
Self-esteem −1.43 (3.06) −1.43 (3.06) 1.35 (2.64) 1.34 (2.64) −3.05 (0.81)*** −3.05 (0.81)***
Interaction
Task phase dummy 0.61 (1.31) −1.22 (1.96) 0.98 (0.39)*
1 × Narcissism
Task phase dummy 0.16 (1.30) −1.74 (1.95) 0.56 (0.39)
2 × Narcissism
Marginal R2 .014 .014 .021 .022 .185 .188
2
Conditional R .916 .915 .776 .774 .902 .905
Note: Values from the multilevel models can be interpreted as unstandardized regression coefficients with standard errors given in parentheses. Task phase
dummy 1 compared the anticipation with the performance phase. Task phase dummy 2 compared the recovery with the performance phase. Models 1, 3, and 5
are identical to those in Table 3. Parameter estimates with p < .005, based on p value correction, are indicated in bold.
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

TABLE 3 Associations between task phase and physiological variables as a function of self-esteem, controlling for narcissism

Heart rate Heart rate variability Skin conductance

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6

Intercept 117.18 (3.05)*** 117.16 (3.05)*** 37.23 (2.79)*** 37.22 (2.79)*** 17.04 (0.81)*** 17.03 (0.81)***
Task phase dummy 1 −2.79 (1.29)* −2.75 (1.29)* 6.04 (1.92)** 6.04 (1.93)** −3.09 (0.40)*** −3.08 (0.40)***
Task phase dummy 2 −4.08 (1.28)** −4.05 (1.28)** 7.04 (1.91)*** 7.09 (1.93)*** −0.57 (0.40) −0.57 (0.40)
Narcissism −1.82 (3.14) −1.82 (3.14) 0.04 (2.71) 0.04 (2.71) 1.25 (0.81) 1.25 (0.81)
Self-esteem −1.43 (3.06) −0.56 (3.14) 1.35 (2.64) 1.72 (2.86) −3.05 (0.81)*** −3.32 (0.84)***
Interaction
Task phase dummy −1.53 (1.26) 0.03 (1.90) 0.33 (0.39)
1 × Self-esteem
Task phase dummy −1.09 (1.27) −1.19 (1.92) 0.50 (0.40)
2 × Self-esteem
Marginal R2 .014 .015 .021 .022 .185 .185
2
Conditional R .916 .916 .776 .773 .902 .902
Note: Values from the multilevel models can be interpreted as unstandardized regression coefficients with standard errors given in parentheses. Task phase
dummy 1 compared the anticipation with the performance phase. Task phase dummy 2 compared the recovery with the performance phase. Models 1, 3, and 5
are identical to those in Table 2. Parameter estimates with p < .005, based on p value correction, are indicated in bold.
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

Thus, in children predisposed to high narcissism levels, significant main effect of self-esteem levels on skin con-
skin conductance was elevated during anticipation, rose ductance, F(1, 68.02) = 14.09, p < .001, with self-esteem lev-
significantly during performance (but less so than in other els being associated with lower skin conductance overall,
children), and remained elevated throughout recovery. B = −3.32, 95% CI [−5.00, −1.64], t(68.02) = −3.94, p < .001,
r = −.43 (Figure 1b). There was no significant self-esteem
× task phase interaction for heart rate, F(2, 130.22) = 0.78,
3.2.2 | Self-esteem p = .461, heart rate variability F(2, 131.07) = 0.26, p = .771,
or skin conductance, F(2, 131.45) = 0.79, p = .457 (Table 3).
There were no significant main effects of self- esteem Thus, children predisposed to higher self-esteem levels dis-
on heart rate or heart rate variability, but there was a played lower skin conductance throughout the procedure.
|

(a) between narcissism and skin conductance became statis-

tically non-significant.
Skin Conductance (micro-siemens)

Third, we repeated our main analyses for narcissism

High Narcissism
16 without controlling for self-esteem, and our main analyses
Low Narcissism
for self-esteem without controlling for narcissism (for de-
tails, see Supporting Information). This did not change our
14
results (i.e., no significant effect became non-significant,
and no nonsignificant effect became significant), with one
12
exception: The association between narcissism and skin
Anticipation Performance Recovery
conductance within the anticipation phase became non-
Phase
significant, B = 0.75, 95% CI [−0.96, 2.45], t(80.10) = 0.87,
(b) 22.5 p = .385, r = .10, showing that self-esteem acts as a sup-
pressor (Paulhus et al., 2004). Importantly, the narcissism
Skin Conductance (micro-siemens)

20.0
× task phase interaction remained significant for skin
17.5
High Self-esteem conductance, F(2, 131.20) = 3.15, p = .046. As in the origi-
Low Self-esteem nal analyses, children with high narcissism levels showed
15.0 a blunted increase in skin conductance when going from
anticipation to performance, and they showed no signifi-
12.5
cant change in skin conductance when going from perfor-
10.0
mance to recovery.
Anticipation Performance Recovery
Together, these robustness analyses show that our re-
Phase sults were robust across different specifications of per-
formance but were generally more robust for self-esteem
F I G U R E 1 Panel a: The effect of task phase on skin than for narcissism.
conductance for children high in narcissism (1 SD above the mean)
and low in narcissism (1 SD below the mean). Panel B: The effect of
task phase on skin conductance for children with high self-esteem
(1 SD above the mean) and low self-esteem (1 SD below the mean)
4 | DISC USSION

Our prospective study is the first to examine the early

physiological indicators of self- esteem and narcissism.
The effect of self-esteem was larger than the effect of We built on social- cognitive developmental theories
narcissism. In terms of explained variance, the main ef- of self-
esteem and narcissism (e.g., Brummelman &
fect of self-esteem on skin conductance overall (17%) was Sedikides, 2020; Tracy et al., 2009), which hold that self-
more than twice as large as the effect of narcissism on skin esteem and narcissism are rooted in distinct sets of socially
conductance during anticipation (5%). relevant mental representations (e.g., beliefs, emotions,
and action tendencies), which arise early in development
and manifest physiologically in social-evaluative contexts.
3.3 | Robustness analyses We theorized that, in social-evaluative contexts, children
predisposed to high narcissism levels would show elevated
We examined the robustness of our findings in three ways. physiological arousal, whereas children predisposed to
First, because some children sang for less than 60 s, we high self-esteem levels would show lowered physiological
repeated our analyses with 30-s instead of 1-min physi- arousal. To test these hypotheses, we assessed children's
ology assessments during performance (for details, see physiological arousal during a social performance task at
Supporting Information). These analyses show the same age 4.5 and assessed their self-esteem and narcissism lev-
effects. els at age 7.5, when stable individual differences in self-
Second, because we conducted multiple tests per hy- esteem and narcissism have emerged. Consistent with our
pothesis, we divided the alpha level by the number of theoretical predictions, children predisposed to higher
physiological measures times the number of task phases narcissism levels showed elevated skin conductance lev-
(three measures times three task phases), which resulted els during anticipation of the task; these levels remained
in a corrected alpha of .05/9 = .005 for our primary anal- elevated during performance and failed to return to base-
yses. These analyses show that self-esteem was still sig- line during recovery. By contrast, children predisposed to
nificantly related to lower skin conductance levels overall higher self-esteem levels showed lowered skin conduct-
(results denoted in bold in Table 2), while the association ance throughout the procedure. The effects were larger
|

and more robust for self-esteem than for narcissism, and predisposed to high narcissism levels may worry about
they were specific to skin conductance; self-esteem and how their upcoming performance will be evaluated by
narcissism were not significantly related to heart rate and others, as narcissism is known to be related to a fear of
heart rate variability. Together, these findings are consist- negative evaluation (Thomaes et al., 2008) and to insecure
ent with the view that children predisposed to high narcis- attachment (Menon et al., 2018). Children predisposed to
sism levels are more fragile and prone to social-evaluative high narcissism levels did not, however, show elevated
concerns, whereas children predisposed to high self- heart rate or heart rate variability. Unlike heart rate and
esteem levels are more secure and able to feel comfortable heart rate variability, skin conduction is driven primar-
in social-evaluative contexts. ily by the sympathetic nervous system, which is involved
in fight-or-flight responses (Kreibig, 2010). This suggests
that children predisposed to high narcissism levels enter
4.1 | Understanding narcissism versus a fight-or-flight mode when they anticipate being in the
self-esteem center of attention. When maintained over long periods
of time, such a response might have detrimental health
Over the past decades, the field has made significant consequences and help to explain why adults with high
progress in understanding the nature of narcissism and narcissism levels tend to have elevated basal oxidative
self-
esteem. Narcissism and self- esteem both involve stress levels (e.g., 8-OH-DG levels; Lee et al., 2020). It is
positive perceptions of the self, which explains why they important to emphasize that these effects of narcissism
were modestly related in the current study. Yet, they dif- were small and not robust to correction for multiple
fer markedly in their phenotype, consequences, develop- testing, which emphasizes the need for highly powered
ment, and origins (Brummelman et al., 2016; Campbell replications.
et al., 2002; Donnellan et al., 2005; Hyatt et al., 2018; Tracy Unlike children predisposed to high narcissism levels,
et al., 2009). Extending this past work, our research shows those predisposed to high self-esteem levels had reduced
that narcissism and self-esteem have distinct early physi- overall skin conductance levels. They started off with low
ological indicators. While children predisposed to high levels of skin conductance, and these levels remained
narcissism levels showed elevated skin conductance while lower than those of children predisposed to low self-
anticipating their on- stage performance, children pre- esteem levels. To be sure, this does not mean that children
disposed to high self-esteem levels showed lowered skin predisposed to high self-esteem levels were insensitive to
conductance, not just during anticipation but through- social evaluation. In fact, their skin conductance levels
out the procedure. Consistent with earlier work (e.g., rose from anticipation to performance, just as much as
Dieleman et al., 2015; Fabes et al., 1993), skin conduct- it did for children predisposed to low self-esteem levels.
ance was only weakly related to heart rate and heart rate Thus, these children seem to have a normative sensitiv-
variability. While skin conductance reflects sympathetic ity to social evaluation. Together, these findings suggest
activation and is thought to underlie fight-or-flight re- that children predisposed to high self-esteem levels were
sponses (Kreibig, 2010), heart rate variability reflects less stressed overall, perhaps because they did not ex-
parasympathetic withdrawal and is thought to underlie pect others to evaluate them negatively. This interpreta-
emotion regulation (Appelhans & Luecken, 2006). Heart tion concurs with the sociometer model of self-esteem
rate reflects a mix of sympathetic activation and parasym- (Leary & Baumeister, 2000), which holds that self-esteem
pathetic withdrawal (Kreibig, 2010). Together, these find- serves as a gauge—or sociometer—that indexes one's per-
ings suggest that children predisposed to high narcissism ceived likelihood of being accepted and valued by others
levels may be more prone to fight-or-flight responses in (Thomaes et al., 2010). Children with high self-esteem
social-evaluative contexts, but they do not suggest that levels believe that they will generally be accepted and
these children are less able to regulate their emotional valued (Leary & Baumeister, 2000), perhaps because they
responses. Children predisposed to high self-esteem lev- have internalized their parents' unconditional regard for
els, on the other hand, do not show such fight-or-flight them (Kernis et al., 2000) and they feel securely attached
responses in social-evaluative contexts. (Menon et al., 2018). Thus, even when they are prepar-
Our results provide tentative evidence that narcissism, ing for or doing something as stressful as singing a song
unlike self-esteem, is reflected in early emerging physio- on stage in front of an audience while being videotaped,
logical hyperarousal. This hyperarousal arose specifically they may find comfort in the idea that others will most
during the anticipation of social exposure: While antici- likely evaluate them favorably, giving rise to low skin con-
pating their on-stage performance, children predisposed ductance levels. Given that the effects of self-esteem on
to high narcissism levels showed elevated skin conduc- skin conductance were substantial in size, were robust to
tance. During such a phase of anticipation, children different model specifications, and survived correction for
|

multiple testing, our results seem to have uncovered a ro- are highly correlated. In those cases, it is often difficult to
bust early physiological indictor of self-esteem. know what a construct represents once variance shared
On average, children experienced a steep increase in with another construct is removed (Lynam et al., 2006;
skin conductance when going from anticipation to perfor- Sleep et al., 2017).
mance. Yet, this increase was attenuated for children pre-
disposed to high narcissism levels. Why? One explanation
is that these children were already high in skin conduc- 4.2 | Uncovering the origins of social-
tance during anticipation, leaving less room for further evaluative concerns
increases (i.e., ceiling effect). Another explanation is that
these children, despite fearing social evaluation, experi- Consistent with social- cognitive developmental theo-
ence the performance phase as unambiguously positive, ries of narcissism and self-esteem (e.g., Brummelman &
making it less threatening. Indeed, children were intro- Sedikides, 2020; Tracy et al., 2009), our findings show
duced in a grandiose way: “Ladies and gentlemen, today that narcissism and self-esteem may be underpinned
we have a special performance by the famous [child's first by distinct ways of responding to social-evaluative con-
name], who will sing [name of song]!” Children with high texts. What might be the developmental origins of these
narcissism levels may be used to being praised in inflated ways of responding? Narcissism and self- esteem are
ways (Brummelman et al., 2017), and they enjoy being at partly heritable (Neiss et al., 2002; Vernon et al., 2008),
the center of attention, but only when they experience so it is possible that their underpinnings are transmit-
the attention as unambiguously positive (Brummelman ted genetically. At the same time, there is growing evi-
et al., 2018; Thomaes et al., 2010). In fact, it is possible dence that narcissism and self-esteem are also shaped
that children predisposed to high narcissism levels expe- through socialization (for overviews, see Brummelman
rienced elevated skin conductance levels during positive & Sedikides, 2020; Thomaes & Brummelman, 2016).
social exposure as pleasant and sought to maintain those Narcissism can be cultivated, in part, by parental
levels, which would explain why their skin conductance overvaluation—parent seeing their child as more spe-
levels did not drop during recovery. cial and more entitled than others (Brummelman,
More broadly, our research adds to the idea that nar- Thomaes, Nelemans, Orobio de Castro, Overbeek, &
cissism and self-esteem are “sibling constructs.” Sibling Bushman, 2015; Derry, 2018). Overvaluing parents
constructs are empirically related, but are not identi- generally do not approve of their children uncondition-
cal; that is, they are not “twin constructs” (Lawson & ally; rather, they tend to make their regard conditional
Robins, 2021). Previous research has shown that narcis- on children living up to their narcissistic standards
sism and self- esteem consistently function as mutual (Brummelman & Sedikides, 2020). For example, these
suppressor variables (Paulhus et al., 2004). A suppressor parents indicate, “I would find it disappointing if my
variable removes criterion-irrelevant variance from the child was just a ‘regular’ child” (Brummelman, Thomaes,
predictor (Horst, 1941), so that statistically controlling for Nelemans, Orobio de Castro, & Bushman, 2015, p. 678).
a suppressor variable reveals a stronger association be- Based on such experiences, children may become con-
tween the predictor and the criterion. Thus, when narcis- cerned that they may fail to live up to others' expecta-
sism and self-esteem are positively correlated (like in our tions of them, leading to social- evaluative concerns.
study), it is important to control for self-esteem to reveal By contrast, self-esteem can be cultivated, in part, by
the effects of narcissism, and vice versa (like we did). Self- parental warmth— parents spending time with their
esteem was related to reduced skin conductance, regard- children, showing interest in their activities, and shar-
less of whether we controlled for narcissism. However, ing joy with them (Brummelman, Thomaes, Nelemans,
narcissism was related to elevated skin conductance Orobio de Castro, Overbeek, & Bushman, 2015; Harris
during anticipation, but only when we controlled for self- et al., 2017). Warm parents tend to approve of their
esteem, showing that self-esteem acted as a suppressor. children unconditionally, for better and worse (Assor
In the case of suppression, statistical control can make et al., 2004; Brummelman, 2018). Based on such expe-
self-
esteem and narcissism conceptually closer to the riences, children may learn that they are valuable for
theorized constructs: “self-esteem with narcissistic self- who they are, lowering their social-evaluative concerns.
aggrandizement removed is closer to genuine self-esteem, Future research should disentangle the genetic and en-
whereas narcissism with self- esteem removed is more vironmental contributions to narcissism, self- esteem,
like pure self-aggrandizement, not just self-confidence” and their underpinnings.
(Lawson & Robins, 2021, p. 353). Without such an a priori More broadly, the current research suggests that
theoretical justification, however, interpreting partial co- physiological responses to socially meaningful con-
efficients can be problematic, especially when constructs texts in early childhood can foreshadow individual
|

differences in personality development. According to been distressing to all children (e.g., some children might
cognitive-affective processing systems theory (Mischel have experienced the performance phase as a challenge
& Shoda, 1995, 2008), variation of individuals' behavior rather than a threat; Coleman et al., 2019; Seery, 2013). To
across situations arises from stable and distinctive if… understand whether increased physiological arousal maps
then… contingencies. For example, children predisposed onto fight-or-flight responses, future research should ex-
to high narcissism levels may not experience social- amine children in settings that are unambiguously threat-
evaluation concerns invariably; rather, they may experi- ening (e.g., singing a song on stage while the audience is
ence such concerns specifically during the anticipation frowning and refraining from positive feedback). We call
of social exposure (“If people evaluate me, then I fear for research to address these questions.
their disapproval”; also see Morf & Horvath, 2010). By Third, there was a 3-year interval between our study's
contrast, children predisposed to high self-esteem levels first and second wave. This was intentional, as it enabled
may lack these contingencies, which would help explain us to examine, prospectively, which physiological indica-
why they tend to experience few social-evaluative con- tors would predict the developmental emergence of nar-
cerns (Baldwin & Sinclair, 1996; Kernis et al., 2000). An cissism and self-esteem. However, we did not study the
exciting research direction will be to use precise physio- developmental mechanisms through which physiological
logical assessments of if… then… contingencies in early indicators (observed at age 4.5) can develop into individ-
childhood to examine whether and how these contin- ual differences in narcissism and self-esteem (observed at
gencies serve as building blocks of long-term personality age 7.5). We call for research that unravels these develop-
development. Especially when children are too young to mental mechanisms (e.g., using intensive longitudinal de-
provide reliable self-reports of emotional states or be- signs, with monthly, weekly, or even daily assessments of
havioral inclinations, physiological assessments may presumed developmental mechanisms).
provide a unique window into if… then… contingencies Fourth, during the anticipation phase, children al-
(Grapsas et al., 2021). Such physiological assessments ready knew that they would be invited to sing a song on
can be complemented with other methods that circum- stage. This enabled us to investigate children's physiolog-
vent narcissistic impression management strategies ical arousal during the anticipation of social exposure.
(Paulhus & Vazire, 2007), such as neuroimaging (Cascio However, we did not have a neutral baseline phase during
et al., 2015; Jauk et al., 2017) and neuro-endocrine as- which children neither experienced nor anticipated social
sessment (Edelstein et al., 2010; Reinhard et al., 2012). exposure. We call for future research that includes a neu-
tral baseline phase, so as to establish whether the elevated
skin conductance levels of children with high narcissism
4.3 | Strengths, limitations, and levels are unique to the anticipation of social exposure or
research directions reflect these chronically elevated levels of arousal.
Our findings also generate new research questions. We
Our study has several methodological strengths, includ- call for research on the early manifestations of narcissism
ing its prospective design, its multi-method assessment and self-esteem. We assessed narcissism and self-esteem
of physiological arousal, and its precise developmental at the critical age of 7.5, when individual differences in
timing. Our study also has limitations. First, our sample both narcissism and self-esteem can be assessed reliably
was modest in size. Our total sample size would have (Thomaes & Brummelman, 2016). Despite the grow-
provided sufficient statistical power (.80 at α = .05, two- ing evidence that even younger children can evaluate
tailed). However, due to the challenges of conducting their global worth as a person (Cimpian, 2017; Cimpian
intensive research with young children (e.g., children et al., 2017), there are no available measures of narcis-
refusing to sing a song on stage), there was some data sism in younger children (Harris et al., 2018). We call for
loss, and our final sample size fell short of our intended research to develop such measures, and to uncover the
sample size. For this reason, we conducted robustness social-cognitive processes that underlie the early develop-
analyses and interpreted our findings cautiously. We ment of narcissism and self-esteem.
call for well-powered and preregistered replications of
our findings.
Second, building on meta-analytic evidence (Seddon 5 | CONC LUSION
et al., 2020), we theorized that the performance task would
elicit social- evaluative concerns, leading to physiologi- Promoting children's self-esteem is widely seen as an
cal fight-or-flight responses. Consistent with this notion, important societal goal (Brummelman, 2022; Orth &
physiological arousal increased substantially from antici- Robins, 2014), but experts have voiced concern that
pation to performance. However, the task might not have promoting self-esteem can lead to narcissism. In the
|

Assor, A., & Tal, K. (2012). When parents' affection depends on

current work, we provide evidence for the notion that child's achievement: Parental conditional positive regard, self-
narcissism and self-esteem are fundamentally distinct. aggrandizement, shame and coping in adolescents. Journal of
Our research suggests that narcissism and self-esteem Adolescence, 35(2), 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adole
have unique early physiological indicators, with narcis- scence.2011.10.004
sism being predicted by physiological hyperarousal dur- Baldwin, M. W., & Sinclair, L. (1996). Self-esteem and “if … then” con-
ing anticipation of social exposure and self-esteem being tingencies of interpersonal acceptance. Journal of Personality
predicted by an overall state of reduced arousal. The ef- and Social Psychology, 71(6), 1130–1141. https://doi.org/10.103
7/0022-3514.71.6.1130
fects were more robust for self-esteem than narcissism.
Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., & Vohs, K. D.
Together, these findings corroborate theoretical mod- (2003). Does high self- esteem cause better performance,
els that separate narcissism from self-esteem, and they interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles?
suggest that children predisposed to high narcissism Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4(1), 1–44. https://
levels are prone to social-evaluative concerns, whereas doi.org/10.1111/1529-1006.01431
those predisposed to high self-esteem levels tend to feel Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M. (1996). Relation of
comfortable in social-evaluative contexts. An important threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side
of high self-esteem. Psychological Review, 103(1), 5–33. https://
challenge for future work is to design interventions that
doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.103.1.5
target these developmental mechanisms to promote self-
Blatný, M., Millová, K., Jelínek, M., & Osecká, T. (2015). Personality
esteem without breeding narcissism. predictors of successful development: Toddler temperament
and adolescent personality traits predict well-being and ca-
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS reer stability in middle adulthood. PLoS One, 10(4), e0126032.
Eddie Brummelman: Conceptualization; methodology; https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0126032
writing-original draft; writing-review & editing. Milica Bleiberg, E. (1984). Narcissistic disorders in children. A develop-
Nikolic: Conceptualization; data curation; investigation; mental approach to diagnosis. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic,
48(6), 501–517.
methodology; software; supervision; validation; writing –
Botto, S. V., & Rochat, P. (2019). Evaluative audience percep-
review and editing. Barbara Nevicka: Formal analysis; tion (EAP): How children come to care about reputation.
software; validation; visualization; writing –review and Child Development Perspectives, 13(3), 180–185. https://doi.
editing. Susan M. Bögels: Conceptualization; funding ac- org/10.1111/cdep.12335
quisition; methodology; project administration; resources; Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. Basic
software; supervision; writing –review and editing. Books.
Brendgen, M., Vitaro, F., Turgeon, L., Poulin, F., & Wanner, B. (2004).
ORCID Is there a dark side of positive illusions? Overestimation of so-
cial competence and subsequent adjustment in aggressive and
Eddie Brummelman https://orcid.
nonaggressive children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,
org/0000-0001-7695-5135 32(3), 305–320. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JACP.0000026144.
Milica Nikolić https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7898-6012 08470.cd
Barbara Nevicka https://orcid. Brown, R. P., & Zeigler-Hill, V. (2004). Narcissism and the non-
org/0000-0001-8084-4382 equivalence of self-esteem measures: A matter of dominance?
Susan M. Bögels https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0055-4620 Journal of Research in Personality, 38(6), 585–592. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jrp.2003.11.002
Brummelman, E. (2018). The emergence of narcissism and self-
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Psychophysiology - 2022 - Brummelman - Early Physiological Indicators of Narcissism and Self Esteem in Children

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Psychophysiology - 2022 - Brummelman - Early Physiological Indicators of Narcissism and Self Esteem in Children

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Received: 22 July 2021

| Revised: 2 April 2022

Early physiological indicators of narcissism and self-­esteem

Eddie Brummelman | Milica Nikolić | Barbara Nevicka | Susan M. Bögels

Research Institute of Child

Psychophysiology. 2022;59:e14082. ﻿ wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/psyp | 1 of 18

1 | I N T RO DU CT ION narcissism and self-­esteem (Brown & Zeigler-­Hill, 2004)

2 | M ET H OD country of origin, χ2 (1, N = 113) = 0.23, p = .631, or in

Heart rate Heart rate variability Skin conductance

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6

Heart rate Heart rate variability Skin conductance

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6

(a) between narcissism and skin conductance became statis-

Third, we repeated our main analyses for narcissism

Our prospective study is the first to examine the early

Assor, A., & Tal, K. (2012). When parents' affection depends on

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Early physiological indicators of narcissism and self-esteem

Psychophysiology. 2022;59:e14082. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/psyp | 1 of 18

1 | I N T RO DU CT ION narcissism and self-esteem (Brown & Zeigler-Hill, 2004)