CHAPTER 1 ANIMALS’ SPECIALIZED STRUCTURES

LESSON 1 - TISSUES

LEARNING COMPETENCIES
In this chapter, the learner should be able to:
1. Describe the animals’ epithelial tissue and its function.
2. Describe the characteristics of the animals’ connective tissues.
3. Compare and contrast the different muscle tissues in animal’s body.
4. Describe how nervous tissues allow us to communicate.
5. Describe the structures and functions of plant tissues.
6. Cite examples of plant tissues and their location in a particular organ
7. Describe the structure s and function of the different plant organs.

LESSON PROPER

 Histology is the study of animal and plant tissues.

 Tissue is a group of cells that perform a common function
 Tissues can be classified into animal and plant tissues.

There are four types of tissues found in animals

1. Epithelial tissues
- Form the linings of structures, cavities, and tubes
- Function: to protect, absorb and secrete
- Epithelial tissues may be simple (single layer) or stratified (more than one layer).
- There are three types of epithelium based on the shape

a. Simple squamous
- It consists of a single layer of flattened cells
- These are found on the alveoli of the lungs where the gas exchange takes place and, in
the capillaries, where diffusion and osmosis occur. Thus, it is for exchange of materials
- All blood vessels and the heart are lined up with simple squamous

b. Simple Cuboidal
- This can perform complex function such as absorption and secretion - Found in the
tubules of the kidney and the ducts of the glands.
- The secretory cells of the different gland are made up of simple cuboidal epithelium.

c. Simple columnar epithelium

- This type of epithelium is ideal for absorption and secretion as it contains large
cytoplasmic volumes with enough organelles and energy reserves to engaged in a
complex activity
- They are found in different glands
- This can be found in the lining of the intestines as it is responsible for the 90 percent
absorption that take place in digestive tract
 d. Pseudostratified epithelium
- Also known as “‘Falsely stratified epithelium”
- It is made up of columnar cells that are tall and thin and form irregular shapes
- It appears to form several layers, but are actually arranged in a single layer
- It is found in the respiratory tract as ciliated typed
- The cilia propel the mucus secreted by the goblet cells along the cell surface
- It is found in the columnar lining of respiratory tract
2. Connective and supportive tissues
-are the fibrous, cartilage, bone, adipose and vascular tissues
Types of Connective and Supportive
a. Fibrous tissue
– It is the most common type of tissues found all over the body. It is found beneath
the skin, it may be loose or dense, depending on the arrangement. The loose kinds
held together the muscles surround group of cells that make up the nerves.

b. Cartilage
– In humans’ cartilage, this found in ears, nose ribs, and joints and in the tracheal
rings, and in the larynx.
– It gives strength, support and protection of the soft body parts of the body.

c. Bones
– The bones containing cells are called osteocytes, a matrix with collagen, fibers,
minerals such as Calcium phosphate, Magnesium, Carbonates and Fluoride ions.
– Our bone tissue is much harder than the cartilage. It is form by stellate cells called
osteoblast.
– Bones serves as the structural framework of the body and together with muscles,
these are needed for movement and locomotion.
– Inside the long bones are cavities filled with bone marrow, the site where blood cells
are produced, bones also serve as the reservoir for calcium.
– Bone tissue is alive, if the bone is broken, the living cells work together to secrete a
new bony material to repair the damaged part or dead bones. The hard material of
the bone is calcium phosphate.

d. Adipose tissues
– Sometimes called as fat tissues, these are found in the subcutaneous layer of the
skin that helps shape, insulate the body and store fats

e. Elastic connective tissues

– It can stretch 1.5 times normal length, these fibers provide elasticity of tissues
– It is found in large arteries such as aorta bronchial tubes and in the vertebral
column
– It gives support the organs such as spleen, lymph nodes and liver and provide
supportive network for bone marrow and lymphoid blood cells making.

f. Fluid connective tissues / vascular tissues

– Blood is a vascular or circulatory tissue of our body. It transports and circulates
materials in our body consist of erythrocytes or red blood cells for the transport of
oxygen, leucocytes for the body’s defense against infection and the thrombocytes or
the blood platelets for blood clotting factors.
– Other function of blood regulates fluids, ions and PH balance of the body and
transport nutrients to cells and removes carbon dioxide.

3. Muscular or contractile tissue

-It consist of smooth muscle, striated or skeletal muscles and cardiac muscles
-The smooth muscles (involuntary muscles) are present in the blood vessels,
respiratory passages, urinary and genital organs. Because it is usually found in the
internal organs, it is also called as visceral muscles.
 -The skeletal muscles (voluntary muscles) are attached d to muscles.
-The heart muscle is called as the cardiac muscle. It is involuntary which is not
controlled by will.

4. Nervous tissues
-It is composed of networks of neurons or nerve cells to form nervous system of
animals’ body.

What are the parts of nerve cell?

 These different types of tissues have distinct structures and functions. An organ is
made up of different types of tissues. For example, the inner wall of the stomach is
lined by columnar epithelial tissues for absorption of digested food. The stomach is
surrounded by smooth muscle tissues that are responsible for muscle movement,
called peristalsis, during digestion. It also contains nervous tissues (nerves that
transmit signals to and from the brain. Blood is a type of connective tissues, that is
responsible for the transport of nutrients from absorbed food. These different tissues
have specialized functions with a common objective, to digest food, the function of
the stomach.

LESSON 2 - PLANT TISSUES AND ORGANS.

– The organs that allow the plant to live and grow are called vegetative organs. These
include the roots, stems and lives.
– The root, anchors the plant to the soil for support and absorbed water and minerals
from the soil. The stem is the main axis of the plant together with its branches. Its
function is to support and for the transport of water and nutrients absorbed by the
roots to the leaves. It also distributes the products of photosynthesis to other part.
The leaves are responsible for the manufacture of food by photosynthesis. Flowers,
 fruits and seeds are organs responsible for reproduction. All these plant organs are
made up of group of similar cells with a common function-the plant tissues

Types of plant tissues

Permanent tissues (non-dividing tissues)

1. Dermal surface
a. Epidermis - for protection
b. Periderm - for adds protection
2. Fundamental (ground) / simple tissues
a. Parenchyma - for synthesis and storages
b. Collenchyma - for support
c. Sclerenchyma - for support
d. Endodermis - for protection
3. Complex or Vascular tissues
a. Xylem- for conducting water
b. Phloem -for conducting food

Meristematic tissues
- Meristos = ‘’dividing’’
- allows growth (dividing tissues)
Types Meristematic tissues
a. Apical meristem
- located at the roots shoots
- helps to increase the length
b. Lateral meristem
- lateral means ‘side to side’
- located at the girth(cambium)
- helps to increase girth
c. Intercalary meristem
- located at the base of leaves
- helps twig to grow into branches
CHAPTER 2 PERPETUATION OF LIFE

LESSON 3 - PLANT AND ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

LEARNING COMPETENCIES
In this chapter, the learner should be able to:
1. Describe the different ways of plant reproduction.
2. Differentiate asexual reproduction from asexual reproduction.
3. Learn the advantage and disadvantage of both types of reproduction.

LESSON PROPER

REPRODUCTION
- One of the characteristics of life. It is a biological process in which new individual
organisms are produced, may it be sexual or asexual. Sexual reproduction involves
the union of gametes (egg cell and sperm cell) through fertilization. Meanwhile
asexual reproduction involves the creation of cloned offspring from a parent
organism.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- In plants, flowers play a major role in sexual reproduction as it houses the structures
for this process.
- Below is the picture of a flower and the structures involved directly/indirectly in
sexual reproduction.

- In many ways, this idealized structure of a flower is found in plants, which employ
sexual reproduction. It is composed of four main flower organs: Stamen and Carpel
(Reproductive) and Petals and Sepals (Sterile). These organs are held by a structure
called a receptacle.
- The stamen is male reproductive organ, which produces the pollen, which contains
the sperm cell. Meanwhile,
 - the carpel or the female reproductive organ has the following structures: stigma,
style and ovary.
 The stigma is the sticky end of the carpel where pollen is trapped during the
process of pollination.
 The style is a slender neck where the sperm cell from the pollen can travel to the
base of the carpel called the ovary.
 In the ovary are ovules, female gametes, which when is fertilized by the sperm
becomes the seeds of a fruit.
 Sometimes, a flower has only one carpel, or has more than one carpel, which is
fused, it is called a pistil.

Pollination
- It is the process of transferring pollen from an anther to a stigma.

There are various ways in which pollination occurs whether through

 self-pollination, wherein the pollen is transferred to the stigma of a plant’s own
flower, or
 cross-pollination wherein pollen from a different plant is delivered to a stigma of
a flower of a different plant.
- Pollination is needed in order for fertilization to occur. Compared to self-pollination,
cross-pollination can increase genetic diversity of plants as genes from two different
individuals are shared by the offspring.

There are different methods on how pollen is transferred from one anther to one
stigma. Mainly,
- pollination is through biotic means (80%) and among abiotic methods of pollination,
wind (98%) and water (2%) are the main agents.

Biotic Pollinators
1. Bees- rely on nectars from flowers for they food, as such they pollinate flowers with
delicate, sweet fragrance. They are also attracted to bright colors, yellow and blue. Red
might be dull to them, but, flowers were able to evolve by creating ultraviolet markings
as nectar guides as bees can see ultraviolet light.
2. Moths and butterflies – like bees, detect odors and pollinate flowers with sweet
fragrance. The difference in activity of a butterfly and a moth allows pollination of
different plants, as butterflies are attracted to bright flowers they are day pollinators
while moths, which are mostly active at night, are attracted to white or yellow flowers
which are very distinct at night.
3. Bats – like moths are attracted to sweet smelling lightly colored flowers which stand out
at night.
4. Flies – are attracted to red, fleshy flowers with a rank odor reminiscent of decaying
meat.
5. Birds – do not have a keen sense of smell, thus, flower fragrance is not a flower
character trait by plants pollinated by birds. Birds are usually attracted to bright
flowers such as red and yellow. Also, their nectar have high sugar content which is
needed by birds.
Sexual Reproduction
– A type of reproduction in which the genetic materials from two different cells
combine, producing an offspring
– The cells that combine are called sex cells
– Female – egg - Male – sperm
– Fertilization: an egg cell and a sperm cell join together – A new cell is formed and
is called a zygote

Advantages: Sexual Reproduction

Diverse offspring: genetic variation among offspring
 Half of the DNA comes from mom
 Half of the DNA comes from dad
– Due to genetic variation, individuals within a population have slight differences.
 Plants – resist diseases
 Traits can develop to resist harsh environments that allows an organism survive.

Selective Breeding
– Used to develop many types of plants and animals that have desirable traits
 Agriculture/Farming: better plants, larger animals  Desirable pets

Disadvantages: Sexual Reproduction

Time and Energy

– Organisms have to grow and develop until they are old enough to produce sex cells
Search and find a mate
Searching can expose individuals to predators, diseases, or harsh environmental
conditions Fertilization cannot take place during pregnancy, which can last as long as 2
years for some mammals.

Asexual Reproduction
One parent: organism produces offspring without fertilization
Uniform offspring:
– Because offspring inherit all of their DNA from one parent, they are genetically
identical to each other and to their parent.
 Fission: Cell division in prokaryotes that forms two
genetically identical cells
– DNA is copied
– The cell begins to grow longer, pulling the two copies apart.
– The cell membrane pinches inward in the middle of the cell.
– Cell splits to form two new uniform, identical offspring.
– Examples: bacteria, Ecoli, pond critters

Budding:
- a new organism grows by mitosis and cell division on the
body of its parent
- The bud, or offspring is identical to the parent
The bud, when large enough, can break off of the parent and
live on its own
- Offspring may remain attached and form a colony
Examples: Yeast, Hydra, cactus.

Regeneration:
- Occurs when an offspring grows from a piece of its parent.
- Producing new organisms: Sea Stars,Sea urchins, sea cucumber, sponges, and
planarians
Producing new body parts: Gecko
Newts, tadpoles, crabs, hydra, and zebra fish

Vegetative Propagation:
- uniform offspring grow from a part of a parent plant
 Parent plants sends out runners
 Where the runner touches the ground, roots can grow
. A new plant is produced even if the runner is broken apart
 Each new plant is uniform and identical to the parent.
Examples: strawberries, potatoes, ivy, crabgrass

Below are different types of vegetative propagation:

a. Stems: that grow horizontally above the ground is
called a runner. The nodes of these plants can allow asexual
reproduction through bud growth. Example of this is grass.
b. Roots: swollen roots called tubers can allow asexual reproduction. Example of this is
the swollen root of a cassava, not that of a potato. Potatoes are stems, as evidenced of
their nodes.
c. Leaves: that are succulent, such as the catacataca leaf, can allow asexual reproduction.
d. Bulbs: such as onion (each skin is a leaf) and garlic (each piece is a modified stem and
leaf) is attached to an underground stem. Each can form a new bulb underground.
Artificial propagation
a. Grafting: is composed of the stock (rooted part of the plant) and the scion (the
attached part). This is usually done to hasten the reproductive ability of a plant, grow a
selected fruiting plant, etc.
b. Layering: like what happens to a runner, wherein, a shoot of a parent plant is bent
and is covered by soil. This stimulates root growth, after which, the plants can be
separated.
c. Cutting: is done to propagate a plant by cutting the stem at an angle of a shoot with
attached leaves. Sometimes, growth stimulator is given.

Advantages: Asexual Reproduction

- Enables organisms to reproduce without a mate
- No wasted time and energy
- Enables some organisms to rapidly reproduce a large number of uniform offspring. -
Disadvantages: Asexual Reproduction

Because their offspring are identical, there is no genetic variation that can give an
-
organism a better chance for survival
- Example: If a weed killer can kill the parent, it will also kill the offspring
- A whole species can be wiped out from a disease
 Dangerous mutations in DNA – if the parent has the mutation in their DNA, the
offspring will have it too.
LESSON 4 - PLANT ORGANS

LEARNING COMPETENCIES
In this lesson, the learner should be able to:

1. Recall the function of plant organs in sexual reproduction

2. Learn the structure to function relationship in biological system
3. Relate structure function relationship among flowers, fruits and seeds
4. Identify local plants and how the structure of their flower, fruit and/or seeds are aided
in dispersal.

LESSON PROPER

Review of previous lesson:

1. FLOWERS
- play a major role in sexual reproduction as it houses the structures for this process.
Below is the picture of a flower and the structures involved directly/ indirectly in
sexual reproduction.

2. Vegetative Part
a. Receptacle – holds the floral parts of the flower
b. Sepal – modified leaves that protects a flower in bud and holds the petals when in
bloom c. Calyx – collective term for the sepals
 d. Petal – modified leaves that surround the reproductive organ or plants; normally
colourful, and with odor, to attract pollinators
e. Corolla – collective term for petals
f. Inflorescence – cluster of flowers

3. Reproductive Part
a. Stamen – male reproductive organ
b. Filament – stalk that holds the anther at the end
c. Anther – produces the pollen which houses the sperm cell
d. Carpel – Female reproductive organ. Singly or fused, is called a pistil
e. Style – the slender neck of the carpel which holds the stigma at its end.
f. Stigma – is a structure with sticky substance which traps pollen
g. Ovary – the bulbous structure of the carpel which contains the ovule
h. Ovule – has the egg cell of the plant.

4. Complete vs Incomplete Flower

a. A complete flower has all the parts described
b. An incomplete flower is missing one or more parts

5. Adaptive mechanisms
a. As the flower is important in the development of a fruit and the eventual dispersal of
the seed for plant propagation, it has evolved different adaptive mechanisms.
b. This structure to function relationship is important as the plant should be able to
attract specific pollinators to increasing the success rate of its propagation.
c. Competition among plants over one pollinator may result in lesser chance of
propagation.
FRUITS

Fruits – structures that not only protect the seeds of plants but also aid in their dispersal;
derived from the maturation of a flower’s ovary.

a. The ovary walls eventually become the pericarp during development.

b. The pericarp is further divided into three parts: the exocarp or skin, the mesocarp or
the flesh and the endocarp, which is the core.

c. Depending on fruit adaptations, the pericarp can be stony, woody, fleshy as such the
endocarp might not be fleshy, the exocarp might be rubbery or woody, etc.

• For example: the apple’s seed and fruit is protected by an accessory fruit which formed
from the fleshy receptacle. This ensures that the seed will not be harmed during the
consumption of the fleshy receptacle, as the fruit is not eaten, rather is thrown, aiding in
its dispersal. Again, this is an example of a structure function relationship not only in one
organ (the fruit) but between the flower and the fruit that was formed.
SEEDS
The seed or mature ovules contain the embryo, which will eventually germinate and grow if
properly dispersed in a favorable environment.

1. To protect the embryo from harsh environmental conditions, it goes into a state of
dormancy until a period for favorable growth and development arrives. The embryo,
which is not able to produce its own food yet, is provided with food by the cotyledon or
the endosperm, or both.

2. To protect the embryo, the seed coat has an hardened outer covering which protects it
from physical or chemical disturbances.

3. The embryo is composed of the hypocotyl or the embryonic axis which termites to the
radicle or the embryonic root and the epicotyl, which is attached to the first, leaves.

4. The young leaves—together with the cotyledon, the epicotyl and the apical meristem
(responsible for apical growth or elongation)—is called the plumule.

5. In grass, the embryo is protected by two sheaths: the coleoptile (protects the young
shoots) and coleorhiza (protects the young roots).