Law of Chemical Combinations Significant Figures

Balance a Chamical Equation Liquid

• All the non-zero numbers in a measurement
Write correct formulas of reactant are significant.
• Zeroes sandwiched anywhere between non-
& products
Avagadro's Low of Definite Gay Lussac's Law zeroes are significant. Gases
↓ • Zeroes to the left of a first non-zero digits Matter
proportions
Balance number of C atoms are not significant.
@ Constant A given @ Constant Volume, ↓ • The zeroes to the right of the last non-zero Solid
pressure compound digits are significant if no. has a decimal point.
pressure is directly Balance number of H atoms
& temperature, always contain exactly proportional to volume ↓
Volume is directly the same proportions Balance number of O atoms
proportional of elements ↓
to no of moles Low of multiple Verify number of atoms of elements
proportions
Low of Conservation
If two elements can
of mass
combine to form more than Stoichiometry

Mixture
Matter can neither one compound, the masses of Environment
be created non one element that combine Ho
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destroyed. with a fixed mass of the en

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other element are in ratio Agriculture

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Biochemistry NO

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Science

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of small whole number Un

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IC Chemistry

AS

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Medicines Chemical

CH
SOME B
Engineering

EMISTRY
The reactant that is Daltion's Atomic Theory
Limiting Reagent
entirely used up in a
reaction Importance Environment Forensic
• Atoms consists of indivisble atoms.
• All the atoms of a given element have identical
Science proporties including identical mass.
• Atoms are neither created non destroyed.
• Compounds are formed when atoms of
different elements combine in a fixed
ratio.

Concentration terms

Dilution
Moles (n) Emperical & Molecular Formula
M1V1 = M2V2 No. of moles of Solute
given number n Step 1 → Conversion of mass % to grams Volume of Solution in L
n= =
Avagadrio's No n A Step 2 → Convert into number moles of each element no. of moles of solute
Molarity Weight of solutein Kg weight of solvent in kg
⇓ Step 3 → Divide the mole value obtained above by the Volume of Solution in L
given mass m Basicity w% Molarity
n= = smallest Number v
Molar mass M
Step 4 → Write Emperical formula by Mentioning the No of H+ ion
⇓ Temperature

Temperature
Dependent
displaced in Volume of Solute in L

Independent
no. after writing the symbols of respective v% Moles of solute or Solvent Mole
given Volume V one molecule Volume of Solution in L
n= = v fraction
22.4 L 22.4L elements the acid Total moles of Solution

Step 5 → Writing Molecular Formula

(a) Determine EF mass Add the atomic Normality w
Acidity Weight of Solute in kg %
× 100 w
masses of various atoms present in the EF Molarity × n-factor Weight of Solution in kg
No of OH– ion PPM Parts
(b) Divide molar masses by EF mass displaced in one per Million
(c) Multiply EF by n obtained above molecule of
the base Weight of Solute in kg
× 10 6
Weight of Solution in kg

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 e– p+ STRUCTURE OF ATOM TOWARDS QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL
charge of an charge of a proton
e– = –1.6022 × 10–19 c p- = +1.6 × 10-19 c sTATIONARY STATES
BOHR'S MODEL OF AN ATOM n
DUAL NATURE OF HEISENBERG'S
J.J. THOMSON Mass of an e –
Mass of an p –

–9.1 × 10–31 kg 1.6 × 10–27 kg . Electron in H atom can move around the nucleus in a circular m
MATTER UNCERTAINITY
• Discovered electron(e ) – path of fixed radius L E = hv
• Every Material particle in the motion
• Proposed plum pudding Model
. Each orbits has a definite energy known as energy level or
stationary levels.
K
has dual nature (wave and particle
PRINCIPLE
. When an electron jumps from a lower energy level to to nature) • Every Material particle in the motion has
higher one, energy is absorbed. h dual nature (wave and particle nature)
ELECTRON
. Angular momentum of electron = meVr = n n = 1, 2, 3 • de=Broglie's wavelength • de=Broglie's wavelength
2π
h
POSITIVE SPACE
n2 ° h h ∆x . ∆p ≥
Neutron Radius = r = 0.529 ×
z
A Energy = E = -1.36 × 106 × z2
J/mol
λ= = 7π
Discovered by James
z n2 mv p
Chadwick. Charge Velocity = v = 2.18 × 10 ×
8
cm/sec
n
on Neutron is 0

Mass of an
Neutron is LIMITATION QUANTUM MECHANICS
ERNEST 1.6 × 10–27 kg
. Applicable on only one e- system eg: H, He+
RUTHERFORD . If could not able to explain dual nature of n atom
NODES . Fundamental equation was developed by Schrodinger know as
Space or region, wher finding the Schrodinger wave equation.
• Discovered proton (P+)
• a-partical experiment probability of e- is zero
d2ψ d2ψ d2ψ 8π2m
• Proposed Rutherford's + + + (E - u)ψ = 0
TYPES:- • Radial node = (n - l -1) dx2 dy2 dz2 h2
model of an atom (1911)
• Atom consist of two parts • Angular node = l
nucleus and extra nucleus
SERIES • Total node = n - 1 . The electrons in an atom have quantized values of energy.
part Lyman: n1 = 1, n2 = 2, 3... . By evaluating ψ2 at different points around the nucleus in a
Balmer: n1 = 2, n2 = 3, 4...
NUCLEUS
+ atom, we can predict the probability of finding the electron
Paschen: n1 = 3, n2 = 4, 5
ORBIT
is maximum.
Bracket: n1 = 4, n2 = 5, 6

ENERGY LEVEL QUANTUM NUMBER

1. Principle quantum No.: n = 1, 2, 3, 4... shell = K, L, M, N
2. Azimuthal Quantum No.: l = for given value of n, l =0 to n - 1)
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC WAVE THEORY 1s 3. Magnetic quantum no.: m = for subshells with 'l' value.
. Wavelength: Distance between successive crest of trough PLANK'S 2S 2P ml = 2l + 1
1 -1
( ), ()
. Frequency: Number of waves passed through CONSTANT (H) 3s 3P 3d
4. Spin quantum number = s = +
2 2
a point in 1 sec.
e = hv 4s 4p 4d 4f

h = 6.623 × 10–34 Js Found by

PARTICLE NATURE OF ELECTRON 5s 5p 5d 5f
RULES FOR
x H. Hertz MAGNETIC RADIATITION 6s 6p 6d
ARRANGING ELECTRON
PHOTOELECTRIC 7s 7P (a) Aufbau principle: Electron
λ
Electric field BLACK BODY EFFECT
Ejection of
occupy lowest energy level
available
RADIATION Beam of
light
electron
(b) Pauli Exclusion principle: No two
A
A PERFECT OBSORBER OR e- can have same set of 4
Magnetic field EMITTER OF LIGHT. KINETIC ENERGY OF EJECTED e- quantuM numbers.
SHAPE OF ORBITALS
z Direction of I.E ABSORBER OR EMITS 1 (c) Hund's rule: If two or more
y
propogation hv = hv 0 + m v 2
ALL TYPE OF frequency/ 2 e orbitals of equal energy y

radiation E = hv0 + K.E. available, then electron will

occupy them singly before filled x x
in pairs.
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC ATOMIC SPECTRA
SPECTRUM P ORBITAL 1s orbital 2s orbital

CHARACTERISITICS Electromagnetic spectrum is a collection

Spectrum of the (DUMBELL SHAPE)
electromagnetic
OF WAVE ofall electromagnetic waves arranged EMISSION radiation emitted y y y D ORBITALS
(a) Wavelength (λ)
according to frequency and wavelength. SPECTRA ABSORPTION
or absorbed by an y z z
(b) wave no. (v- ) Increasing Frequency (v) SPECTRA y y
Spectrum of electron during x x x
T.V. Micro
(c) Frequency (v) transition from one It is like
waves waves Infra UV rays Cosmic rays tansition emitted
(d) Time Period (T) x x
by a substance energy level to another photographic x x
(e) Velocity (c) c x-rays γ-rays
z z z
λ= 10
-8
100 106 V.s 10-14
that has absorbed 1 1 negative of an
(f) Amplitude (a) v - 2 CM-1 2px 3dy zpz
Increasing wavelength(λ) energy v = 109677 n12
n2 emission spectra 3dx2 - 3dz2
3dxy 3dyz 3dxz y
2

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 Based on physical state Based on Concentration Mass percentage
Mole fraction (x) Molarity (M)
(w/w)
• Gas in Gas (Air) • Dilate solution No. of moles of solute
• Gas in liquid (soda water) • Concertated solution = Mass of solute No. of moles of solute
Total moles in solution = × 100 =
• Gas in solid (Hydrogen in Pd) • Solurated solution Total mass of solution Volume of solution (L)
• Liquid in gas (Fog) • Saper solurated solution
• Liquid in liquid (Alcohol in H2O)
• Liquid in solid (Amalgams) Concentration
• Solid in gas (Smog) terms
• Solid in liquid (sugar in water) Parts per million (PPM) Molatity (M)
• Solid in solid (alloys)

No. of parts of solute No. of moles of solute

= =
Total no. of parts of weight of the solvent in Kg
Types of solutions all compounts of solution

Volume % (V/V) Normatity (N)

f two or mo Volume of solute
SOLUBILITY o re × 100 =
No. of grams equivalent of solute

re Total volume of solution Volume of solution (L)

N
Liquid in liquid
Gas in liquid

Mass by volume %
O
Solid in liquid

u
I

pu
Solvent

ixt
(Max.amount) mass of solute
=

re
UT
Total moles in solution

sm
SOL

substance
u
Effect of nature of

o
Effect of pressure solute of solvent Effect of pressure

n
→ Like dissoles Like

e
Osmotic pressure Elevation of Boiling point

)
nt
g

am e
Pressure applied to stop the

ou
Solubility increases

n. ut
Kb × 1000 × W2

o
Ho(mi Sol
with increase flow of salvent through semi ∆Tb =

m
in pressure
permeable memberane M 2 × W1
Effect of temp → Raoult's Law r = CRT
Exothernic process:- Colligative
Henry's Law Increase with rise Partial vapour property
in temp. pressure = Parical Depression in freezing Relating loucing of
partial pressure of Effect → Endothermic presssure × Mole fraction
Mole fraction point rapour pressure
gas in of the gas (x)
process:-
vapour phase Decrease with rise in temp. K × W2 × 1000 W2 × M 1 PA − PS
°
Ps = PAxA + PBxB ° ∆TF = F M 2 × W1
=
Effect of prassure M 2 × W1 PA
P = KHX Ideal & non ideal solution
→ No effect

Ideal Non Ideal

Raoult's Law Does not obey Rault's law
Ps = PA° xA + PB° xB Ps ≠ PA° xA + PB° xB Van't hoff factor (i)

Azeofropeo Ptotal= PA+ PA

• Constant boiling mixtures PA° PB°
Ratio of the normal mass to the
Positive deviation Negative deviation
Negative deviation obsered molecular mass of the
Ex:-Bengnet

solute:
Tauene

V.P. Solution V.P. Solution

Normal molor mass
Positive deviation Nagative deviation i=
Ab normal molar malar mass

Ex:-water + Ethanol
mixture mixture

Ex:-Water + HNO3
XA = 1 XA = 0
Minimum boiling Maximum boiling XB = 0 XB = 1
azeotropes azeotropes
Ex. 95% Ethonol Ex. 68% HNO3
in water in water
XA = 1 XA = 1 XA = 1 XA = 1
XB = 0 XB = 0 XB = 0 XB = 0

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 Solubility Product Hydrolysis of salts Acids and Base
+ (KSP)

Salts of strong base and strong acid Acids: Liberates H2 on reacting with metals


 cC + dD
aA  neutral solution and does not undergo hy- Turns blue litumus into red
drolysis. eg. naCl, KCl Base: Taste bitter and feel soapy
K sp = [C] c [D] d Salt of weak base and Strong Acid
Turns red litmus into blue
Ionic product Kw H 1
of water Kh = ; p = [pK 2 − pK b − log c]
Kb 2
Salt of weak Acid and weak base Acidic ⇒ [H 3 O + ] > [OH− ]

 + −
 H 3 O + OH
2H 2 O 
Kw 1 Basic ⇒ [H 3 O + ] < [OH− ]
Kh = ; p H = [pK w − pK a − pK b ]
K w = [H 3 O + ][OH− ] = 1 × 10−14 M 2 Ka × Kb 2 Neutral ⇒ [H 3 O + ] = [OH− ]
∴ [OH− ] = [H+ ] = 10−7 M @ 298 K

B
pK w = pK a + pK b = 14

UILI RI
Q
Factor's of reaction

UM
Ostwald's Dilution Law
Le Chatlier's Principle

E
Effect of concentration change
Applicable for weak K electrlytes concentration →, equilibrium shift
Direction of
K  forward.
∴ K c = Cα 2 or α =  c  reaction
 C  Effect of pressure change equilibrium
So, α =
1
orα ∝ v Qc < Kc will shift in the direction having
smaller number of moles.
c Reaction goes
Where V is the volume of solution Effect of temperature change
from left to right
at infinite dilution For exothermic → low temperature
Qc < Kc favors formation of reactants.
Reaction goes from For Endothermic → High temperature
right to left favors formation of products.
Qc = Kc Effect of inert gas → No change
Law of chemical Equilibrium No net reaction Effect of catalyst → No change
occurs
Equilibrium Law
Relation between equilibrium


aA + bB 
cC + dD constant ckp + kc Definition

[C] C [D] d
Kc = a 6
K p = K c (RT)∆ng Equilibrium set up in a
physical process like
[A] [B] Chemical reaction reach a
evaporation of water
state of dynamic equilibrium etc.
Here Kc is equilibrium constant
in which the rate of forward 

(s)
 (l) Chemical
reaction and reaction are


(l) 
 (g)
same and there is no net


(g)
 (s) Equilibrium attained in
PH Concept charge in composition
a chemical reaction
Gibb's energy


3H 2 + N 2 
 2NH 3
∆G = RT ln K p H = − log[H+ ] Homogeneous Hetrogeneous
∆G = -ve, spontaneous reaction H + Possible only in a closed
p = − log[H 3 O ]
Reaction proceeds forward. system.
∆G = +ve, Non spontaneous 1 Reactant and product Reactant and
for weak acid → p H = (C K − log c) are in same phase product are in Both reaction occur at
reation 2 p a different phase same rate
Reaction proceeds backward
All measurable property
∆G = zero, equilibrium achieved remains constant

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 Electrode potential

Bridge
U shaped inverted Faraday 2nd Law

Salt
Also know Faraday 1st Law
Potential difference n as D tube connecting two
eniel Cell: electrolyte solution • Amount of substance deposited
between electrode and • Amount of chemical reactions
at electrodes during Nature of
electrolyte. which occurs at any electrode
Cathode: Copper electrolysis is proportional to Electrode
E = E 0 − E0 during electrolysis by a current is

Anode
cell Righ left Anode: Zinc
+ Vely charged proportional to the quantity of their chemical equivalents
Salt bridge: Agar-Agar
Oxidation takes place electricity passed weights → W1 W2 W3 Medium of
= =
Electrolyte: Zn SO4 , CuSO4 through electrolyte → W = zit E1 E2 E3 Electrolyte
Cell reaction:
Zn + CuSO4 Zn SO4 + Cu

Cathode
Cell representation: + Vely charged Faraday
Zn (s)| Zn SO4(Sol) || CuSO4(sol) | Cu (s) Laws

Quantitative
reduction takes place
Qualitative aspect depend on

Aspects
Reduction Half-Reaction E°(V)

Corrosion Stronger F2(g) + 2e− →

2F−(aq) 2.87 Weaker
oxidizing H2O2(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2e− →
2 H2O (l) 1.78 reducing Galvanic/Voltic
Standard Hydrogen Electrode agent MnO4− (aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e− →
Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l) 1.51 agent
Cell Electrolytic Cell
Cl2(g) + 2e− →
2Cl−(aq) 1.36
Electro chemical (SHE) Device converting
Cr2O22− (aq) + 14 H+(aq) + 6e− →
2Cr3+ (aq) + 7H2O (l) 1.33
phenomenon in which electrical energy
O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e− →
2H2O(l) 1.23
metal oxide of metal into chemical energy.
Br2(aq) + 2e− →
2Br−(aq) 1.09
forms coating on Ag (aq) + e
+ − →
Ag(s) 0.80 Salt Bridge
metyal surface. Fe3+(aq) + e− →
2Fe2+ (aq) 0.77
Hydrogen gas O2(g) + 2H+(aq) + 2e− →
H2O2 (aq) 0.70
− →
at 1 atm I2(s) + 2e 2I−(aq) 0.54
Prevention O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e− →
4OH−(aq) 0.40
Cu2+(aq) + 2e− →
Cu(s) 0.34 Anion
• Painting, barrier SN4+(aq) + 2e− →
Sn2+(aq) 0.15 Cation Cation
Anion
protection, rust 2H (aq) + 2e
+ − →
H2(g) 0 Electrodes Anode → + vely charged;
Platinum foil Pb2+(aq) + 2e − →
Pb(s) −
0.13
solution. oxidation occurs
Hydrogen ion Ni2+(aq) + 2e− → −
Ni(s) 0.26
Cd (aq) + 2e
2+ − →
Cd(s) −
0.40 Cathode → - vely charged;
Example
Fe2+(aq) + 2e− →
Fe(s) 0.45 Reduction occurs
→ −
Zn2+(aq) + 2e− Zn(s) 0.76 Electrolyte
2H2O(l) + 2e− →
H2(g) + 2OH−(aq) −
• Rusting of iron. For SHE, E
0
cell
=0 Al3+(aq) + 3e− →
Al(s) 1.66
0.83

• Furnishing of Mg (aq) + 2e
2+ − →
Mg(s) −
2.37
Weaker Stronger
Silver. oxidizing Na+(aq) + e− →
Na(s) −
2.71 reducing
agent agent
Li+(aq) + e− →
Li(s) −
3.04
Cell representation
The arrangement of various
electrodes in the increasing order of
Electrochemistry Oxidation Reduction
Battery standard reduction potentials. half half
[Primary]
[reaction occurs [Secondary] Electrical
only once cannot Nernst Equation
[Can be reacharged Properties
be reuse]
by parring current f
• For reaction: M n+ + ne- M(s)
in opposite direction.]
2.303 RT 1
E = E° − log Kohlrausch's
nF [Mn + ] APPLICATION
1 law of Independent
• Conductance [G] = Resistance Migration of Ions
Mercury Leclanche Lead storage • For reaction: aA + bB cC + dD
unit: Ohm-1 or Siemens
cell battery 2.303 RT [C] c [D] d l l At infinite
(dry cell) Ni-cd cell E cell = E°cell − log • Specific conductivity (K) = G a = cell constant dilution the To To To
nF [A] a [B] b a
molar determine calculate calculate
unit: Ohm-1 cm-1 or S cm-1 Λm & Λeq degree dissociation
conductivity
Anode: Zn -Hg Zn • A Equilibrium Ecell = 0 • Molar conductance (Λm) = 1000 × K of electrolytic of weak of constant
Cathode: Paste Graphite Pb M is given by sum electrolyt dissociatio of weak
HgO & C Pb + PBO 2.303 RT unit: Scm-1mol-1 of ionic -es at -n: (∝) Electrolyt
Powdered E°cell = log K c
Electrolyte: M n O2 + C + H2 SO 4 (38% by nF conductivities infinite e:
• Equivalent conductance (Λeq) = 1000 × K
c
Λm
loss) ∝2
kc = c
Paste of KOH + Paste of NH4Cl + of cation & dilution. ∝= 0
Λm
ZnO Z n Cl2 unit: Cm2 ohm-1 g-eq-1 N anions. 1- ∝

0
• ∆nG = nFE cell or ∆nG = − nFE cell
0 0 0
Λ m = ν +λ + + ν− λ−

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 CHEMICAL
They are Melting & Boiling point CHEMICAL
5d Series
La(57) to They show metallic hard They have low They have high melting
REACTION
REACTION
LANTHANOID
volatility except and boiling point.
4d Series Hg(80) characteristics
Zn, Cd, Hg Due to stronger metallic CONTRACTION
With halogens
Y(39) to
Cd(48)
bond and presence
of covalent bond by LnX3 • Steady decrease in the rise of lanthanoid
unpaired d-electrons metals (from La to Lu) with increase in
With acids atomic number.
3d Series H2
Physical Properties ATOMIC SIZE
Sc(21) to Atomic and ionic radii of heated with S Consequences
Zn(30) d-block elements are smaller Ln2S3
j u g ation-2
Con 1-10 ns1
than s-block. • Zr and Hf have similar sizes.
heated with N
(n-1)
d Decrease in atomic radii with
increase in atomic number is
LN LnN • Seperation of lanthanoids elements.
not regular. with H2O
Ln(OH)3 + H2 • 5d series have high ionisation energy
than 4d series.
OXIDATION STATE D BLOCK ELEMENTS
Transition metal shows
IONISATION ENTHALPY with C
LnC2 • Lutetium hydroxide is less basic than
variableoxidation state. (TRANSITION ELEMENTS) increases from left to 2773 K lanthanum hydroxide.
right in a period burns in O2
Due to participation of Ln2O3
both ns and(n - 1) elements.
Manganese shows all O.S. COLOURED COMPLEX
from +2 to +7.
Due to d-d transition. ELEMENTS
Scandium dosen't show
variable oxidation state. LANTHANOIDS Total 14 element
ALLOY FORMATION Ce(58) to Lu (71)
Due to similar OXIDES
atomic sizes OXIDATION STATE
Lower oxidation states ELECTRONIC
oxides are basic. +3 is the most CONFIGURATION
Higher oxidation states common oxidation stat +3 is the most
CATALYTIC PROPERTIES oxides are acidic common oxidation Salt
or amphoteric Some elements also
F BLOCK ELEMENTS 4f1-14 5d0-1 6s2
Due to variable oxidation shows +2 and +4
state. INNER TRANSITION
Ex: Finely divided ion in
D AND F oxidation state
ELEMENTS
Haber'sprocess. IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS
BLOCK
ELEMENTS RADIOACTIVITY
STRUCTURE ELECTRONIC
Due to variable CONFIGURATION Actinoids are
oxidation state. ACTINOIDS mostly radioactive
Ex: Finely divided 4f1-14 6d0-1 7s2
ion in Haber's
Consist of 14 elements
process Th(90) to Lr(103)
Potassium
Permanganate OXIDATION ACTINOID
STATE CONTRACTION
KMnO4 Most statble oxidation
state is +3.
Gradual decreae in the
Potassium size of actinoids element
dichromate Actinoids also show +4, across a period
+5, +6 and +7 also
K2Cr2O7
Cr2 O 27 − + 14H+ + 6e− 
→ 2Cr3 + + 7H 2 O
PREPARATION
O O O
Prepared from mineral pyrolusite It oxidises I to I2, H2S to S, SO to
+ 2-
3 O Cr 126° Cr O
IN NEUTRAL OR FAINTY APPLICATION
SO42-, NO2- to NO3-. O O
2MnO 2 + 4KOH + O 2 
→ 2K 2 MnO 4 + 2H 2 O ALKALINE MEDIUM
Dichromate ion
MnO−4 −
+ 2H 2 O + 3e 
→ MnO 2 + 4H 2 O
3MnO 2 − + 4H+ 
→ 2MnO 4 + MnO 2 + 2H 2 O Prepared from chromite ore. MnO2 are used in batteries
2
It oxidises S2O32- to SO42-, I- to IO3-, 4FeCr2 O 4 + 8NaL 2 CO 3 + 7O 2 
→ 8Na 2 CrO 4 + 2Fe 2 O 3 + 8CO 2 Zeigler natta catalyst (TiCl4 + Al(CH3)3 used
in polythene)
2Na 2 CrO 4 + H 2 SO 4 
→ Na 2 Cr2 O 7 + Na 2 SO 4 + Na 2 SO 4 + H 2 O
PdCl2 is used as a catalyst in wakes process.
IN ACIDIC MEDIUM 2Na 2 Cr2 O 7 + 2KCl 
→ K 2 Cr2 O 7 + 2NaCl
Oxidising AgBr in photographic industry
MnO 4 + 8H+ + 5e− 
→ Mn 2 + + 4H 2 O Chromates and dichromates are interconvertible.
Properties Helps in production of iron and steels.
acidic medium
It oxidises I2 to I2, NO2- to NO3-, Fe2+ to Cr2 O 27 − 

+ H 2 O 
 2CrO 4 + 2H+
basic medium
Fe3+, C2O42- to CO2. dichromate ion Chromate ion
(orange red) (yellow)

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 COMPLEX SALT
Doesn't dissociate
completely into
COORDINATION COMPOUNDS STABILITY
FACTOR AFFECTING STABILITY
EDTA is used in
the ion estimation of
Charge density on the central metal ion.
Coordination hardness of
Counter Central M+ + nLx − 
→[ML n ] y −
Sphere Nature of ligands. water
ion Metal Atom
[ML n ] y −
→ 4K + + [Fe(CN) 6 ] 4 −
K 4 [Fe(CN) 6 ]  Stability
K=
HOMOLEPTIC HETEROLEPTIC HOMONUCLEAR HETRONUCLEAR
constant [M+ ][Lx − ] n
COMPLEX COMPLEX COMPLEX COMPLEX LIGAND
metal Carboxyl EDTA is used in
Cl CN
NH3
H 3N NC CN CO METAL CABONYL posses both s estimation of
H 3N NH3
NH3
Fe
OC CO CO and p bond. hardness of
CO CO
NC OC CO CO
O O POLYDENTATE AMBIDENTATE Back bonding water
H 3N NH3
H 3N NH3 CN MONODENTATE
CN CO
NH3 Cl OC
CO CN-, H2O, NH3, Cl-, C-C OOC
-
CH2-COO- M ←
 SCN Thiocyanate π∗
Br- etc π
-O O- NH-(CH2)-NH
M ←
 NCS Isothiocyanate π
OXALATE ION OOC
-
CH2-COO-
π C≡O
m
NOMENCLATURE EDTA is used in
estimation of
π hardness of
water
naming of Formula of Ligand Synergic Bonding
Mononuclear COmplex Mononuclear Complex

Naming of mononucelar
complex Central atom is listed first.
Cation is named first Ligands is alphabetical order. Coordination
Shape Hybridisation Example
Naming of ligands in Formula is enclosed in Number
alphabetical order square bracket. Tetrahedral 4 sp3 [CuCl4]2-
Anionic ligands end in -0, No space between ligand
Square dsp3
neutral and cationic are and metal. Planar 4 [Ni(CN)4]2-

same. Charge is indicated outside

Prefixes mono, di, tri, etc brackets. Trigonal sp3d PF5 COLOUR IN COMPLEX
Bipyramidal 5
are used. Charge on cotton(s)
Followed by roman numeral balanced by charge of Square sp3d2 BrF5 Caused by d-d transition.
5
in parenthesis. anion(s) Pyramidal colour is complementary
Example: Triamminetriaqua Example: sp3d2 SF6 to wavelength absorbed.
SPECTRO CHEMICAL SERIES Octahedral 6 d2sp3 [Co(NH3)6]3+
chromium (III) chloride
-
[Cr(NH3]3(H2O)3]Cl3 I+ < BR- < SCN- < CL- < S2- < F- < C2O42- < H2O < NCS- < EDTA4- < NH3 < EN < CN < CO
VALENCE BOND
THEORY

STRUCTURAL ISOMERS MAGNETIC PROPERTY

STERIO ISOMERS ISOMERISM Limitation
Ionisation isomer Only certain elements Magnetic moment = n(n + 2) BM
WARNERS THEORY
form coordination
OPTICAL ISOMERS Different ions are produced in
complex PARAMAGNETIC DIAMAGNETIC
LINKAGE ISOMR aqueous solution.
2+ Why coordination bonds
en Cl Cl Cl Ex: [CO(NH3)5(SO4)]
Occurs in ambidentate ligands Central metal ion shows primary and have directional property Ex- [CoF6]-3
Pt
Cl
Pt en secondary valances couldn't explain magnetic BONDING One or more than
No unpared electron
Ex: [CO(NH3)5(NO2)] and present
Primary valances are ionisable. and optical properties of THEORY one unpaired e-
present Ex- [Ni(CN)4]2-
en en [CO(NH3)5(ONO)] Solvate isomer Secondary valances are non-ionisable. complex.
Dextro Laevo Ions bonded to metal via secondary Ex- [CoF66]3-
Different in number of water
linkages have different spatial
GEOMETRICAL ISOMERS molecules attached.
arrangement LOW SPIN COMLEX
COORDINATION ISOMER HIGH SPIN COMPLEX
(i) COORDINATION NUMBER 4 Ex: [Cr(H2O)6)]Cl3 and [Cr(H2O)5-
Cordination enttites are ∆0 < Pairing Energy ∆0 < Pairing Energy
Cl]Cl3.H2O
H3N Cl H3N Cl BONDING THEORY Ex: [Cr(Cl)6]3-
different. Ex: [CrCl6]3-
Pt Pt Trigonal
CRYSTAL FIELD THEORY
Ex: [CO(NH3)6][Cr(CN)6] and tripyramidal
H3N Cl Cl NH3
[CO(CN)6][Cr(NH3)6] L
(cis-platin) (tran-platin) eg Tetrahedral Complex
Square L Octahedral Complex t2
Planar M 3
L L + ∆0 ∆ 2
L L 5 ∆ 4
(ii) Coordination number 6 0
∆t = ∆
M 5 t 5 0
L Octahedral
L L 2
Cl Cl NH3 NH3 L − ∆
H3N H3N O2N H3N Tetrahedral Average energy of 5 0 3
Cl Cl NH3 NO2 − ∆
L d-orbitals Average energy of 5 t
CO CO CO CO L L t2g
L d-orbitals
H3N NH3 H3N NH3 O2N NH3 O2N NO2 M
Splitting of d-orbitals e
NH3 Cl NO2 NH3 M
L L octahedral crystal field. d-orbitals in free ion
d-orbitals in free ion Splitting of d-orbitals
L L tetrahedral crystal field.
(cis-isomer) (trans-isomer)(fac-isomer) (mer-isomer) L L

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 X Cl
GENESIS OF CLASSIFICATION
Atomic
Mass
35.5
DOBEREINER'S TRIAD (1892) LAW OF OCTAVES (1865)
LOTHER MEYER MENDELEEV PERIODIC LAW
Middle element of each triads had J. Alexander Newlands arranged
Atomic an atomic weight about hay way Lothumeya found a periodc Properties of elements are a
the elements in increasing order
Number
17
between the atomic weight of of their atomic weight, every 8th pattern by plotting physical periodic function of their atomic
other two and also properties element had similar properties to properties like atomic volume, B.P weights.

Element Name between the other two.

Eg. (Li, Na, K), (Ca, Sr, Ba).
1st element.
Eg. Li resembles with Na.
and M.P against atomic weight. Mendeleev periodic elements
Eka-Aluminium as Gallium. CHLORINE

NEED FOR CLASSIFICATION MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

• Modern Periodic Law: Physical and chemical properties of

To make it easier to understand the chemistry of all elements are periodic functions of their atomic number.
the elements and their compounds separately. • Father of modern periodic table: Dimitri Mendeleev
• 7 Horizontal rows: Periods; 18 Vertical columns: Groups

TRENDS IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Properties Group Period 2

1 3
(a) Atomic Radius
Distance between the Atomic
nucleus and the outermost Increases Decreases
shell containing electron.

(b) Electron Gain Enthalpy

Energy released when an
electron is added to the Decreases Increases
valance shell of an isolated
Gaseous Atom.
(c) Ionisation Energy
Amount of energy required
to remove an electron from
an isolated gaseous atom.
Decreases Increases
7 4 NOMENCLATURE OF ELEMENTS (ATOMIC NO. > 100)

(d) Electronegativity Digit Name Abbreviation

Tendency of an element to Derived from Atomic
Decreases Increases
attract shared electrons number of Element 0 nil n
towards itself. 1 un u
using numerical roots

5
2 bi b

6
(e) Metallic Character Increases Decreases for 0 and number 1-9 3 tri t
nad 'ium' is added at the 4 quad a
(f) None-Metallic Character Decreases Decreases end of name 5 pent p
6 hex n
7 sept s
8 oct o
9 enn e
TRENDS IN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
STUDY OF PERIODIC TABLE
• The valance of representative elements is generally CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
equal to valence electron or (8-valence electrons).
•
•
Anomalous behaviour of 2nd period elements is due to
their small size, large charge/radius radio, high
AND S-Block Elements
(i) Electronic configuration: ns 1-2
P-Block Elements
(i) Electronic configuration: ns2np1-6
(ii) Consist of Group 1 (alkali metals) (ii) Consist of Group 1 to 18
pERIODICITY IN pROPERTIES
electronegativity and only 4 valence orbitals.
(iii) and also group 2 (alkali (iii) Also known as Representative
• Diagonal relationship: Li and Be is more similar to Mg as earth metals) or main group Elements.
Al respectively.
• The normal oxides formed by the element on wxtreme
D-Block Elements F-Block Elements
left is most basic (E.g. Na2O) and formed by elements on
(i) Electronic configuration: (i) Electronic configuration:
extreme right is most acidic (E.g. Cl2O7).
(n-1)d1-10ns0-2 (n-2)f1-14 (n-1)d0-1ns2
• Oxides of centre Elements are amphoteric (Eg. Al2O3) or (ii) Consist of Group 3 to 12 (z = 58-71) (z = 90-103)
neutral (Eg. N2O) (iii) also known as transition (ii) Consist of Lanthanoids and Actinoids
Elements (iii) also known as Inner
Amphoteric oxides are basic in acidic medium and vice transition Elements
versa.

•
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 TYPES OF BONDS KOSEL LEWIS APPROCH VALENCE BOND THEORY

THEORIES OF CO-VALENT BOND

VBT
HYDROGEN BOND CO-VALENT IONIC/ KOSSEL LEWIS APPROACH
IONIC/ELECTROVALENT ELECTROVALENT
BOND BOND
. Bond formed when the -ve BOND Atoms can combine either by A covalent bond is formed by the
end of one molecule . Bond formed by mutual transfer of e- or by sharing overlapping of two half filled atomic
. Strong electro static attracts the +ve end of sharing of e-. . Strong electro static of valence e- in order to have orbitals.
force of attraction other . Low M.P. and B.P. force of attraction an octet in their valence shell.
between positive and 1. Intermolecular: H- Bonding . Bad conductor of between positive and
negative ions. Type of overLapping
negative ions. occur within one single electricityv
. Crystalline in nature molecule. . Insoluble in Polar Solvents . Crystalline in nature Octet Rule
. High M.P and B.P 2. Intermolecular: H Bonding but soluble in non-polar . High M.P and B.P
. Soluble in Polar Solvents. between two different solvent. . Soluble in Polar Solvents.
Eg: NaCl, MgCl2 etc. LEWIS SYMBOLS Sigma(σ)
Eg: NaCl, MgCl2 etc. molecules of same or Ex: CH4, H2, Cl2.
diff. compounds. Valence e- are represented by Sidewise overlapping
dots around the element. Pi(π)
. s-s overlapping

: :

: :
H; Na; : Cl ; O , : N : Sidewise overlapping
TYPE OF CO-VALENT
BOND +
. Polar covalent bond
Eg: NH3, CHCl3 s s s-s overlap
. Non-polar covalent bond +
Eg: Cl2, CO2. . s-p overlapping
H H
+
C : : C p p p-p overlap
FAJAN'S RULE s s s-p overlap
H H

No compounds is 100% ionic or 100% s+ CHEMICAL BONDING

covalent s-
. Covalent nature ∝ size of anion +
AND +
Decreasing order of repulsive
. Covalent nature ∝ 1 + MOLECULAR STRUCTURE p-p overlap interaction:
lp - lp > lp - bp > bp . bp
size of cation p p
Cation Polarized anion
VSEPR THEORY
Polarization of anion by cation
HYBRIDISATION The shape of a molecule
depends upon the numbers
Concept of mixing of valence shell e- (B.P or
1 atomic orbital to l.p) surrounding in the
F.C. = r - L - B
BOND . Bond length:
2 Type of No. of No. of Arrangement
Molecule Bonding pair Lone Pair of e- pair
Shape Example form new hybrid
central atom

FORMAL Equilibrium distance

PARAMETERS CHARGE between the nuclei
of two bonded atom AB2E 2 1 Bent SO2O3 MOLECULAR ORBITAL
THEORY
bod length ∝ 1
bond order AB3E 3 1 Trigonal Formation of Molecular Orbitals
NH3 . MOT are formed the combinate of atomic orbitals.
No. of Bond Pyramidal
BOND ORDER between the two . No. of molecular orbitals = no. of atomic orbital
Atomic orbitals Molecular orbitals No. of combined.
atoms
& AB3E2 2 2 nodal plane
H2O +
Bent
Angle between the σ
0
MOT
BOND ANGLE orbitals containing
bonding e- pair around +
central atom. AB4E 4 1 1
See saw SF4 σ∗ Bonding molecular Anti bonding atomic
orbitals orbitals
BOND Amount of enrgy
+
ENTHALPY required to break 1
one mole of bonds.
AB3E2 3 2 px px
π

T-Shape ClF5
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
-
2 <
Product of the magnitude (σ1s < σ*1s < σ2s < σ*2s < σ2pz < (π2px = π2px)
of the AB5E 5 1 < (π*2px = π*2py) < σ*2pz
charge and distance Square XeF5 px px π∗
DIPOLE between centres Pyramid [For O2, F2, Ne2]
MOMENT of positive and negative +
charge. pz pz π
2 (σ1s < σ*1s < σ2s < σ*2s < [π2px = π2py] < σ2pz)
AB4E2 4 2 square XeF4 < (π*2px = π*2py) < σ*2pz
M = charge × Distance of Planner -
seperation pz pz π∗
3 [For B2, C2, N2]

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 RATE OF RXN
ORDER OF REACTION
for : aA + bB xX + yY MOLECULARITY EFFECTIVE
Sum of powers of concentration Order of a COLLISION
• Number of reacting species
−1 d[A] −1 d[B] 1 d[x] 1 d[y] of reactants in the rate law. reaction may Molecular collide
rate = = = = taking party in an
a dt b dt x dt y dt be whole number with sufficient
elementary reaction kinetic energy
or a fraction. • It cannot be zero or a and proper
fraction. ical orientation
A chem occurs
Molecularity = a + b n
aA + bB → Pr oduct reactiomolecules
INSTANTANEOUS when e with
AVERAGE RATE rate = k [A] x [B] y collid ient
RATE suffic y.
order = x + y Energ
− d[R] d[P] rate =
−∆R − ([R 2 ] − [R 1 ])
=
 cC + dD
aA + bB  COLLISI
ON
rate = = NCY
dt dt
∆t t2 − t1
FREQUE ns
r of collisio
Numbe t volume of
i
per un n mixture.
RATE CONSTANT RATE reactio
Reaction Unit of Rate Constant (K)
UNIT FOR NTH ORDER CONSTANT
ON
Zero Order mol L-1S-1
REACTION
RATE COLLISI FO R B I M OLECUL
AR

THEORY
ION
EXPRESSION REACT a / RT
First Order S-1
K = mol1 −n Litren − 1 sec−1 rate = K[A]x[B]y rat e = P ZABe
−E

Second Order mol-1 LS-1 rate ∝ A] x [B] y P → s t eric fac

tor

collisio
Z AB→ ncy
freque

INTEGRATED RATE EQUATION

Reaction Differential Integrated Half life

rate law rate law

d[R] [R] 0
Zero Order =−K Kt = [R]0 − [R] t 1/2 =
dt 2K
ARRHENIUS -K

}
slope =
R
 [R] 0 
First Order
d[R]
= − K[R] Kt = ln   t 1/2 =
0.693
EQUATION ln A

ln K
dt  [R]  K

time
Radioactive
decay are first
order reaction.

K  E a  T1 − T2 
FIRST ORDER log  1  =  
ZERO ORDER
 K 2  2.303  T1 T2 
Half life of nth
order reaction
slope = -K slope = -K

CHEMICAL KINETICS K = Ae-Ea/RT

ln (1/[R])

1− n
ln [R]0 t 1/2 ∝ [R 0 ] ln k = ln A −
Ea
[R]

time time
RT

FACTORS INFLUENCING RATE

A .......B

PSEUDO FIRST ORDER (Activated complex without catalyst)

A B
REACTION
Ea(f) without X
catalyst
E’a(f) with
• are not truely first order PRESENCE OF catalyst E’a(b) without
CONCENTRATION TEMPERATURE SURFACE AREA E’a(b) with catalyst

Potential energy
reaction but in certain CATALYST catalyst
conditions behaves like those. Reactants
A+B
• hydrolysis of ethyl acetate in
Higher the concentration Rate of reaction
acidic medium` Greater is the surface Rate of reaction
of reactants, faster is increases with increases in presence Products
area, faster is the
the rate reaction. increase in of a catalyst. AB + X
reaction rate.
temperature.
Course of reaction

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 VINYLIC
HALIDE
X
ARYL
HALIDE
BENZYLIC
HALOALKANE AND HALOARENE Soluble In
X organic
HALIDE solvent
X PROPERTIES
HALOALKANE, REACTIVITY ORDER
R-X ALLYLIC OF
X
HALIDE HALOALKANES R-I > R-BR >
X PHYSICAL R-CL > R-F
Compounds containing
Sp2 C-X bond Compounds containing
PROPERTIES
Sp3 C-X bond FOR SOME HALIDE
GROUP ORDER OF M.P.
AND B.P. IS POLARITY ORDER
CLASSIFICATION PROPERTIES 3°(HALIDE) >
2° (HALIDE) > R-I > RBR > RF > RCL >
OF 1° (HALIDE) RCL > RF RBR > R-F
MONOHALALKANE NATURE OF HALOARENES
EG. CH2X C-X BOND
B.P. a size of
anyl group HALOARENES
DIHALOALKANE ON THE BASIS Where X = Cl,
OF NUMBER OF Br, F, I as size M.P. OF NUCLEOPHILIC
EG. CHX2 of Halogen a SUBSTITUTION
HALOGEN ATOMS C-X Bond ORDER OF B.P. P-ISOMER>
Length O-ISOMER REACTION
TRIHALOALKANE 1 AR-I>AR-BR> TM-ISOMER
α
EG. CX3 Bond Fnthalpy A-CL>AR-F
Stablization of
molecule by
CHEMICAL Instability of delacalization
METHODS OF PREPARATIONS PROPERTIES phenyl cation of electron
Less reactive
than alkyl
PREPARATION OF Halide ELECTROPHILIC
HALOARENES SUBSTITUTION
PREPARATIONS OF REACTION
HALOALKANE HALOGEN EXCHANGE From amines by
ELIMINATION METHOD
sandmeyer's reaction
Haloarene are
NH 2 H
FORM ALCOHOLS R − X + NaI → R − I + Nax β α
o-4p-directing e.g.


+ NaNo 2 + HX  Halogenation
− HX
 C  C  → 

R − OH + HCL  → R − Cl + H 2 O SWARTS REACTION HALOALKANES


Zncl


Sulphonation


2

From Hydrocarbon By +BH + X–

R − OH + PCl5 
→ R − Cl + POCl3 + HCl H 3 C − Br + AgF Electrophilic Substitution • β-Hydrogen is Involved
273-278 k
AgBr + H 3 C − F β-Elimination
R − OH + SOCl2 
→ R − Cl + SO 2 + HCl CH 3 + X 2 WURTZ FITTIG
+
N 2x − SAYTZEFF RULE REACTION
FROM HYDROCARBON FROM ALKENE NUCLEOPHILIC Preferred product is the alkene
X + Na + R - X
Fe SUBSTITUTION which hos greater no. of Alkyl Ether
dark group attached to it.
Benzene Diazonium Salt
REACTION R
CH 3 −δ
Addition of Addition of +
N 2x −
nu + C +δ − X 
→ C − Nu + X −
Hydrogen Halide Halogens
X
SN1 REACTION FITTIG
−
• (CH 3 ) 3 CBr + OH → (CH 3 ) 3 C − OH + Br
From Alkane By free Radical H H O-halotoluene REACTION



Cu 2 X 2 • SN2 REACTION



C = C + HX Rate = k [Rx]
Halogenation C=C + • Follows First order Kinetics. 2
 





H +Br2 H
CH 3
• • CH 3 CH 2 Br + OH − → CH 3 CH 3 OH + Br −
←

Reactivity order of Alkyl Halide:

3° (halide) > 2° (halide) > 1° (halide) • X + 2Na
 

Rate = k [Rx][Nu-]
CH 4 
Cl
→ CH 3 Cl + CH 2 Cl2 + CHCl3 + Cl4
←

2
Hv C=C CCl4 X • Low concentration and weak nucleophile • Inversion of Configuration takes place
Ether

(P-halotoluene) + N2



•


Br − CH 2 − CH 2 − Br favour SN reaction Reactivity of Halides: 1°>2°>3°

• Partial Racemisation • Rate a strength of Nu-a
H X Vic-Dibramide • Rate of reaction depends on stability • Non-polar nu-, strong nu- and hight
X Where x = Cl1 Br of Carbocation Concentration of Nu- favour Sn2. +2Nax

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 Mono Saccharides HORMONES
Glucose Can't be hydrolysed further
Steroids
 Neutral: equal no.
Preparation:- Molecules that specialised
(simple sugar) of NH2 and COOH gp.
H+ glands synthesis generate
Sucrose  → Glucose + Fructose to control and regulate Polypeptides
Ex: Glucose, Fructose, Ribose  Basic: More no. of
H+
starch + NH 2 O → Glucose the functioning of specific
-NH2 then -COOH gp.
cells r organs.
Chemical properties:- Amino Acids  Acidic: more no.
∆, HI of-COOH than-NH2 gp
NH2OH Oligo Saccharides
Glucose Br2/water Polyhydroxy aldehyde
Yield two to ten mono

number of -NH2 and -COOH gp

Acetic anhydride saccharides (aldose) or ketone
(ketose) containing at
 Limitation of the open chain structure Ex: Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose

On the being of reactive

least one chiral center  Essential cann't be
glucose penta-acetate does note synthesized in the
react with hydroxyl amine thus indi- body.
cating the absence of free-CHO group. Poly Saccharides On the basis of
Polymer of α-amino acids  Non-essential
Yield a large number of mono contain -NH2 and -COOH group place of synthesis
 Cyclic structure of glucvose CARBOHYDRATE synthesized in the
saccharides units.
body
O Ex: Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen
H H H
H
H
4 1
HO O
OH H ON the basis  Fibrous: fibre like
H OH OH
structure
H
3 2 of shape
CH2OH H OH  Globular- Spherical
[a-D(+)- Glucose] [a-D - Glycopyranose] Classification
PROTEINS
(Fisher Formula) (Fisher Formula)

Starch Cellulose Glycogen

H 2 N − CH 2 − CO − NH − CH− COOH
Peptide linkage
CH3
Polyhydroxy Known as animal
Polymer of
aldehyde (aldose) starch.
d-glucose with
or ketone (ketose) Present in liver,
two components
containing at muscle and brain When a protein in its native form is
anylase and
amylopectin. least one subjected to physical change, globules unfold,
chiral center and proteins loses it's biological activity.

NUCLEIC ACID
BIOMOLECULES Nitrogenous
base
Pentose
sugar Phosphate GP
Enzyme N

Globular proteins specific for

VITAMINS Particles of nucleus of DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
particular reaction and for the cell responsible for (DNA)
particular substrate. heredity are called
chromosomes Nucleotide
Compound of sugar
β-D-2 deoxyribose

Mechanism of enzyme action Organic compounds required

in diet in small amounts to
RIBONUCLEIC ACID
(RNA) Nucleotide
perform specific biological COMPOSED OF NUCLEOTIDES
functions for maintenance CLASSIFICATION BASE AS FOLLOWS
Structure
Substrate
Enzyme and growth.
Product Compound of Sugar
Adenine (A)
•
Fat Soluble: Soluble in β-D-ribose
Base Base Base
fats and oils but Gwanine (G)
insoluble in water Cytosine (C)
(vitamins A, D, E and K) Sugar - Phosphate - [sugar - phosphate]-sugar
Thymine (T)
Water • Soluble: B group Types of RNA
and vitamin C are Uracil (U) Phosphodiester
soluble in water. m-RNA, r-RNA, t-RNA linakge

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 Organic Compound Qualitative Analysis
Classisfication Purification Quantitative Analysis
Methods
Acyclic or Halogens
open chain Carbon and Hyolrogen
Cyclic or Sodium Extract is acidified m-Mass of org. Compound
Alicyclic Compounds O Closed chain Distillation with conc. HNO3and 12 × m 2 × 100 2 × m 1 × 100 M1-mass of co2 produced

—
—
— %C = %H =
, treated with silver netrate.

—
44 × m 18 × m

—
M1-mass of H2 produced

—
Heterocyclie Differential Extraction Nitrogen
Homocyclic Sulphur
Aromatic Compunds Compounds
Compounds Sodium Exract is acidified Carius method Kjelalahes method m-Mass of org. Compound
with acctic acid and lead acctate N-Normality of acid
28 × V × 100 1.4 × N × V
Crystallisation is added %N = %N = V-Volume of acid
, o
22400 × m m
Benzenoid Hologen
compounds Nitrogen
NH2
Ring chain isomerism Chrmatiography Carius method
Non-benzenoid Sodium extract is boiled with iron at.mass of × M 1 × 100 m-Mass of org. Compound
compounds and (II) sulphate, then acidified with %halogen =
molar mass of Ag × m M1-mass of AgX formed
, o frt - I - ere ctclobutane Sublimation
conc. H2SO4
Sulphur

Phosphorous Carius method

Structural Isomerism 32 × m 1 × 100 m-Mass of org. Compound
Position Isomerism Tautomeris m Compound is traated with %S =
OH onidising agent, then boild 233 × m M1-mass of BaSo4 formed
OH O OH with HNO3 and ammonium rnolybdate.
CH3 - C - H CH2 = C - H Phosphorus
Compounds that true
same chemical formula Keto form enol form 62 × m 1 × 100 m-Mass of org. Compound
Propane - 1 - ol %P =
but different chemical Propan - 2 - ol Carbon & Hydrogen 222 × m M1-mass of Mg2p2O7 formed
bond arrangement by heating with copper (II) oxide
are called structural
isomers. metamerism Functional Isomersim
O
O Organic Reaction Bond
Fission
O Types
Parts of Iupac methoxy propane ethyoxyethane
propanal
CHO
Organic Chemistry : Homolytic
propanone free radicals are fomed
Name
Some Basic Addition reaction
Heterolytic
Chain Isomerism
. Prefix Principles and Techniques Substitution reaction Casbocation and carbanion
is formed
. Root word
Elimination reaction
. Primary suffix
. Secondary Suffix
Pentane 2 - merthylbutane 2,2 - Dimethyl propane Electromeric displacement
Effect Electrophile Nucleophile
Hyperconfugation Effect Electron deficient species. Electron rich species
Rules for IUPAC Naming delocalisation of s electrons of C-H
Inductive Effect
Leur's acid leur's acid
ISOMERISM bond of an allcye group directly Example-Cl+, Br+, NO2, Example- H 2 O , NH 3 , OH ,
Rule 1 : Select the longest possible attached to an atom with CH3, AlCl3, etc. Cl − , F − , CH 3 ,
unshared p-oroital. Partial displacement of sigma
carbon chain. electrons towards more
electronegative atom/Group.
Rule 2 : Numbering of parent chain is done Electromeric Effect It is a permanent effect
from that side where functional group, Stereo Isomerism Attacking Reagent
multiple bond and substituent get
the lowest number
In the presence of neagent, tI Effect -I effect Organic molecule → Intermedite 
→ Product(s)
Compounds that havesame the doubuor triple bond get
broken. It is a temperory CH 3 , C2 H 5 , etc −CN , −COOH , etc
Rule 3 : Lowest sun rule — If first substituent chemical formula and sequence effect.
gets same number from all side then
chain selected should have lowest sum of covalent bonds but differ
of all subtituend numbering. in spatial arrangement are Resonance Effect Corbocation Free Radical
Carbonion
Rule 4 : Alphabet rule — Naming should be done called stereo ismers • Carbon atom having a positive • Carbon atom having a negative • Carbon atom having 7
When a molecule can be represented change with only six electron electron in the valance shell
in alphabitical order if the numbering by two or more structures which is its valence shell.
charge on it.
is called carbon free radical.
of all substituent is same. have same arrangement of atoms • Carbonion carbon is sp3 hybridised.
• Carbocation carbon is sp2 • Carbon of free radical is Sp2
but differ in distribution of hybridisod. hybridised.
Rule 5 : It the molecule have more than one electrons is called resonance.
functional group, the functional group + + - - - -
Geometrical Optical Isomerism +R Effect -R effect + +
C > CH > CH2 > CH3 Ch 3 > CH2 > CH > C C > CH > Ch 2 > CH3
with highest prriority reievers the
lowest number. Isomerism halogen, -OH, OR -COOH, -CHO, -CN

anand_mani16 DR. Anand Mani https://www.anandmani.com/ https://discord.io/anandmani t.me/neetplus

 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES PREPERATION
STRUCTURE
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AMINES Colourless, soluble in water, decompose in
dry state
NH2 N2+X
-

NH3 Ammonia PHYSICAL STATE C6H5N2+Cl- is readily soluble in water

NaNO + 2HCl

2 → + NaCl + 2H2O
273 − 278K
Lower aliphatic amines are gases,

:
intermediate members are liquid
R-NH2 1° AMine (fishy odour), while higher members -

:
N2+X
are sold.

R2. NH 2° Amine SOLUBILITY DIAZONIUM SALTS

Lower aliphatic amines are soluble
R3N 3° Amine in wate due to H-bonding, while higher RN2+X
-

amines (> C6) are insoluble in water.

1
So lub ility ∝
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
:

Molecular weight

BOILING POINT X X
Ga
Primary and secondary amines tt
er
Cu ti on
+ HX ac
forms intermolecular H-Bonding m
an HX
Cu
+ Re
Re er
while tertiary does not. ac - ey
N X 2+ m
N F
tio
n 2 Sa
nd
CN
R R Primary > Secondary > Tertiary ∆
HBF
4 CuC
N/KC
N

θ > 109° H 3PO 2 +

+ H2
O
Ki
Cu
I
R -
OH
C
6H
OH
, H2O ∆ 5N
H
2, H
H5 +
Pyramidal geometry
+
C 3 Cu

N=N OH N=N NH2

OH

PREPARATION

• Reduction of Nitro Compounds. CHEMICAL REACTION ELECTROPHIC SUBSTITUTION

IN GASESOUS PHASE
Sn/HCl or Fe/HCl
RNO 2  → RNH 2 NH2
Or H /Pol
2 3° Amine > 2° Amine > 1° Amine > NH3
R-NC R-OH 3 Br2
• Ammonolysis CH H2O
+ BASIC NATURE Ca
rb
3
+
Cl O2
3 → R − N H X − 
NH
R − X  NaOH
→ R − NH 2 + H 2 O + Na+ X − yla KO HN Br
3 IN AQUEOUS PHASE Due to the presence of lone
te min H NH2
(CH3)2NH > CH3NH2 > (CH3)3N > NH3 pair on nitrogen amines are st e
(C2H5)2 > (C2H5)3N > (C2H5)NH2 > NH3
basic. R-NH2 O (i) CH3COCl
• Reduction of Nitriles Factors affecting basicity R'- (ii) Br2, CH3COOH
(i) Inductive effect C- (Major)
H /Ni
R − C ≡ N →
2 R − CH 2 − NH 2 Ac Cl
Na(Hg)/C H oh (ii) solvation effect
R'
+ yla
2 5
(iii) Steric hinderance tio O Br
OVERALL BASICITY ORDER n
Aliphatic Amine > Amines
R-NH-R' NH2 NH2 NH2
• Reduction of Amides R-NH-C-R'
O > Aromatic Amines NO2
HNO3
+ +
(i) LiAlH
R − C − NH 2 
(ii) H O
4 → R − CH − NH
2 2 NH2
H2SO4, 288 K NO2
2 (51%) (47%) (2%)
TEST FOR AMINES NO2
• Hoffmann Bromamide Degradation reaction
O NH2
R − C − NH 2 + Br2 + 4NaOH 
→ R − NH 2 + Na 2 CO 3 + 2NaBr + 2H 2 O HINSBERG'S TEST (i) CH3COCl
(ii) Br2, CH3COOH
one carbon less amine is formed as compared to amides
NO2
• Gabriel Phthalimide synthesis
O O NH2
PRIMARY AMINE SECONDARY AMINE TERTIARY AMINE
C C H2SO4

N-H
KOH
 → NaOH
N - R  → RNH2 SO2Cl SO2-NHR SO2Cl SO2-NR2 SO2Cl
RX
C C (1° Amine)
+ RNH2 + R2NH + R 3N No Reaction SO3H
O O
ppt. soluble in ppt. insoluble in
CH3/AlCl3
No reaction
or CH3OCl/AlCl3
alkali alkali (due to salt formation)
Aromatic primary amines cannot be prepared by this method.

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 CARBOXYLIC ACIDS ALDEHYDES AND KETONES
ALDEHYDE, KETONES AND
CARBOXYLIC ACID
STRUCTURE USES GENERAL FORMULA CLASSIFICATION

R - C - OH
. Rubber, Textiles.
O . Food Industry. Aldehyde: Ketones
Aliphatic Aromatic
. Manufacture of O O
Soap and Detergent.
CLASSIFICATION R-C-H R - C - R'
where R is alkyl and H is where R and R' can be
Hydrogen. same or different.
Aliphatic Aromatic
CH3COOH PREPARATIONS CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
COOH CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
PREPARATIONS . Esterification . Oxidation of alcohol Aldehyde > Ketones


RCOOH + R ' OH 
 RCOOR '+ H 2 O K 2 Cr2 O 7 + H 2 SO 4
1° Alcohol 
→ Aldehyde 1
Re activity ∝
. Ring Substitution in Aromatic Acids: K Cr O + H SO
2° Alcohol 
2 2 7 2 4
→ Ketone stearic factor and
Odour: Lower Aldehyde have an
. Oxidation of 1° alcohols COOH group is deactivating and K 2 Cr2 O 7 + H 2 SO 4 impleasant odour. electronic factror
(i)alk. KMnO
R − CH 2 OH 
→ RCHO + H 2 O
RCH 2 OH 
+
4 → R − COOH meta directing. COOH K Cr O + H SO
(ii) H 3 O R − CH(OH)R ' 
2 2 7 2 4
→ R − CO − R '+ H 2 O
2° alcohol
Br2 Physical State: HCHO is a gas. All Nucleophilic Addition-reaction
. Hydrolysis of Nitriles and Amides
+ COOH ∆ . Ozonolysis of alkenes other aldehyde and ketone upto C11
H or
R − C ≡ N + 2H 2 O  → RCOOH + NH 3
FeBr3,
Br OH
− H 2 O, Zn are volatile liquids. C=O + CN C
OH CH 3 − CH = CH − CH 3 + O 3 
→ 2CH 3 CHO CN
COOH
. Hydrolysis of Esters . From Gem-Dihalides:
H+ Solubility: Larger Carbonyl compounds SO2Na
RCOOR '+ H 2 O → RCOOH + R ' OH R' C=O + NaHSO3 C
Conc. HNO3 aq. KOH
R' are soluble in water due to the OH
NO2 R-C-Cl  →
. From Grignard Reagent Conc. H2SO4 ∆ Or Ba(OH) 2
R-C=O formation of H-bond.
. Reduction of Carboxylic Acid Cl C=O + H2N-Z C=N-z+H2O
Dry ether
CO 2 + RMgBr  → RCOOH + Mg(OH)Br (Aldehyde when Boiling Point and Melting Point: Boiling
+ H , H2O
O R' = H Ketone when Point or Melting point ∝ Molecular
(i) LiAlH /ether R' = alkyl group) weight
R-C-OH 
4
+
→ R − CH 2 OH
(ii) H 3 O
. Hydroboration Oxidation of Alkynes 1 Clemmensen Reduction:
∝
Branching
. Decarboxylation of Carboxylic Acid B2H6
 → R-C=C-H Zn − Hg
O
R-C≡C-H THF C=O →
HCl
CH2 + H2O
Terminal alkyne H BH2 Eue to electron donating alkyl group
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES NaOH or
R-C-OH 
CaO
→ R − H + Na 2 CO 3 -
group ketones have higher boiling point
H2O2 OH-
than aldehye.
. Reaction involving cleavage of
R-CH2=C-H R-C=C-H
-OH group Reactivity: It depends on the nature Wolff-kishner reduction
O O H OH of alkyl group. Smaller the group,
. Physical State: Polar Substances soluble in (i) NH − NH
R-C-NH2 . Rosenmund Reduction more reactive will be compound. C=O 
2 2
KOH/ethyl glycol
→ CH2 + N2
organic solvents.
O O
. Acidity: The acidic character is due to the H , Pd-BaSO
R-C-OH R-COCl R-C-Cl 
2 4
→ R-C-H
presence of resonance.
⊕ O DISTINCTION TEST FOR Aldol Condensation
: :

R-C-O-H R-C-OH
(R-CO)2O ALDEHYDE 2CH3CHO CH3CH(OH)CH2CHO
:O O . Hell-volhard Zelinsky Reaction
:

(i) X , Re d P
R-CH 2 -OH 
2 → R − CH(x)COOH TEST ALDEHYDE KETONES ∆-H2O
. Boiling Points: High boiling point due to (ii)H O 2
intermolecular hydrogen bonding. DISTINCTION TEST Schiff's Pink No colour
FOR CARBOXYLIC ACID reagent Colour CH3-CH=CH-CHO
COMPARISON OF METLING AND BOILING POINT OF ACIDIC ORDER
Fehling's Red ppt. No ppt.
AROMATIC AND ALIPHATIC ACID
. Brisk effervescence of CO2 gas with solution Cannizaro reaction
NaHCO3
. Melting Point and Boiling Point of aromatic Tollen's Silver No ppt.
acid greater than aliphatic acid. Caboxylic Acid > Phenol > Alcohol . Gives buff coloured ppt. with FeCl3
Conc. KOH
2HCHO  → CH3OH + HCOOK
reagent Mirror

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 ELECTROPHILIC REACTIONS OZONOLYSIS ANTI-MARKOVNIKOV EFFECT
Substitution Reaction Halogenation R1 R3
CH3—CH==CH2
cold conc.
CH3—CH—CH3 R2 O MARKOVNIKOV'S RULE / KHARASH EFFECT/
From unsaturated hydrocarbons + O3 R3

—
1. INITIATION 2. PROPAGATION 3. TERMINATION R1 APNTI-PEROXIDE EFFECT
O—SO3H R2 R4 O— O R3
hv CH3—CH==CH2
H2O
CH3—CH—CH3
R3 “Negative part of the This mechanism proceeds via
CH2==CH2
Pt/Pd/Ni
CH3—CH3 Cl2 Cl + Cl Cl4 + Cl CH3 + HCl Cl + Cl Cl2 H+
addendum gets attached to free radical mechanism

—
H2
CH3 + Cl CH3Cl OH O
the carbon containing lesser

Zn
CH3 + Cl—Cl CH3 + Cl and the minor product via

2O
R4 number of hydrogens”.

H
Markovnikov effect becomes
+ (I) is major product.
R3
major product.
From alkyl halides
From acidic dehydration of alcohols (II) is major product.
Combustion Controlled Oxidation O
Cu/523 K
Zn
CxHy + (x + y/4)O2 xCO2 + CH4 + O2 2CH3OH R4
CH3—CH2—Cl H+ CH3CH3 + Na 10 atoms HO—CH2—CH3
conc. H2SO4
+ H2O
y/2H2O Mo2O3
CH4 + O2 HCHO + H2O
2CH3—Na CH3CH3 From vicinal dihalides
OXIDATION
dry ether
WURTZ RX dil. KMnO4
Isomerization Aromatic Reforming H H CH2==CH2 + H2O CH2— CH2 Asymmetrical alkene
273 K

—
Br—CH2—CH2—Br
Zn + ZnBr2
OH OH Symmetrical Alkene
From carboxylic acids Anhyd. Alcl3 Cr2/O3 H H
2CH3(CH2)4CH3 +
(Kolbe's Electrolytic Method) HCl 10-20 atm
From alkyl halides
773 K POLYMERIZATION CH2==CH2 + HBr BrCH2—CH3 CH3—CH==CH2 + HBr
Zn
CH3—CH2—Cl H+ CH3CH3 + Na alc. KOH
H H
n—
( CH2==CH2—
)
High temp.
—
( CH2— CH2—
)n
Reaction with Steam Pyrolysis CH3—CH2—X + Hx High pressure
H H catalyst (I) CH3CH2BrCH3 (II) CH3CH2CH2Br
C6H12 + H2
2CH3—Na CH3CH3 Ni
WURTZ RX
dry ether CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2 C6H14 773 K C4H8 + C2H6 + H2 From alkynes
AROMATIC REFORMING
C3H4 + C2H4 + CH4 R2 R1
R2C CR1 + H2
Pd/C CH2==CH2 + Br2 CH2—CH2

—
H H
PREPARATION CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Br Br

PREPARATION ADDITION OF HYDROGEN

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES HALIDES
ALKANES ARE
ALKANES
HYTROPHOBIC CnH2n-2
Sawhorse Projection
ALKENES Increase
in branching
Alkenes PHYSICAL HUCKEL'S RULE OF AROMATICITY
leads to
H H
have a short PROPERTIES decrease
Eclipsed Staggered CONFORMERS C C odour in boiling 1. Planarity 2. Delocalisation of
GENERALLS, PHYSICAL H H
NON-POLAR IN point of π-electrons
NATURE PROPERTIES
Newman Projection 3. Presence of (4n + 2)-p electrons
First few Alkenes
H
members are are insoluble
HH in water but
H H gases and

BOILING POINT BOILING POINT H

H
H H
HYDROCARBONS rest are
liquids &
solids.
soluble
non-plar
solvents
CARCINOGENICITY AND TOXICITY

INCREASES WITH DECREASES WITH H H

H
INCREASE IN
INCREASE IN Staggered Eclipsed
BRANCHING

1, 2-benzanthvacene 1, 2-benzpyrene
ARENES Aromatics are toxic in nature
and most of them are classified
ALKYNES HC CH as carcinogens.
CnH2n-2
First few Boiling PREPARATION
members of point of alkene CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
alkynes are increases as
the chain length
gases
increases Decarboxylation of carboxylic acids CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Immiscibel
in water but
PHYSICAL
HC CH COONa + Na2CO3 completely
— NaOH soluble in
PROPERTIES ∆ Electrophilic Addition polar
H2 HCl/CH3COOH Bustitution Reaction
Pt, Pd, Ni H2O Reaction Characteristic
Most of Reduction of Phenol Using Zn Dust smell
Boiling point Br2
them are Hg2+, H+
decreases with
increase in odourless
+ ZnO
the branching
Soluble in except for CH2==C—H —OH Zn
none-polar CH==CH
thyne CH2==CH2
—

CH2==CHCl ∆
—
—

soluents and
Br Br
OH PHYSICAL
insoluble PROPERTIES
in water H2
Conc. HNO3

Anhyd. Alcl3 + CH3Cl

Conc. H2SO4 (323-333 K) Conc. H2SO4 + SO3 ∆ 3Cl2, UV
Anhyd. Alcl3 +
CH2—CH2 CH3COCl 3H2, Ni 500 K Highly
POLYMERISATION
PREPARATION Anhyd. Alcl3 notatile
+ Cl2 in nature
From
Calcium Carbide CaO + 2H2O C2H2 + Ca(OH)2 O Cl
Burn with

—
Cl— Cl

—
—
Iron tube
— ) —HSO3 —CH3 — a sooty
—C—
High temp./
—Cl
Cyclic
From alc. KOH
LINEAR High pressure ( C==C—C==C— —NO2 CH3 — flame
H H H H Cl —
polymerisation
Vicinal dihalides BrCH2—CH2Br CH CH + 2H2O+ KBr Red hot 873 K POLYMERISATION
∆ Cl

—
Cl

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