TOPIC

&

ENERGY FOR
BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
Photosynthesis In plants

·
plants are
autotrophic organisms , they make their own energy-containing organic compounds out of inorganic sources e .
.
g 10 & CO2 , mostly by photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process of trapping energy of the Sun using Chlorophyll & use it to convert (O2 & water into Simple Sugars

Energy captured is transfered into chemical bonds of organic molecules such as

glucose & starch

·
Glucose & starch are used as an
energy source and as the building blocks of other important molecules

Carbon
Dioxide + Water lightEreg Glucose + Oxygeas
~ CH ,20
Gla + 61 , 0 + 602

The
energy from light is used break the H-0 bonds water molecules the H released combine glucose
·
to
strong in , using to with CO2 to make

·
Waste product is O2 that is released into the atmosphere

Chloroplast In Photosynthesis

Chloroplast is found of the plant they're involved in the process of photosynthesis

·
an
organelle usually in the
green part ,

Chloroplast have an envelope shape with an inner & outer membrane

Inner hold inwards to form thylakoids that stack top of other to form this is
graum green pigment
·
membranes can can on each a
, where

cheorophyll is found ,
and are positioned in this way for the best chance for trapping light

·
The graums are connected by inter gramum lamellae ,
this maximises light & functions as efficiently as possible

They're surrounded buid matrix Stroma that contains needed for the of photosynthesis &
glycose
·

by a
enzymes process produce

Chlorophyll

·
Chlorophyll is made of the pigments chlorophyll al blue-green) , Chlorophyll b (yellow-green) & carotenoids (orange Carotene &
yellow Xanthophyll) and

phalophytin /grey pigment) which is a breakdown product of the other

phytosynthetic pigments

Chlorophyll is the
·

a most abundant cheorophyll pigment

Each & absorbed & used for photosynthesis

pigment absorbs light from Specific creas of the spectrum allowing energy from the light falling plant to be be
·

captures , more on the can

Absorption & Action Spectra

·
The absorption Spectrum describes the range of amount of light of different wavelengths that a
photosynthetic pigment absorbs as a percentage

·
The action Spectrum shows the rate of photosynthesis against different wavelengths of light

·
Action Spectra Shows that the rate of photosynthesis is
closely related to the combined absorption spectrum of all the photosynthetic pigments in a plant

Range of photosynthetic pigments big of wavelength of light to plants

·
make a portion available

as a result
giving them an adaptive advantage

Absorption Spectrum
Action Spectrum
 Chromatography

Can &
extract the
pigments from the plant by grinding leaves with
filtering the filtrate looks
·

up propanone , green

Paper chromatography Shows the several different colored pigments in a

plant

Solvent the the different colored pigments

separating
·

moves up paper ,

Con the RF & tem know RF in solvent

calculate value to of pigments the same
·

can compare values

RF Value = Distance Travelled By Solute (Photosynthetic Pigment

Distance Traveled By Solvent

·
RF value is between O &

Photosystems

The absorption of knows (PSI) & photosystem (PSII

photosynthetic #I
·

pigments carry out the

light in 2 distinct chlorophyll complexes as
photosystem I

Each different pigments slightly different

·

system contains a combination of chlorophyll so they can absorb light in area of the Spectrum

& PSI can absorb light from wavelength 700nm & PSII can absorb light from wavelength 680 nm

·
They are laund in different places as PSI are found on the inter-graum lamellae & PSII on the granum ; they also have different functions in
photosynthesis

Biochemistry Of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis occurs in two Stages ,

the light-dependent reaction (only occurs in light) and the light-independent reaction (doesn't require light

The light-dependent used

reaction materials in the
light-independent reactions
·

produces

water

citur it

morphol a
reduceda
PSI and
PSII
photophosphorylation
Light-Dependent
Reactions

cittuses co Calvin Lye Light -

Independto
Reactions

Light -

Dependent StageO f Photosynthesis

·
Occurs in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast

consists of 3 Stages : 1 .
Excitation of photosystems by light energy
.
2 Production of ATP via an electron transport chain

.
3 Reduction of NADPT & the photolysis of water
 NON-CYCLIC
PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION

1
Excitation of Photosystems By Light Energy

Photosystems absorb photons from light , causing electrons within the photosystem to get excited

These excited electrons are ejected & transfered to carier molecules within the thylakoid membrane called electron acceptors

2
Production Of ATP Via An Electron Transport Chair

·
Excited electrons from PSI are transfered to an electron transport chain within the thylakoid membrane

+
As electrons through the chain they H thylakoid
pass transport loose
energy , allowing ions into the

The build of (HT) within the thylakoid

up protons creates on electrochemical gradient

+
H ions ATP
return to the Stroma along the
proton gradient the Synthase is chemiosmosis
·

via
enzyme , this

It ATP of (ADP + ATP

ions are used
by Synthasis to do
photophosphorylation Catalysing the
Synthesis ATP Pi c
·

3
Reduction of NADPF & The Photolysis Oh Water

·
Excited electrons from PSI maybe transfered to a carier molecule called NADPT , Coming NADPH as it has been reduced (gained an electron

·
The electrons h om
lost PSI are replace by de-energized electrons from PSI ,
lost electrons from PSII are replaced by electrons released by water via photolysis

PSII contains enzymes that split water in the process photolysis

+
2420 < 44 + 4 + 0

CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION

Only uses PSI

·
No photolysis of water & generation of NADPH

Small amounts of ATP produced that can be used in

light-independent stage o rus guard cells

Excited electrons are brought back to the Same Chlorophyll molecule

ADP + Pi SATP
Electron
Transport Chain
Electroa

↓
~

e-

Light
-v

Chlorophy 3 e

Cyclic Non-cyclic
 Light-IndependentStage Of Photosynthesis

Uses the of & ATP

·

reducing power NADDH to produce carbohydrates

·
The collective stages of reactions are called the Calvin Cycle & takes place in the Stroma of Chlorophyll

·
The
C a l v i n cycle Consists of 3 Steps :

1) Carboxylation o ribulose bisphosphate

2) Reduction of glycerate-3-phosphate

3) Regeneration of ribulose bisphosphate

Carboxylation of RuBP

Starts
·
of with 5C
the compound ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)

·
The enzyme RuBP Carboxylase (Rubisco) Catalyses the attachment of CO2 molecules to RUBP

·
This produces a 62 compound that are unstable & breaks down into 232 compounds called glycerate
-

3-phosphate (GP)

2
Reduction O f GP

Using NADPH & ATP ,

GP is Converted into GALP

·
When NADPH is reduced H atoms are transferred to the GP compound while ATP provides the energy

Each GP I & 1 ATP to produce 1 GALP , 6 of molecule

Molecule needs NADPH therefore single cycle needs each
·
a

3
Regeneration of RuBP

·
1 of the 6 GALP molecules can split to form half a
sugar molecule

> I &
cycles are needed to make a
single glucose molecule more to produce polysaccharides like Starch

The SGALP form 5x3C

remaining are recombined to 3 RuBP molecules < 3x5
·

The recombination of GALP to RuBP requires deived from hydrolysis of ATO

for energy the
·

CO2

&

BuBP Carbon %
AT Fixation
-

GP
Recombination

S
ADP + Pi < Of RuBP Reduction ATP

of GP CADP + Pi

! Sugar r IXGALP 2
NADPH

GALP1 SNADP
 Limiting Factors In Photosynthesis

Factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis are :

Light , CO2 , Temperature

Light

Light affects the amount of Chlorophyll which are excited the amount of NADPH & ATP

⑤ I
Rate of photosynthesis = Rate of respiration as O2 produced hom photosynthesis is used in respiration : On produced is zer

2
②
As 114 then ROP4
, as LI is the limiting factor

&
D
Light Intensity 3
As LI ↑ ,
the Rop plateaus due to LI no longer the limiting factor , either CO2 conc or temp

CO2

Affects the amount of lixing in the Calvin Cycle to make 6) compound from RuBO
M

· 1
As
2

CO2 cone increases Carbon lixation in the Calvin Cycle Converting RuBP to eventually GP which converts into GALP , CO2 is the
limiting factor

2 As
·
CO2 conc increases ,
rate of photosynthesis plateaus due to CO2 no longer the limiting factor ,
either temperature or light intensity
CO2 Concentration

Temperature

Affects rate of of involved is the Calvin Cycle & little in the light-dependent
reaction
the enzymes reaction
·

1 As temperature increases rate of reaction of enzymes increases up to optimum temperature: rate of photosynthesis increases· Temperature is the limitingfactor

3 2 At is
optimum temperature the rate of photosynthesis at its highest , temperature is no longer the limiting factor , either CO2 conc or light intensity

3 As temperature increases the rate of photosynthesis decreases as

enzymes are denatured
 Cellular Respiration

Process of which energy from food molecules is transferred to ATP

·
The
respiratory substrate is the food substrate that is broken down and it's often glucose

&
Oxygen from the air is used up CO2 & 120 are
formed as waste products

Aerobic Respiration : Form of cellular respiration that takes place in the presence of oxygen
Glucose Carbon
+
Oxygen Dioxidet Water

CoMizOo + 60"6lOz + 6H20 +AtP HE-2880kJ (exothermic)

When is needed 3rd phosphate bond Atpase forming ADP & P:

energy the is broken
by hydrolysis reaction catalysed by the enzyme
·

a , ,

The formation of ADP hom ATP is exothermic (gives out healt

Small packets of AMP is hydrolysed to prevent large amounts of energy loss &f the rise of temperature could denature proteins & damage cells

P P P
ATP
·

ATP is usedl o r : -
Active Transport
PentosaSugar A

Thermoregulation

PP
u e Pi
-

Anabolic Reactions
ADP
PentosaSugar A
t Pi

movement
-

·
Aerobic respiration takes place in 4 Steps :

I Glycolysis

2 Link Reaction

3 Krebs Cycle

4 Electron Transport Chain Oxidative Phosphorylation

Investigating Factors Affecting The Rate Of Respiration

·
A respirometer is a piece of apparatus used for measuring the rate of respiration in whole organisms or cultures of cells

·
Measures the uptake of On or the output of CO2

Soda lime or KOM (potassium hydroxide) absorb the CO2 :

any changes in volume will be due to the uptake of Or

& Pressure reduces sot h e fluid moves towardst h e tube the

, containing organism

Can
change temperature to measure effect rate of respiration by changes in uptake of O by Organism
·

on

Glycolysis

·
The breakdown of respiratory substrates staggered so released isn't lost
are energy

NAD is an
organic , non-protein molecule that can accept a pair of hydrogen atoms
, Coming redNAD or NADH

FAD is like NAD ,

can accept hydrogen atoms Can forms redFAD or FADH2

Glycolysis occurs in the

Cytoplasm of the cell of doesn't require oxygen
 1) Phosphorylation

A hexose typically glucose phosphorylated 2 ATP molecules hexose

sugar is by forming a bisphosphate

This makes the molecule unstable & more reactive and also prevents it diffusing out of the cell

2 Lysis

·
The nexose bisphosphate molecule Splits into 2 molecules of GALP

The GALP is then converted GP of

into by the addition another phosphate group

3) Oxidation

+
hychogen atoms are removed from each 3C compound by NAD reducing it to NADH

This forms 2 molecules of NADH

4) ATP formation

some released fron intermediate is used ATP

energy Sugar to directly Synthesis

4 molecules of ATP are

generated during glycolysis by Substrate level phosphorylation (2ATP per Sugar (

This direct formation of ATP is called substrate level phosphorylation

ATP Formation
4 ADP + 4
2ATP S2ADP + 2Pi
C4AT
Pi
Losis
GuncoSe phosphorylation) Hexose Bisphosphate & 2 GALP 32 G P .
92
Pyruvate
2
NADTZNADHOxidation

Glucose
ATP ATP

r
ADP + p; CADP + Pi Hexose Bisphosphate

L &

GALP
& -

Pin C
j Pin GP
NAD NAD

> NADH
W NADH

ABP + Pi ADP + Pi
2x
Appr Pyruvate X2
c ATP

Anaerobic Respiration

Tatesplace absenceo oa it o

Takes place cytoplasm only 2 Ato + 2XNADH SXATP

in where glycolysis
=
occurs net
, energy :
 In Mammals ·

Muscles doesn't
get enough to
supply their needs during extraneous exercise
·

oxygen

Produces lactic acid that can be converted back into glucose by Oxygen repay

Oxygen Repay

Glucose 6 C 2 Lactic Aca b c

2Pyruvate3C
Aerobic Respiration Muscle Fatigue (pH Lowers

In Plants &
Fungi :

Produces CO2 & Ethand

Used in brewing& baking

CoMicOo <2Etan + 2CO2

Link Reaction

·
Occurs the
in fluid matrix of the mitochondria

·
Occurs after glycolysis of before the Kreb Cycle

·
The pyruvate crosses into the Mitochondria into the buid matrix ,
a carbon atom is removed decarboxylated and forms with O2 to Com CO2

·
The 2) molecule join with
Coenzyme A to Com Acetyl Coenzyme A CoA

Simultaneously pyruvate is oxidised , Losing H" to NADE to form NADH ,

this is later used in the electron transport chain to produce ATP

2
Occurs twice
due
to
formed from 1g Lucase molecule
·

pyruvate
Apt
NAD

Py ruvate >
&
3C
Acetyl CoA

Coenzyme CoA

Krebs Cycle

Occurs in the fluid matrix of the Mitochondria and is after the Link Reaction

Acetyl COA 2C joins with a 47 compound to form citrate 6(

The 6C compound can now go through decarboxylation and oxidation to for a SC compound

The SC compound can now go through decarboxylation and oxidation to for a 4C compound

For Krebs through 2 producing 3 NADH 2CO2 I ATP & /FADH2 For 1 6 NADH 4 CO2 1 ATP & I FADH
·

each glucose molecule , cycle goes cycles ,

each one , ,
:
glucose Molecule :
, ,
 Acetyle CoA 2C
DN , DNA ,
FN
&

& Decay , NAD At

+ FADN2
6C NADH
Citrate ,

NAD

h
NADH2
+
FAD

gar
Nabh
FADH22
ADD

ATP2
Nad"
nabrc

The Electron Transport Chair

The NADH & FADH2 from glycolysis & Kreb phosphorylation in

made He
Cycle is used with O2 ATP by oxidative the election
·

transport chan

·
to make ,

The electron transport chair involves electron carier molecules passing down electrons from NADH or FADH2 , helping At ions create ATP by Chemiosmosis

ATP production requires Oxygen to produce H2O & ATP by oxidative phosphorylations

Takes place on the Cristal (inner holds of the inner membrane of the mitochondrial

The 4
+
Main Electron Carrier : 1 COA NAD & FAD that accept H Ions to allow electrons to pass through the electron transport chain

2
Cytochromes

3 Oxidase
Cytochrome

4) Oxygen : It's the final electron carier that will also react with It to for water [02 + 24
+
+ 2e < H20

Chemiosmosis occurs due to let ions being actively transported into the inner membrane space from the matrix by energy provided by the electrons that passed along the transport chain

gradient high Inner

+
·

The H ions more against a proton

:
membrane space ,
Lower : Matrix

It ions in the inner membrane space have a

tendency to more down by a
proton motive force down the proton gradient into the matrix So they pass through pores that have Alpsynthase enzymes

> As electrons from NADH Or FADH2 are passed through the electron transport chair , more
It is pumped into the inner membrane space.: more ATP is made by helping Apsynthase

From 1 31 ATP molecules but realistically it should be 38 ; 36 because

glucose molecule are made 2ATP molecules are used to transport NADH Produced in
glycolysis through the mitochondria
·

1 NADH molecule 2 5 & 1 FADH2 molecule 1 5

make .
glucose molecule make .
glucose molecule

Yield of ATP is usually lower than expected because :

-
It leaks across the membrane , reducing number of It to generate proton motive force

Some ATP produced is used to actively transport pyruvate into the Mitochondria

Some ATP produced is used to transport NADH Produced glycolysis through Mitochondria
-

in the