Pheromones and Behaviour
Criteria B
● Ap heromone is a chemical that an animal produces which changes the
behaviour of another animal of the same species.
● Pheromones are believed to play a role in signalling between members of the
same species to affect behaviour.
● There are two types of pheromones in animals: primer and signalling
pheromones. The former cause slow, long-term changes such as hormonal
effects. The latter has quick behavioural effects like mating.
● We haven’t yet found a human pheromone but psychologists believe that they
do exist and influence behaviour.
Information for Wedekind’s study
● Some psychologists believe that behaviours are a product of natural selection,
that only the most beneficial traits are passed down to offspring. One such
behaviour is mating.
● A group of genes called Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) are
important for the immune system.
● The more different the MHC genes, the more immunity an individual has
against illnesses.
● Thus, Wedekind believed that we are attracted to partners who have different
MHC genes by their smell.
Criteria C
Study #1: Wedekind’s “Smelly T-Shirt”
Aim
To investigate whether MHC affected mating choice.
Procedure
1. University students, males and females, were the participants. Males were told
to wear a shirt for two nights and keep it neutral-smelling.
2. Women then had to rank the smell of the t-shirts.
Findings/Results
● Women gave a higher score to the body odour of males who had different MHC
genes.
● This was the opposite when women were given oral contraceptives which
suggests that MHC might influence mate choice.
Conclusion
● Attraction is influenced by biological factors.
● Women preferred males with different MHC because it would increase the
immunity of potential babies.
Criteria D
Evaluation of study
Reliable
● The study has been replicated several times with similar results. This shows
that the results are reliable.
Reductionist
● There are other factors which influence attraction such as social and cultural
factors.
● By suggesting that attraction is only due to MHC genes, attraction and mating
is oversimplified.
Double-blind
● The experiment was double-blind which means neither the researchers nor
participants knew whose shirts they were being exposed to.
● This was to eliminate demand characteristics because the participants wouldn’t
know what the desired behaviour was.
Meets ethical standards
● Consent forms were signed.
Sample bias
● Only university students were used. They aren’t representative of the entire
population.
Criteria C
Study #2: M
cClintock (1971)
Aim
To investigate whether menstrual synchronicity took place when women lived in the
same house.
Procedure
1. Female college students were participants. They were given questionnaires
about the date of their menstruation.
Findings/Results
● There was a significant increase in synchronisation of menstruation dates over
time.
Conclusion
● McClintock argued that this synchronisation of menstrual dates was because of
pheromones but she didn’t research a particular pheromone.
Criteria D
Evaluation of study
Unreliable (this is a HUGE limitation so spend tonnes of time on it)
● Several studies have been done such as Trevathan et al’s study on lesbian
partners and Yang & Schank’s study with Chinese dorm women. The results
were inconclusive.
Sample bias
● Only university students were used for the study. They aren’t representative of
the entire population.
Criteria C
Study #3: Z
hou et al. (2014)
Aim
To investigate if androstadienone and estratetraenol influenced human sexual
behaviour.
Procedure
● Participants were heterosexual and homosexual men and women.
● They had to smell either pheromone and there was a control condition too.
● They were shown stick figures walking and had to determine their gender.
Findings/Results
● Smelling androstadienone made heterosexual females and gay males to see the
stick figure as masculine.
● Smelling estratetraenol made heterosexual males and lesbian females to see
the walkers as feminine.
Conclusion
● The two potential pheromones influence communication of gender information
in a sex-specific manner.
Criteria D
Evaluation of study
Artificial environment
● The participants had to smell a high amount of pheromones. This is not
realistic at all.
Reliable measure of sexual behaviour
● Perceiving a person’s walk as feminine or masculine isn’t a very reliable
measure of sexual behaviour.
● Therefore, it’s not clear whether sexual behaviour is actually being measured.
Criteria D
Evaluation of theory
Strengths
● Other mammals do have them.
● We also have scents like other mammals which could be potential pheromones.
● There is some evidence that babies respond to pheromones from their mother
to engage in rooting behaviour (with their mother’s breasts).
Limitations
● Animal research can’t be generalised to humans. At least not completely.
● There are other factors besides biological such as social and cognitive factors
which influence behaviour and mating.
● Not all studies on pheromones have been replicated so they may not be reliable.
● Studies tend to have small samples which aren’t representative of the
population. Therefore, the results can’t be extrapolated.
● It is difficult to study human scent which is what psychologists suggest cause
pheromones to influence behaviour. Also, there are many other molecules
involved in scent besides pheromones.
● Bacteria may, for instance, have an effect on scent.
