Calculations for Veterinary Nurses, 1st Edition
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CALCULATIONS
FOR
VETERINARY
NURSES
Margaret C. Moore
MA, VN, Cert Ed, FETC. MIScT
and
Norman G. Palmer
# 2001 by DISTRIBUTORS
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Moore Margaret C., M.A.
Calculations for veterinary
All rights reserved. No part of this
nurses / Margaret C. Moore and
publication may be reproduced, stored in a
Norman G. Palmer.
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p. cm.
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ISBN 0^632^05498^0 (pbk.)
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1. Veterinary drugs ^ Dosage.
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I. Palmer, Norman G. II. T|tle
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Contents
Preface vii
Disclaimer viii
Common Abbreviations Used in Text ix
1. Units, Conversion Factors and Related Medical
Abbreviations 1
2. Basic Principles 13
3. Changing the Concentration of a Solution 33
4. Calculating Energy Requirements 55
5. Dosages ^ Oral Route 61
6. Dosages ^ Injections 71
7. Rehydration of the Patient 82
8. Fluid Therapy ^ Rates of Administration 98
9. Anaesthetic Gases ^ Flow Rates 113
10. Radiography 127
11. Value Added Tax (VAT) 140
12. Examination Techniques 151
Index 156
v
Preface
Currently, there are excellent technical books available for both
student and quali¢ed veterinary nurses. However, no single pub-
lication encompasses all the di¡erent types of calculations on
which student veterinary nurses may be examined or which
quali¢ed veterinary nurses are expected to carry out routinely
during the course of their work.
During twenty years as a course tutor for veterinary nurses,
my own students have repeatedly indicated the need for such a
book. Thus the aim of this volume is to meet that need by includ-
ing a separate section on each of the di¡erent calculations which
a veterinary nurse is likely to use.
It is structured in such a way that the reader can progress from
a simple explanation of the principles involved to their applica-
tion of essential veterinary calculations.
Numerous worked examples are included together with self-
test exercises which, where appropriate, have also been sup-
ported with fully-worked answers. The aim of this approach is
to help readers understand the arithmetic principles needed to
perform basic calculations, thus enabling them to have the con-
¢dence and ability to carry out any veterinary calculations which
they are likely to come across during the course of their careers.
Although this book is designed primarily to assist student
veterinary nurses for whom calculations are an essential part of
their studies, it will undoubtedly be an invaluable aide-mëmoire
and reference for quali¢ed sta¡. It will also be an extremely
valuable text book for students following other animal-based
careers, for example, animal technicians and animal carers.
In discussing this book with veterinary surgeons, many of them
kindly expressed the view that it may also be of use to veterinary
students.
vii
viii Preface
Disclaimer
The primary aim of this book is to explain how to carry out basic
veterinary calculations. To achieve this, some of the ¢gures used
have given way to convenience of calculation rather than adher-
ing to clinical accuracy. F|nally, any similarities to animals,
whether living or dead, are purely coincidental!
Note
All answers to worked examples appear in bold type.
Margaret C. Moore
Norman G. Palmer
Common Abbreviations
Used in Text
Weight
g gram(s)
kg kilogram(s)
mg milligram(s)
mcg microgram(s)
Volume
` litre(s)
ml millilitre(s)
Time
min minute(s)
s second(s)
hr(s) hour(s)
Unit of electric current
mA milliampere(s)
Unit of electromotive force
kV kilovolt
ix
Chapter 1
Units, Conversion Factors
and Related Medical
Abbreviations
It is imperative that a good understanding of units and the rela-
tionship between them is gained at an early stage when studying
calculations. Many of the problems encountered whilst carrying
out basic calculations stem from a lack of understanding of the
units in which various quantities are measured, and of the rela-
tionships between them. A thorough working knowledge of
the most common units is vital to anyone in the veterinary
nursing profession. A mistake in the use of units could be fatal
to a patient.
The metric system of weights and measures is now used by
the veterinary profession in most countries. It is international
and simpler to use than any other system. Thus it is the safest
to use because mistakes are less likely to occur. The units
which are most commonly used in the veterinary profession are
shown below.
Weight
1 kilogram (kg) 1000 grams (1000 g)
1 gram (g) 1000 milligrams (1000 mg)
1 milligram (mg) 1000 micrograms
(1000 g also referred to as mcg)
1 microgram (g ) 1000 nanograms (1000 ng)
1
2 Chapter 1
Length
1 kilometre (km) 1000 metres (1000 m)
1 metre (m) 100 centimetres (100 cm)
1 centimetre (cm) 10 millimetres (10 mm)
Volume
1 litre (` ) 1000 millilitres (1000 ml)
1 decilitre (dl) 100 millilitres (100 ml)
Notes
. Centimetres are not used as frequently as millimetres and
metres. Therefore instead of a certain length being described
as 10 cm, it is more likely to be referred to as 100 mm or
0.1 m.
. 1 gram of water occupies 1 millilitre of space (at 158C).
Therefore, 1000 ml or 1 litre of water will weigh 1000
grams or 1 kilogram.
. To help avoid confusion weights of less than 1 gram should
be written as milligrams e.g. 500 mg rather than 0.5 g. Simi-
larly, weights of less than 1 milligram should be written in
micrograms.
. The letter `L' in upper case is sometimes used as an abbrevia-
tion for litre. See note after examples below.
. mcg is sometimes used in pharmacy as an abbreviation for
micrograms.
Abbreviations and pre¢xes
The abbreviation for each of the common units is normally the
¢rst letter of the name. Thus the abbreviation for metre is m
and the abbreviation for gram is g. In order to express a multiple
of a unit, pre¢xes are placed in front of the name. The common
pre¢xes are shown in table 1.1.
Units, Conversion Factors and Medical Abbreviations 3
Table 1.1 Common pre¢xes
Pre¢x Symbol Value Multiplies by
deci d 0.1 one tenth
centi c 0.01 one hundredth
milli m 0.001 one thousandth
micro 0.000001 one millionth
deca da 10 ten
kilo k 1000 one thousand
mega M 1 000 000 one million
Notes
. When a pre¢x is used with a unit of measurement, the abbre-
viation for the pre¢x is followed by the abbreviation for the
unit, e.g. 25 millilitres is written as 25 ml.
. Although 25 ml obviously refers to the plural of the word
millilitre, there is no letter `s' added, i.e. 25 millilitres is not
written as 25 mls. This rule applies to all of the units listed
above.
Examples
Write the abbreviations for the units together with the appropri-
ate pre¢x when necessary for the following:
(i) Twenty one millilitres
Answer: 21 ml
(ii) Twenty one litres
Answer: 21 ` or 21 L (see note below)
4 Chapter 1
(iii) Twenty one milligrams
Answer: 21 mg
(iv) Twenty one micrograms
Answer: 21 g
Note
The abbreviation for litre is the letter `l' in lower case but this
abbreviation could cause confusion when it is preceded by the
digit one, i.e. 21 l could be mistaken for the ¢gure 211. In order
to avoid the possibility of such a mistake, the abbreviation for the
litre is sometimes written as `L' so that in the above example,
twenty one litres would be written as 21 L. In this book, the
symbol ` is used to denote litres.
Converting units within the
metric system
The most frequent conversions used in the veterinary profession
are likely to involve volumes and weights.
Examples
Convert the following:
(i) 750 g to kg
There are 1000 grams in 1 kilogram, therefore to convert grams
to kilograms, divide by 1000 (move the decimal point 3 places to
the left). For a full explanation see Chapter 2.
750
Therefore 750 g kg 0:750 kg
1000
(ii) 7.50 g to kg
There are 1000 grams in 1 kilogram, therefore to convert grams
to kilograms, divide by 1000 (move the decimal point 3 places to
the left).
Units, Conversion Factors and Medical Abbreviations 5
7:50
Therefore 7:50 g kg 0:0075 kg
1000
(iii) 750 mg to g
There are 1000 milligrams in 1 gram therefore to convert milli-
grams to grams, divide by 1000 (move the decimal point 3
places to the left).
750
Therefore 750 mg g 0:750 g
1000
(iv) 750 g to g
There are 1 000 000 (one million) micrograms in 1 gram, there-
fore to convert micrograms to grams, divide by 1 000 000
(move the decimal point 6 places to the left).
750
Therefore 750 g g 0:000750 g
1 000 000
(v) 0.0075 g to mg
There are 1000 milligrams in 1 gram, therefore to convert
grams to milligrams, multiply by 1000 (move the decimal point
3 places to the right).
Therefore 0.0075 g 0.0075 1000 mg 7.5 mg
(vi) 0.750 mg to g
There are 1000 micrograms in 1 milligram, therefore to convert
milligrams to micrograms, multiply by 1000 (move the decimal
point 3 places to the right).
Therefore 0.750 mg 0.750 1000 g 750 g
(vii) 750 ml to litres
There are 1000 millilitres in 1 litre, therefore to convert milli-
litres to litres, divide by 1000 (move the decimal point 3 places
to the left).
6 Chapter 1
750
Therefore 750 ml ` 0:750 `
1000
(viii) 7.50 ` to ml
There are 1000 millilitres in 1 litre, therefore to convert litres to
millilitres, multiply by 1000 (move the decimal point 3 places
to the right).
Therefore 7:50 ` 7:50 1000 ml 7500 ml
(ix) 0.0750 ` to ml
There are 1000 millilitres in 1 litre, therefore to convert litres to
millilitres, multiply by 1000 (move the decimal point 3 places
to the right).
Therefore 0:0750 ` 0:0750 1000 ml 75:0 ml
Converting `old' imperial units
to metric values
The imperial system of units is being phased out. However,
some of the `everyday' units are likely to remain in use for many
years and it is therefore important to be able to understand the
abbreviations used and to be able to convert the units to their
metric equivalents.
The most common conversions used by the veterinary profes-
sion are shown in table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Common conversion factors
Imperial unit To convert multiply by Metric
lb 0.45 kg
pt (pint) 0.57 ` (litres)
in (inch) 25.4 mm
£ oz (£uid ounce) 28.4 ml
Units, Conversion Factors and Medical Abbreviations 7
Examples
Convert the following imperial units into their metric equiva-
lents.
(i) 20 lb
To convert lb to kg multiply by 0.45
Therefore 20 lb 20 0.45 kg 9 kg
(ii) 10 lb
To convert lb to kg multiply by 0.45
Therefore 10 lb 10 0.45 kg 4.5 kg
Note to multiply by 10, move the decimal point one place to
the right.
(iii) 0.5 lb
To convert lb to kg multiply by 0.45
Therefore 0.5 lb 0.5 0.45 kg 0.225 kg
(iv) 1.5 pt
To convert pt to ` multiply by 0.57
Therefore 1.5 pt 1.5 0.57 ` 0.86 ` (to 2 decimal places)
(v) 30 in
To convert in to mm multiply by 25.4
Therefore 30 in 30 25.4 mm 762 mm
(vi) 3 £ oz
To convert £ oz to ml multiply by 28.4
Therefore 3 £ oz 3 28.4 ml 85.2ml
`Household' or `domestic'
measurement system
Several units of measurement are based on the volumes of
common household utensils. These units are still widely used by
