PRELIMS – 2025 | Science & Technology

[ Section - B | Science]

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CHAPTER – 1 CHEMISTRY

1. Matter: Matter is made up of particles. Matter is not continuous and is particulate in nature. The particles
of matter are very small.
 Characteristics of matter: Matter is made up of particles + Matter has inter particle space + The
particles constituting a matter are very small + Particles in matter are always in a state of motion +
The motion of the particles increases with an increase in temperature
 Particles of matter
o Atoms: An atom is the smallest particle of an element that may or may not exist independently
and retain all its chemical properties i.e., takes part in chemical reactions + Atoms of different
elements have different masses and chemical properties.
o Molecules: A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are chemically bonded together + It
can be defined as the smallest particle of an element or a compound that is capable of
independent existence and shows all the properties of that substance + However, it does not take
part in a chemical reaction.
 States of matter
o Solid: In solids, particles are tightly or closely packed + The gaps between the particles are tiny
and hence it is tough to compress them + Solid has a fixed shape and volume + Due to its rigid
nature, particles in solid can only vibrate about their mean position and cannot move + Force of
attraction between particles is adamant + The rate of diffusion in solids is very low + An example
of solids: solid ice, sugar, rock, wood, etc.
o Liquid: In a liquid state of matter, particles are less tightly packed as compared to solids +
Liquids take the shape of the container in which they are kept + Liquids are difficult to compress
as particles have less space between them to move + Liquids have fixed volume but no fixed
shape + The rate of diffusion in liquids is higher than that of solids + Force of attraction between
the particles is weaker than solids + Example of a liquid state of matter: water, milk, blood,
coffee, etc.
o Gas: In gases, particles are far apart from each other + Force of attraction between the particles is
negligible, and they can move freely + Gases have neither a fixed volume nor a fixed shape + The
gaseous state has the highest compressibility as compared to solids and liquids + The rate is
diffusion is higher than solids and liquids + The kinetic energy of particles is higher than in solids
and liquids + Examples of gases: air, helium, nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc
o Plasma: Plasma is a not so generally seen form of matter + Plasma consists of particles with extremely
high kinetic energy + Electricity is used to ionize noble gases and make glowing signs, which is
essentially plasma + Superheated forms of plasma are what stars are.
o Bose-Einstein Condensates: Discovered in 1995, Bose-Einstein condensates were made with the
help of the advancements in technology + Carl Weiman and Eric Cornell cooled a sample of
rubidium with the help of magnets and lasers to within a few degrees of absolute zero + At the
said temperature, the motion of the molecules becomes negligible + As this brings down the
kinetic energy, the atoms no longer stay separate, but they begin to clump together + As the
atoms join together they form a super-atom + Light slows down as it passes through a BEC
helping scientists to study more about the nature of light as a wave and particle + BEC’s also
show properties of a superfluid which implies, that it flows without friction.
2. Matter is divided into pure substances and mixtures:
 Pure substances: A single substance (or matter) which cannot be separated into other kinds of matter
by any physical process is called pure substance. Pure substances have been classified as elements
and compounds.
o Elements: The simplest form of a pure substance which can neither be broken into nor built from
simpler substances by ordinary physical and chemical methods is called element + Types :

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 Metals : Metals are solids (except mercury which is liquid at room temperature) are normally
hard : They have lustre, high melting point (mp) at boiling point (bp) and also good conductor
of electricity and heat + The conductivity of metal decreases with increase in temperature due
to vibration of positive ions at their Lattice points. Examples-Iron, Copper, Silver, Gold,
Aluminium, Zinc etc.
 Non-metals: Non-metals are the elements with properties opposite to those of the metals.
They are found in all states of matter. They do not possess lustre (exception-iodine). They are
poor conductors of electricity (exception-graphite) and they are not malleable and ductile.
Examples-Hydrogen, Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulphur, Phosphorous etc.
 Metalloids : They have common properties of both metals and non-metals. Examples -
Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth etc
o Compounds : Compounds are pure substances that are composed of two or more different elements in
fixed proportion by mass + The properties of a compound are entirely different from those of the
elements from which it is made + Example-Water, Sugar, Salt, chloroform, Alcohol, Ether etc.
 Organic Compounds: The Compounds obtained from living sources are called organic
compounds + The term organic is now applied to hydrocarbons and their derivatives +
Examples : Carbohydrates, Proteins, Oils, Fats etc.
 Inorganic compounds : The Compounds obtained from non-living sources such as rocks and
minerals are called inorganic compounds + Examples : Common Salt, Marble, Washing Soda etc.
 Mixtures: When two or more substances mix with each other without participating in a chemical
change, the resulting substance is called a Mixture. Example - milk, sea water etc + Two types :
o Heterogeneous Mixture: Heterogeneous mixtures possess different properties and compositions
in various parts i.e. the properties are not uniform throughout the mixture. Examples – air, oil,
water, A mixture of sand mixed with salt, etc.
o Homogeneous Mixture: Sugar mixed with water is the most common example of a
homogeneous mixture. Homogeneous mixtures can be defined as the mixtures which possess the
same properties and combination throughout their mass. Examples – alloys, salt, and water,
alcohol in water, etc.
3. Separation of mixtures: The separation of mixtures is the method of separating the mixture into its
components.
 Evaporation: When a liquid turns into gas on the application of heat, the process is known as evaporation +
This technique may separate a volatile component (solvent) from its non-volatile solute.
 Sublimation: Sublimation is when solid substances are directly converted to the gas state without
going through the fluid state + It is used to separate the elements that sublime on heating from the one
which does not + Solids that sublime are ammonium chloride, naphthalene, camphor, etc
 Chromatography: It’s the technique used to separate those solutes that dissolve within the same
solvent + For example, if we place a drop of ink on a filter paper and immerse it into the water from
one end, the water rises, separating the colours + The colour constituent that is more soluble in the
water rises quickly, and the colours separate.
 Distillation: It is used to separate components of a mixture containing two miscible liquids that boil
without decomposition and have sufficient distinction in their boiling points + When we heat a
mixture of liquids, the component with a lower boiling point begins to form vapours collected in a
distillation tube + The other component is then separated as it remains in the distillation flask
 Fractional Distillation: It is used to separate a mixture of two or more miscible liquids when the
distinction in boiling points is less than 25 K + For instance, the separation of various gases from the
air, different factions from petroleum products, etc
 Crystallisation: Crystallisation separates a pure solid as crystals from a solution + It is used to purify
solids + For example, the salt we acquire from seawater may include a lot of contaminants + The
crystallisation procedure is used to eliminate these contaminants + The crystallisation method
performs better than evaporation.

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 Reverse Osmosis: It is the technique in which solvent molecules move from the solution of higher
concentration to the solution of lower concentration separated by a semipermeable membrane when
excess pressure is applied to the solution of higher concentration + It is used for the desalination of
seawater
 Centrifugation: It is a mechanical technique for separation which involves the usage of the
centrifugal force to separate particles contained in a solution + The particles are segregated depending
on their size, shape, density, and rotor speed + The suspended particles in a mixture are rotated at a
high speed in a machine, called the centrifuge in order to segregate the particles from the liquid.
4. Concept of change in state:
 Melting Point: The constant temperature a which a solid becomes liquid upon absorbing heat under
normal pressure is called melting point of that solid. Example: MP of ice is 0°C and MP of Sodium
Chloride (NaC) is 800°C + The melting point of a substance is a fixed temperature + But if there are
impurities in a substance, the melting point of that substance can change considerably. Examples :
MP of mixture of ice and salt i.e. freezing mixture is -15°C.
 Boiling point: It is the constant temperature at which a liquid changes to vapour state under normal
atmospheric pressure is called boiling point + The boiling point decreases with decrease in
atmospheric pressuren + Soluble impurities increases the boiling point of liquid.
 Freezing Point: The constant temperature at which a liquid changes into a solid by giving out heat
energy is called freezing point of that liquid. FP of water =0°C.
 Evaporation: It is the process of conversion of a liquid into its vapours at room temperature + It
causes cooling + During evaporation, the molecules having higher kinetic energy escape from the
surface of the liquid --> Average kinetic energy of the rest of the molecules decreases --> Cooling
takes place during evaporation because of temperature of liquid is directly proportional to average
kinetic Energy.
 Vapour pressure: The pressure exerted by the vapours of liquid in equilibrium with liquid at a given
temperature is called vapour pressure + Vapour pressure depends upon : 1. Its nature and 2.
Temperature + Higher the vapour pressure of a particular liquid lesser will be the magnitude of
intermolecular forces present in molecules + Vapour pressure of a liquid increases with increase in
temperature.
5. Atomic structure
 Atomic structure : The atomic structure of an element refers to the constitution of its nucleus and the
arrangement of the electrons around it + Primarily, the atomic structure of matter is made up of
protons, electrons and neutrons + The protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of the atom, which is
surrounded by the electrons belonging to the atom + The atomic number of an element describes the
total number of protons in its nucleus.
o Subatomic Particles :
 Protons : Protons are positively charged
subatomic particles + The charge of a
proton is 1e, which corresponds to
approximately 1.602 × 10-19 + The mass
of a proton is approximately 1.672 × 10-
24 + Protons are over 1800 times heavier
than electrons + The total number of
protons in the atoms of an element is
always equal to the atomic number of the
element.
 Neutrons : The mass of a neutron is almost the same as that of a proton i.e. 1.674×10-24 +
Neutrons are electrically neutral particles and carry no charge + Different isotopes of an
element have the same number of protons but vary in the number of neutrons present in their
respective nuclei.

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 Electrons : The charge of an electron is -1e, which approximates to -1.602 × 10-19 + The
mass of an electron is approximately 9.1 × 10-31 + Due to the relatively negligible mass of
electrons, they are ignored when calculating the mass of an atom.
o Atomic Structures of Some Elements : The structure of atom of an element can be simply
represented via the total number of protons, electrons, and neutrons present in it. The atomic
structures of a few elements are illustrated below.
 Hydrogen : The most abundant isotope of hydrogen on the planet Earth is protium. The
atomic number and the mass number of this isotope are 1 and 1, respectively.
 Structure of Hydrogen atom: This implies that it contains one proton, one electron, and
no neutrons (total number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number)
 Carbon : Carbon has two stable isotopes – 12C and 13C. Of these isotopes, 12C has an
abundance of 98.9% + It contains 6 protons, 6 electrons, and 6 neutrons.
 Structure of Carbon atom: The electrons are distributed into two shells and the
outermost shell (valence shell) has four electrons + The tetravalency of carbon enables it
to form a variety of chemical bonds with various elements.
 Oxygen : There exist three stable isotopes of oxygen – 18O, 17O, and 16O + However,
oxygen-16 is the most abundant isotope.
 Structure of Oxygen atom: Since the atomic number of this isotope is 8 and the mass
number is 16, it consists of 8 protons and 8 neutrons + 6 out of the 8 electrons in an
oxygen atom lie in the valence shell.
 Atomic Models : In the 18th and 19th centuries, many scientists attempted to explain the structure of
the atom with the help of atomic models.
o Dalton’s Atomic Theory : Every matter is made up of atoms + Atoms are indivisible + Specific
elements have only one type of atoms in them + Each atom has its own constant mass that varies
from element to element + Atoms undergo rearrangement during a chemical reaction + Atoms
can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another.
 Demerits : The theory was unable to explain the existence of isotopes +Nothing about the
structure of atom was appropriately explained + Later, the scientists discovered particles
inside the atom that proved, the atoms are divisible
o Thomson Atomic Model : The English chemist Sir Joseph John Thomson put forth his model
describing the atomic structure in the early 1900s + He was later awarded the Nobel prize for the
discovery of “electrons” + His work is based on an experiment called cathode ray experiment +
Thomson described the atomic structure as a positively charged sphere into which negatively
charged electrons were embedded + It is commonly referred to as the “plum pudding model”
because it can be visualized as a plum pudding dish where the pudding describes the positively
charged atom and the plum pieces describe the electrons + Thomson’s atomic structure described
atoms as electrically neutral, i.e. the positive and the negative charges were of equal magnitude.
 Limitations : Thomson’s atomic model does not clearly explain the stability of an atom.
Also, further discoveries of other subatomic particles, couldn’t be placed inside his atomic
model.
o Rutherford Atomic Theory : Rutherford, a student of J. J. Thomson modified the atomic
structure with the discovery of another subatomic particle called “Nucleus” + His atomic model is
based on the Alpha ray scattering experiment + He concluded that the nucleus is at the center of
an atom, where most of the charge and mass are concentrated + Atomic structure is spherical +
Electrons revolve around the nucleus in a circular orbit, similar to the way planets orbit the sun.
 Limitations : If electrons have to revolve around the nucleus, they will spend energy and that
too against the strong force of attraction from the nucleus, a lot of energy will be spent by the
electrons and eventually, they will lose all their energy and will fall into the nucleus so the
stability of atom is not explained + If electrons continuously revolve around the ‘nucleus, the
type of spectrum expected is a continuous spectrum. But in reality, what we see is a line
spectrum.
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o Bohr’s Atomic Theory : Neils Bohr put forth his model of the atom in the year 1915 + This is
the most widely used atomic model to describe the atomic structure of an element which is based
on Planck’s theory of quantization + He concluded that the electrons inside atoms are placed in
discrete orbits called “stationery orbits” + The energy levels of these shells can be represented via
quantum numbers + Electrons can jump to higher levels by absorbing energy and move to lower
energy levels by losing or emitting its energy + As longs as, an electron stays in its own
stationery, there will be no absorption or emission of energy + Electrons revolve around the
nucleus in these stationery orbits only + The energy of the stationary orbits is quantized.
 Limitations : Bohr’s atomic structure works only for single electron species such as H, He+,
Li2+, Be3+ When the emission spectrum of hydrogen was observed under a more accurate
spectrometer, each line spectrum was seen to be a combination of no of smaller discrete lines
+ Both Stark and Zeeman effects couldn’t be explain using Bohr’s theory.
The Stark effect is the shifting and splitting of spectral lines of atoms and molecules due to the presence of an
external electric field.
The Zeeman effect is the effect of splitting of a spectral line into several components in the presence of a static
magnetic field.
Note : Zeeman effect is analogous to the Stark effect, the splitting of a spectral line into several components in the
presence of an electric field. Also similar to the Stark effect, transitions between different components have, in
general, different intensities, with some being entirely forbidden (in the dipole approximation), as governed by the
selection rules.

7. Periodic Classification of Elements :

 Features : There are in all, 18 vertical columns and 18 groups in the long form periodic table + These
groups are numbered from 1 to 18 starting from the left + There are seven horizontal rows called
periods in the long form periodic table + Thus, there are seven periods in the long form periodic table
+ The elements of Groups 1, 2 and 13 to 17 are called the main group elements + These are also
called typical or representative or normal elements + The elements of Groups 3 to 12 are called
transition elements + Elements with atomic number 58 to 71 (Ce to Lu) occurring after lanthanum
(La) are called lanthanides + Elements with atomic numbers 90 to 103 (Th to Lw) are called actinides
+ These elements are called f-block elements and also as inner transition elements.

8. Chemical bonding : Chemical bonds are forces that hold the atoms together in a molecule + They are a
result of strong intramolecular interactions among the atoms of a molecule.
 Ionic Bond: As the name suggests, ionic bonds are a result of the attraction between ions. Ions are
formed when an atom loses or gains an electron. These types of bonds are commonly formed between
a metal and a nonmetal. Example : Sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) combine to form stable crystals of
sodium chloride (NaCl), also known as common salt.
 Covalent Bond: In the case of a covalent bond, an atom shares one or more pairs of electrons with
another atom and forms a bond + This sharing of electrons happens because the atoms must satisfy
the octet (noble gas configuration) rule while bonding + Such a type of bonding is common between
two nonmetals + The covalent bond is the strongest and most common form of chemical bond in
living organisms.

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o A covalent bond can be divided into a nonpolar covalent bond and a polar covalent bond + In the
case of a nonpolar covalent bond, the electrons are equally shared between the two atoms + On
the contrary, in polar covalent bonds, the electrons are unequally distributed between the atoms.
 Hydrogen Bond: A hydrogen bond is a chemical bond between a hydrogen atom and an
electronegative atom + However, it is not an ionic or covalent bond but is a particular type of dipole-
dipole attraction between molecules + First, the hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to a very
electronegative atom resulting in a positive charge, which is then attracted towards an electronegative
atom resulting in a hydrogen bond. Examples : Hydrogen atom from one molecule of water bonds
with the oxygen atom from another molecule. This bonding is quite significant in ice.
 Metallic Bonds : A metallic bond is a force that holds atoms together in a metallic substance + Such
solid consists of tightly packed atoms, where the outermost electron shell of each metal atom overlaps
with a large number of neighboring atoms + As a consequence, the valence electrons move freely
from one atom to another + They are not associated with any specific pair of atoms.
9. Oxidation and Reduction : Oxidation is the gain of oxygen while reduction is the loss of oxygen +
Oxidation is the loss of hydrogen while reduction is the gain of hydrogen + Oxidation is loss of electron
while reduction is gain of electrons.

10. Types of chemical reactions :

 Combination reaction : Two or more compounds combine to form one compound.
 Decomposition reaction : The opposite of a combination reaction – a complex molecule breaks
down to make simpler ones.
 Precipitation reaction : Two solutions of soluble salts are mixed resulting in an insoluble solid
(precipitate) forming.
 Neutralization reaction : An acid and a base react with each other. Generally, the product of this
reaction is salt and water.
 Combustion reaction : Oxygen combines with a compound to form carbon dioxide and water. These
reactions are exothermic, meaning they give off heat.
 Displacement reaction : One element takes place with another element in the compound.
 Double Displacement Reactioxn : A chemical reaction in which ions get exchanged between two
reactants which form a new compound
11. Solution : A homogeneous mixture of two or more pure non-reacting substances whose composition can
be varied within certain limits is called solution. Example : When solution is composed of only two
components, it is called binary solution. For example solution of NaCl in water. Similarly solution
containing three components is called ternary solution For example a solution of NaCl and KCI in water.
 In binary solution, there are two components: 1. Solute and 2. Solvent : The component which is
in smaller proportion or amount in solution is called solute while one present in excess is called
solvent. For example-In a binary solution of sugar in water, sugar acts as solute while water is the
solvent.
 Saturated Solution: A solution that can not dissolve any more of the solute a given temperature is
called saturated solution.
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 Solution: A solution in which more of the solute can be dissolved at a given temperature is as
unsaturated solution.
 Supersaturated Solution : A supersaturated solution at a particular temperature is one that is more
concentrated (contains more solute) than its saturated solution at that temperature.
 Dilute Solution: It is the solution in which the amount of solute present is rather small compared to
the mass of solvent.
 Concentrated Solution: It is the solution in which the amount of solute present is relativity large for
a given mass of solvent.
 Solubility: The maximum amount of solute in gram which can dissolved in 100 g of solvent to form
saturated solution at particular temperature is called solubility of that solute + The solubility of a gas
decreases with increase in temperature because the dissolution of a gas in a liquid is exothermic in
nature + Pressure has very little effect on the solubility of a solid in a liquid because solids and liquids
a are highly incompressible + The solubility of a gas in a liquid increases with increases in pressure
 Henry's law : The effect of pressure on the solubility of a gas in liquid was studied by Henry in 1803
and is called Henry's law. It states that the mass of a gas dissolved in a given volume of the liquid at
constant temperature is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas present in equilibrium with
liquid.
 True Solution: True solution is a homogeneous solution in which size of solute particles is less than
10 m + In true solution, the solute particles and solvent molecules can not be distinguished even
under a microscope. For example-Sodium Chloride in water.
 Suspensions: A suspension is a heterogeneous solution in which the size of solute particles is more
than 10 m + The particles of suspensions are visible to naked solution in which eye or under
microscope.
 Colloidal Solution: Colloidal solution is a heterogeneous size of particles of dispersed phase lies
between 10 m to 10 m + The colloidal particles can pass through ordinary filter paper but can not pass
through animal membrane + The Colloidal particles can not be seen by naked eye but they can be
seen by ultramicroscope. Example-Milk, gum, blood, ink etc.
 Dispersion System: A system consisting of a substance distributes as very small of a solid, droplets
of a liquid or tiny bubbles of a gas in a suitable medium is called dispersion system. The distributed
substance is called dispersed phase where as the medium in which it is dispersed in known as
dispersion medium.
 Sols: The colloidal systems with solid as dispersed phase and liquid as dispersion medium are known
as sols. Rubbers gloves are manufactures from rubber sols by the process of electroplating.
 Aerosols: The colloidal systems with solid or liquid as dispersed phase and gas as dispersion medium
are known as aerosols. In smoke, the dispersed phase is solid and dispersion medium is gas. In fog,
dispersed phase is liquid and dispersionmedium is gas.
 Foam : Foam is a colloidal solution in which dispersed phase is gas and dispersion medium is liquid.
 Brownian Movement: The continuous zig-zag movement of colloidal particles in the dispersion
medium in a colloidal solution is called Brownian movement + It is due to unequal bombardments of
the moving particles of dispersion medium on colloidal particles.
 Tyndall Effect: When a beam of light is allowed to pass through a colloidal solution, the colloidal
particles can be seen. This effect is called Tyndall effect. The Tyndall effect arises due to scattering of
light by colloidal particles present in a colloidal solution.
 Dialysis : The process of separating the particles of colloids from thos crystalloids by diffusion of
mixture through animal membrane (or parchmen membrane) is known as dialysis. It is the process of
purification of colloidal solution.
 Electrophoresis: The movement of colloidal particles towards a particles electrodes under the
influence of an electric field is called electrophoresis + The positively charged colloidal particles
move towards cathode and negatively charged colloidal particles move towards anode.

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 Coagulation : It is a process of aggregation or accumulation of colloidal particles to settle down as a

precipitate. Substances like metals, their sulfides etc cannot be simply mixed with the dispersion
medium to form a colloidal solution.
13. Acids, bases and salts
 Acid : It is a substance which is sour in taste + turns blue litmus paper into red + contains replaceable
hydrogen + gives hydrogen ion (H) in aqueous solution (Arrhenius theory) + can donate a proton
(Bronsted & Lowry concept) + can accept electron (Lewis theory)
 Uses of acids : Vinegar, a diluted acetic acid solution is used as a food preservative + Sulfuric acid is
widely used in batteries + Nitric acid and sulfuric acid are used in the industrial production of
explosives, dyes, fertilizers, and paints + Phosphoric acid is the main constituent in different soft
drinks.
o Uses of HCI : HCI present in gastric juices are responsible for the digestion + Used as bathroom
cleaner + As a pickling agent before galvanization + In the tanning of leather + In the dying and
textile industry + In the manufacture of gelatine from bones
o Uses of HNO : In the manufacture of fertilizers like ammonium nitrate + In the manufacture of
explosives like TNT (Trinitro toluene), TNB (Trinitro benzene), Picric acid (Trinitro phenol) etc.
+ Nitro Glycerine (Dynamite) + Found in rain water (first shower) +It forms nitrates in the soil +
In the manufacture of rayon + In the manufacture of dyes & drugs.
o Uses of Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) : In lead storage battery + In the manufacture of HCL + In the
manufacture of Alum + In the manufacture of fertilizers, drugs, detergents & explosives.
o Use of Boric acids: As an antiseptic.
o Uses of Phosphoric acid : Its calcium salt makes our bones + It forms phosphatic fertilizers +
PO4-3providing energy for chemical reactions in our body.
o Uses of Ascorbic acid: Source of Vitamin C
o Uses of Citric acid: Flavouring agent & food preservative.
o Use of Acetic acid : Flavouring agent & food preservative.
o Uses of Tartaric acid: Souring agent for pickles + A component of baking powder (sodium
bicarbonate + tartaric acid)
 Base : Base is a substance which is bitter in taste + turns red litmus paper into blue + gives hydroxyl
ions (OH) in a aqueous solution + can accept proton (Bronsted & lowry concept) & can donate
electrons (Lewis theory) Oxides & hydroxides of metals are bases + Water soluble bases are called
alkali e.g. NaOH, KOH, etc + All alkalies are bases but all bases are not alkalies because bases are
not soluble in water
 Uses of bases : Sodium hydroxide is used in the production of soap and paper. It is also used in the
production of rayon + Slaked lime or calcium hydroxide is used in the production of bleaching
powder + Magnesium hydroxide is used as a laxative, and it is utilized in environmental applications
as a flue gas desulfurization agent, helping to remove sulfur dioxide emissions from industrial
processes + Ammonium hydroxide is an essential reagent in laboratories.
 Buffer solution: A solution whose pH is not altered to great extent by the addition of small quantities
of either an acid (H' ions) or a base (OH ions) is called buffer solution.
 Salt : When an acids reacts with a base, salt and water are formed + Important salts are -
o Sodium Chloride or Common Salt (NaCl) : Used in cooking food as well as for cooking gas +
Used as a preservative in pickles and in curing meat and fish + Used in the manufacture of soap +
Used to melt the ice in winter in cold countries +:Used for making chemical likes washing Soda,
baking soda etc.
o Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) : Used for making soap and detergent + Used for making artificial
textile fibre (rayon) + Used in the manufacturing of paper + Used for purification of bauxite ore +
Used in de-greasing metals, oil refining and making dyes and bleaches
o Sodium Carbonate or Washing Soda : Used as cleansing agent + Used for removing permanent
hardness of water + Used in the manufacturing of glass, soap and paper

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o Baking Soda or Sodium Bi-carbonate : Used as neutralising agent (antacid) + Used for making
baking powder + Used in fire extinguisher
o Bleaching Powder or Calcium Hypochlorite : Used as bleaching agent in cotton industry and
paper industry for bleaching cotton and linen as well as wood pulp respectively + Used for
disinfecting drinking water + Used for making chloroform (CHCl 3) + Used for making the wool
unshrinkable
o Plaster of Paris or Hemihydrate Calcium sulphate : Used in hospital for setting fractured bone
+ Used for making toys, decoration material cheap ornament, chalk etc + Used for fire-proofing
material + Used for making surface smooth
 pH : pH is defined as the negative logarithm of H+ ion concentration. Hence the meaning of the
name pH is justified as the power of hydrogen + A pH scale is a tool for measuring acids and bases +
The scale ranges from 0-14. Litmus paper is an indicator used to tell if a substance is an acid or a base
+ The colour of the paper matches up with the numbers on the pH scale to indicate what kind of
substance is being tested + For example, Vinegar is an acid and measures 2.4 on the pH scale.
o Limitations : pH is zero for 1N solution of strong acid + pH is negative for concentrations 2N,
3N, ION of strong acids + At higher concentrations, in place of pH Hammett acidity functions are
used.
 Acid Rain : Acid rain is the rain that has been acidified, with a pH less than 5.6 + Excessive amounts
of sulfur and nitrogen released by cars and industrial processes get mixed with rain and result in
precipitation that is highly acidic + These pollutants react with water vapours present in the
atmosphere to form sulfuric acid and nitric acid respectively + Sulfur and Nitrogen particles may be
released in the atmosphere due to anthropogenic causes or by natural causes + Anthropogenic causes
include industrial emissions, burning of fossil fuels such as diesel and coal, incineration of garbage,
production of paper + Natural causes could be release of sulfur during volcanic eruptions or nitrogen
ions released in the atmosphere during a lightning strike + The chemical reaction occurs in the
presence of lightning to form the nitric oxide + This further reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen
dioxide + Furthermore, ozone, some other organic acids like formic and acetic acids also contribute to
5-20% acidity in total acid rain.

14. Electrolysis
 Electrolytes: These are the substances which allow the electricity to pass through them in their
molten states or in the form of their aqueous solution and undergo chemical decomposition.
Examples-acids, bases & salts.
 Strong electrolytes: The electrolytes which are almost completely dissociated into ions in solution
are called strong electrolytes. Examples-NaCl, KCI, HCI, NaOH etc.
 Weak electrolytes: The electrolytes which do not ionise completely in solution called weak
electrolytes. Examples-CH3COOH, HCN etc.
 Electrolysis: The process of chemical decomposition of an electrolyte by passage of electric current
through its molten state or its solution is called electrolysis.
 Electrodes: In order to pass the current through an electrolytes in molten state or in aqueous solution,
two rods or plates are needed to connect with the terminal of a battery. These rods or plates are called
electrodes.
 Anode: The electrode which is attached to positive terminal of battery is called anode. Oxidation
occurs at anode.

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 Cathode: The electrode which is attached to negative terminal of batteries is called Cathode.
Reduction occurs at cathode.
15. Carbon and its compounds
 Carbon: Carbon is non-metal having atomic number 6 and mass number 12. It is placed in group
(IV) A or group 14 in periodic table.
 Allotropy: The substances which have same chemical properties, but different physical properties are
called allotropes and this property is called allotropy. Example- Allotropies of Carbon-Diamond,
graphite, charcoal.
 Diamond: It is the hardest natural substance known + It does not conduct electricity and can be
produced artificially by exposing pure carbon to extreme pressure and heat + Diamonds are employed
in a variety of cutting instruments, including glass cutters, marble saws, and rock drilling equipment +
Jewelry is made with diamonds.
 Graphite: Graphite is an opaque greyish-black material + It has a soft, smooth feel to it and conducts
electricity + In dry cells and electric arcs, graphite is used to make electrodes or graphite electrodes +
Graphite helps in the formation of pencil cores (leads) and black paints
 Buckminsterfullerene: It is an allotrope of carboncontaining clusters of 60 carbon atoms linked
together to create spherical molecules + It has the formula C–60 and is a black solid at room
temperature.
 Hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that are entirely made up of only two kinds of
atoms – carbon and hydrogen + Typically, hydrocarbons are colourless gases that have very weak
odours + Types of Hydrocarbons:
o Saturated Hydrocarbons: In these compounds, carbon-carbon atoms and carbon-hydrogen
atoms are held together by single bonds + These single bonded compounds are the simplest
hydrocarbons. + These types of hydrocarbons don’t have double or triple bonds.
o Unsaturated Hydrocarbons: These compounds consist of a single, double or a triple bond
between carbon-carbon atoms + The double-bonded compounds are called alkenes and the triple
bonded compounds are called alkynes.
o Cycloalkanes: These hydrocarbons possess one or multiple carbon rings + The hydrogen atom is
attached to the carbon ring.
o Aromatic Hydrocarbons: These are also called arenes + Arenes are compounds which consist of
at least one aromatic ring.
o Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: They are straight chain structures having no rings in them.
o Alicyclic Hydrocarbons: They are hydrocarbons having a ring structure in them + The carbons
atoms can be Sp, Sp2 or Sp3 hybridised.
 Plastics : It is defined as a material that contains an essential ingredient an organic substance of large
molecular weight + It is also defined as polymers of long carbon chains + Plastic was discovered by
famous German chemist Christian Schonbein in 1846 + Plastics were actually discovered accidentally
+ Christian was experimenting in his kitchen and by accident, he spilt a mixture of nitric acid and
sulphuric acid
o Properties of Plastic : Strong and ductile + Poor conductors of heat and electricity + Easily
moulded into different shapes and size + Resist corrosion and are resistant to many chemicals
o Types of plastics :
 Thermoplastic: Plastics that can be deformed easily upon heating and can be bent easily.
Linear polymers and a combination of linear and cross-linked polymers come under
thermoplastics. Example: PVC, nylon, polythene, etc.
 Thermosetting: Plastics that cannot be softened again by heating once they are moulded.
Heavily cross-linked polymers come under the category of thermosetting plastics. Example:
Bakelite, melamine, etc. Bakelite is used for making electrical switches whereas melamine is
used for floor tiles.

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 Rubber : Rubber consists of polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor impurities of
other organic compounds + The main chemical constituents of rubber are elastomers, or “elastic
polymers,” large chainlike molecules that can be stretched to great lengths and yet recover their
original shape + Thailand and Indonesia are two of the leading rubber producers + India is the world's
second-biggest consumer of natural rubber.
 Fibres : Polymers which have quite strong intermolecular forces such as hydrogen bonding
 Rayon : Synthetic fibre obtained from cellulose is known as Rayon
15. Fuels
 Fuel : A substance that can supply energy either alone or by reacting with another substance is known
as fuel + Heat produced by fuel is measured in Calories + An ideal fuel should : have high calorific
value + be cheap and easily available + be regulated and controlled + be easily stored & transport +
have low ignition temperature
 Calorific value : The quantity of fuel is expressed in the form of calorific value + Calorific value is
the total quantity of heat liberated by complete combustion of a unit mass of fuel in air or oxygen.
 Octane rating : It is also known as octane number is a measurement of the quality or performance of
gasoline + The higher the number, the better the fuel burns within the engine of a vehicle + Higher
performance vehicles require fuels with a higher octane rating.
 Knock resistance : Knock resistance is a fuel’s ability not to self-ignite and burn in an uncontrolled
way while the fuel is being compressed + This means that the air-fuel mixture in the engine is not
ignited only by the ignition spark, but also by compression.

Hydrogen-Enriched Compressed Natural Gas (HCNG) : The blending of hydrogen with CNG provides a blended gas
termed as HCNG + It can be used in place of gasoline, diesel fuel and propane (C3H8) / LPG and its combustion produces
fewer undesirable gases.
Advantages of HCNG: HCNG reduces emissions of CO up to 70% + Enables up to 5 % savings in fuel + First step towards
future Hydrogen economy + Engines can be calibrated to release lower amounts of NO + Engines need minimum modification
to run on HCNG + Ideal fuel for high load applications and heavy-duty vehicles + Better performance due to higher Octane
rating of H2.
Disadvantages of using HCNG: Determining the most optimized H2/ NG (Natural Gas) ratio + It requires new
infrastructures for preparing HCNG + Many steps need to be taken for commercializing it at a large scale + Current cost of H2
is more than the cost of Natural Gas. So, HCNG’s cost is more than CNG.

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16. Metallurgy
 Basics : Metallurgy is defined as a process that is used for the extraction of metals in their pure form
+ The compounds of metals mixed with soil, limestone, sand, and rocks are known as minerals +
Metals are commercially extracted from minerals at low cost and minimum effort + These minerals
are known as ores. A substance which is added to the charge in the furnace to remove the gangue
(impurities) is known as flux + Metallurgy deals with the process of purification of metals and the
formation of alloys.
 Principles of Metallurgy:
o Crushing and grinding: The first process in metallurgy is crushing of ores into a fine powder in
a crusher or ball mill. This process is known as pulverization.
o The concentration of ores: The process of removing impurities from ore is known as a
concentration of minerals or ore dressing.
o Hydrolytic method: In this method, we pour the ore over a sloping, vibrating corrugated table
with grooves. A jet of water is allowed to flow over the surface. The denser ore particles settle in
the grooves, and the impurities are washed away by water.
o Magnetic separation: In this case, the crushed ore is placed on a conveyor belt. This belt rotates
around two wheels in which one of the wheels is magnetic, and therefore the magnetic particles
get attracted to the magnetic wheel and fall apart from the non-magnetic particles.
o Froth floatation: In this process, we take the crushed ore in a large tank which contains oil and
water + A current of compressed air is passed through it + The ore gets wet by oil and is
separated from the impurities in the form of froth + Ore is lighter, and so it comes on the surface
and impurities are left behind.
o Roasting and calcination: In metallurgy, the process of heating a concentrated ore in the
presence of oxygen is known as roasting + This process is applied in the case of sulfide ores +
For ores containing carbonate or hydrated oxides, heating is done in the absence of air to melt the
ores, and this process is known as calcination.
17. Important of Metals: Metals conduct heat and electricity + They are malleable and ductile. (Malleable
means which can be beaten by hammer to form thin sheets without breaking and Ductile means which can
be stretched or drawn into thin wires) + They are also lustrous i.e. shiny, strong, heavy and sonorous +
Metals have high melting points and boiling points except sodium and potassium + At room temperature
metals are solid except mercury + Generally metals are hard except sodium and potassium + Metals have
high densities except sodium and potassium + Metals are sonorous i.e. it makes sound when hit with an
object + Usually metals have grey or silver colour except copper and gold + Iron, Copper and aluminium
metals are used to make house-hold utensils and factory equipment + Chromium metal is used for
electroplating iron and steel objects + Lead metal is used in making car batteries + Zinc phosphide is used
for killing rats + Iron is used as a catalyst in the preparation of ammonia gas by Haber’s process +
Lithium is the lightest and the most reductant element + Silver chloride is used in photochromatic glass +
Zirconium metal is used in making car batteries + The mercury metal is liquid which is used in making
thermometers + Strange silver spoon is not used in egg food because it forms black silver sulphide +
During the flow of electricity, mercury and iron produces more resistance in comparison to the other +
Barium sulphate is used in X-ray of abdomen as barium metal + Pure gold is 24 carrat and copper is
mixed to harden the gold + Fuse wire is made of lead and tin + At room temperature, Gallium metal is in
liquid state + Sodium, titanium and zirconium metals are used in atomic energy (nuclear energy) and
space science projects + Zinc is used for galvanizing iron to protect it from rusting + Co (60) is used in
cancer treatment + Zeolite is used to remove hardness of water.
18. Non-Metals
 Physical properties of Non-metals : Under normal conditions of temperature and pressure, some
non-metals are found as gases, some found as solids and one is found as liquid + In contrast, except
mercury, all metals are solids at room temperature + The fact that so many non-metals exist as liquids
or gases means that non-metals generally have relatively low melting and boiling points under normal
atmospheric conditions + In their solid-state, non-metals tend to be brittle. Therefore, they lack the
malleability and ductility exhibited by metals + Ductility is the property of the material to be
stretched into wires but non-metals are not ductile except for carbon, as carbon fibres find uses in a
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wide variety of industries including sports and music equipment + Another property characteristic to
metals is absent in non-metals called malleability + They can’t be drawn into sheets as they are brittle
and break on applying pressure + Non-metals exhibit very low electrical conductivities + The low or
non-existent electrical conductivity is the most important property that distinguishes non-metals from
metals + They are not sonorous and do not produce a deep ringing sound when they are hit with
another material + They are also bad conductors of heat and electricity except for graphite.
 Chemical Properties of Non-Metals :
o Reaction with Water : A non-metal does not react with water but it is usually very reactive in
air, which is why some of them are stored in water. For example, one of the highly reactive non-
metals is phosphorus and it catches fire when exposed to air that is why it is stored in water to
prevent its contact with atmospheric oxygen.
o Reaction with Acids : None of the non-metals is known to react with acids.
o Reaction with Bases : The reaction between non-metals and bases is a very complex one. The
reaction of chlorine with bases like sodium hydroxide gives products like sodium hypochlorite,
sodium chloride as well as water.
o Reaction with Oxygen : Oxides of non-metals are formed when it reacts with oxygen. The
oxides of non-metals are acidic or neutral in nature.
o Reaction with metal : Non-Metals react with metal, generally forming Ionic compounds.
20. Miscellaneous
 Steel slag : A by-product of steel making, is produced during the separation of the molten steel from
impurities in steel-making furnaces + The slag occurs as a molten liquid melt and is a complex
solution of silicates and oxides that solidifies upon cooling.
 Fly Ash : It is a byproduct from burning of coal in electric power generating plants + It is called fly
ash because it is transported from the combustion chamber by exhaust gases + It is collected from the
exhaust gases by electrostatic precipitators or bag filters + Composition: Fly ash includes substantial
amounts of silicon dioxide (SiO2), aluminium oxide (Al2O3), ferric oxide (Fe2O3) and calcium oxide
(CaO) + Uses: It is used in concrete and cement products, road base, metal recovery, and mineral
filler among others + Harmful Effects: Fly ash particles are toxic air pollutants. They can trigger heart
disease, cancer, respiratory diseases and stroke.
 Portland cement : It is a type of cement obtained by pulverizing clinker, consisting of hydraulic
calcium silicates to which some calcium sulfate has usually been provided as an interground addition
+ It is widely used in construction to make concrete + This concrete is used to build structures such as
dams, bridges, buildings, pavements etc.
 Cloud Seeding : It is the process of spreading either dry ice or more commonly, silver iodide
aerosols, into the upper part of clouds to try to stimulate the precipitation process and form rain +
Cloud seeding uses planes to spray clouds with chemicals to condense smaller particles into larger
rain droplets + It increases rainfall rates by approximately 10% to 30% per year and cloud seeding
operations cost much less than the desalination process + Cloud Seeding Methods:
o Hygroscopic Cloud Seeding : Disperses salts through flares or explosives in the lower portions
of clouds + The salt grows in size as water joins with them.
o Static Cloud Seeding : It involves spreading a chemical like silver iodide into clouds + The
silver iodide provides a crystal around which moisture can condense + The moisture is already
present in the clouds, but silver iodide essentially makes rain clouds more effective at dispensing
their water.
o Dynamic Cloud Seeding: It aims to boost vertical air currents, which encourages more water to
pass through the clouds, translating into more rain + The process is considered more complex
than static cloud seeding because it depends on a sequence of events working properly.

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CHAPTER – 2 PHYSICS

1. Unit system
 Unit: The chosen standard used for measuring a physical quantity is called unit. Unit should be: well
defined + easy to reproduce + easy to compare + internationally accepted + independent of changes in
physical conditions.
 System of Units: Units depend on choice. Each choice of units leads to a new system (set) of units.
2. SI Unit: SI unit is an international system of measurements that are used universally in technical and
scientific research to avoid the confusion with the units.
3. Two types of units: Fundamental + Derived
Fundamental units

4. Motion: One of the most common phenomena in the physical world is motion + Mechanics is the branch
of Physics that deals with the behavior of moving objects + Mechanics is divided further into two
sections:
 Kinematics is the study of motion without regard for the cause of motion.
 Dynamics is concerned with the source of motion, which is force.
5. Motion and Rest: An object is said to be in motion if its position in relation to its surroundings changes
in a given time + An object is said to be at rest if its position in relation to its surroundings does not
change + A frame of reference is another object or scene against which we compare the position of an
object.
6. Scalar quantities: It is the physical quantity with only magnitude and no direction + Such physical
quantities can be described just by their numerical value without directions + Examples : Mass, Speed,
Distance, Time, Volume etc.
7. Vector quantities : A vector quantity is defined as the physical quantity that has both directions as well
as magnitude + Examples : Linear momentum, Acceleration, Displacement, Momentum, Angular
velocity etc

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8. Distance and displacement : Distance is a scalar quantity that refers to "how much ground an object has
covered" during its motion + Displacement is a vector quantity that refers to "how far out of place an
object is"; it is the object's overall change in position.
 Example : The distance between termini A and B is 150 kilometers --> A bus connects Terminus A
and Terminus B --> The bus travels a distance of 150 kilometers --> The bus returns from terminus B
to terminus A along the same route --> As a result, the total distance traveled by the bus from A to B
and then from B to A is 150 km + 150 km = 300 km. However, the displacement when the bus moves
from A B to B B is zero.
9. Speed: Speed is defined as the distance travelled by a moving object in one unit of time + The SI unit of
speed is millimeters per second (m/s). Speed is defined as a scalar quantity
10. Velocity: It is defined as the distance travelled in a given direction by a moving object in a given time or
speed in a given direction. Velocity = Distance travelled in a specified direction/time taken.

11. Acceleration = Rate at which velocity changes over time. The SI unit of acceleration is m/s 2 and it is a
vector quantity. The term "acceleration" does not always imply that the speed of a moving body
increases; it can also decrease, remain constant, or become zero.
12. Circular motion: It is described as a movement of an object while rotating along a circular path +
Circular motion can be either uniform or non-uniform. During uniform circular motion the angular rate of
rotation and speed will be constant while during non-uniform motion the rate of rotation keeps changing
+ Examples: Man-made satellite that revolves around the earth, a rotating ceiling fan, a moving car’s
wheel, the blades in a windmill, and gears in gas turbines.
13. Angular velocity: It is the time rate at which an object rotates or revolves about an axis + Angular
velocity is represented by the Greek letter omega (ω, sometimes Ω) + It is measured in angle per unit
time; hence, the SI unit of angular velocity is radians per second.
14. Newton's laws of motion:
 An object at rest remains at rest, and an object in motion remains in motion at constant speed and in a
straight line unless acted on by an unbalanced force.
 The acceleration of an object depends on the mass of the object and the amount of force applied.
 Whenever one object exerts a force on another object, the second object exerts an equal and opposite
on the first.

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15. Centrifugal Force: Centrifugal force is an outward force apparent in a rotating reference frame + it does
not exist when measurements are made in an inertial frame of reference + All measurements of position
and velocity must be made relative to some frame of reference.

16.

17. Centripetal Force: A centripetal force is a force that makes a body follow a curved path + Its direction is
always orthogonal to the motion of the body and towards the fixed point of the instantaneous center of
curvature of the path + It allows objects to maintain circular motion by continuously changing their
direction without altering their speed + Common examples of centripetal force include gravitational
attraction keeping planets in orbit around the sun and tension in a string keeping a swinging pendulum
moving in a circular arc.
18. Moment of force: Moment of force is defined to be the turning ability of force + It is a force that rotates the body
or the object on a particular axis, end or point + This moment of force is also known as torque, rotational force or
the turning effect + Moment of force measures the tendency that rotates the body at a definite point.
19. Centre of gravity: It is a theoretical point in the body where the body’s total weight is thought to be
concentrated + It predicts the behaviour of a moving body when acted on by gravity.
20. Equilibrium : It is a state of body where neither the internal energy nor the motion of the body changes
with respect to time + A stable equilibrium is one in which is the body is displaced from its equilibrium
position then it tends to move towards that equilibrium point + For example, a ball kept at the bottom of
a hemisphere + While in case of unstable equilibrium, if it is displaced from that point the body tends to
move away from that point. Example : Consider a ball kept at the top of a sphere. If we slide it, the ball
tends to roll away from the topmost point. Similarly, in neutral equilibrium, the body neither moves
towards nor away from the equilibrium point. For example, displace a ball kept on a horizontal surface
slightly.
21. Work: Work is said to be done when a force applied on the body displaces the body through a certain
distance in the direction of applied force + It is measured by the product of the force and the distance
moved in the direction of the force + Work is a scalar quantity representing the transfer of energy when a
force acts on an object and causes it to move a certain distance in the direction of the force.
22. Energy : The energy of a body is its capacity to do work + Anything which is able to do work is said to
possess energy + Energy is measured in the same unit as that of work, namely, Joule + Mechanical energy
is of two types:
 Kinetic Energy: The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is known as its kinetic
energy.
 Potential Energy : The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position or condition is known as
its potential energy + There are two common forms of potential energy:
o Gravitational: Gravitational potential energy of a body is the energy possessed by the body by
virtue of its position above the surface of the earth.
o Elastic: When an elastic body is displaced from its equilibrium position, work is needed to be
done against the restoring elastic force + The work done is stored up in the body in the form of its
elastic potential energy.
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23. Energy conversions :

 Thermoelectric (Heat → Electrical energy)
 Geothermal power (Heat→ Electrical energy)
 Heat engines, such as the internal combustion engine used in cars, or the steam engine (Heat →
Mechanical energy)
 Ocean thermal power (Heat → Electrical energy)
 Hydroelectric dams (Gravitational potential energy → Electrical energy)
 Electric generator (Kinetic energy or Mechanical work → Electrical energy)
 Fuel cells (Chemical energy → Electrical energy)
 Battery (electricity) (Chemical energy → Electrical energy)
 Fire (Chemical energy → Heat and Light)
 Electric lamp (Electrical energy → Heat and Light)
 Microphone (Sound → Electrical energy)
 Wave power (Mechanical energy → Electrical energy)
 Windmills (Wind energy → Electrical energy or Mechanical energy)
 Piezoelectrics (Strain → Electrical energy)
 Friction (Kinetic energy → Heat)
 Electric heater (Electric energy → Heat)
 Photosynthesis (Electromagnetic radiation → Chemical energy)
 ATP hydrolysis (Chemical energy in adenosine triphosphate → mechanical energy)
24. Law of conservation of energy : The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be
created nor destroyed - only converted from one form of energy to another + This means that a system
always has the same amount of energy, unless it's added from the outside + This is particularly confusing
in the case of non-conservative forces, where energy is converted from mechanical energy into thermal
energy, but the overall energy does remain the same + The only way to use energy is to transform energy
from one form to another.
25. Collision: Collision is defined as an isolated event in which two or more colliding bodies exert relatively
strong forces on each other for a relatively short time + Collision between particles have been divided
broadly into two types :
 Elastic Collision: A collision between two particles or bodies is said to be elastic if both the linear
momentum and the kinetic energy of the system remain conserved.
o Example: Collisions between atomic particles, atoms, marble balls and billiard balls.
 Inelastic Collision: A collision is said to be inelastic if the linear momentum of the system remains
conserved but its kinetic energy is not conserved.
o Example: When we drop a ball of wet putty on to the floor then the collision between ball and
floor is an inelastic collision.
26. Power: The rate at which work is performed is known as power + This is a measure of energy consumed
per unit of time.
27. Gravitation: It is a force that acts between two bodies and it is always attractive in nature. Gravitational
force is the force with which the objects are attracted to the centre of the earth + The gravitational force
between two objects depends on their masses and the distance between them, as described by Newton's
law of universal gravitation + Gravitational force is responsible for keeping celestial bodies like planets,
moons, and satellites in orbit around each other and around larger bodies like stars.
28. Newton’s Law of Gravitation: Newton’s law of gravitation states that every particle in the universe
attracts every other particle with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them + The direction of the force is along the line
joining the particles.
29. Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion: Johannes Kepler formulated three laws which describe planetary
motion. They are as follows:

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 Law of orbits: Each planet revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun at one of the
foci of the ellipse.
 Law of areas. The speed of planet varies in such a way that the radius, vector drawn from the sun to
planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
30. Satellite : Satellites are natural or artificial bodies revolving around a plane under its gravitational
attraction + Orbital speed of a satellite is independent of its mass + Satellites different masses revolving in
the orbit of same radius have same orbital speed + Orbital speed of a satellite depends upon the radius of
orbit (height of sate from the surface of earth) + Greater the radius of orbit, lesser will be the orbital speed
+ The orbital speed of a satellite revolving near the surface of earth is 7.9 km/ sec + Period of Revolution
of a satellite: Time taken by a satellite to complete one revolution in its orbit is called its period of
revolution.
31. Escape Velocity : Escape velocity is defined as the speed at which an object travels to break free from
either the planet’s or moon’s gravity and leave without any development of propulsion + On earth, the
escape velocity is around 40,270 kmph, which is around 11,186 m/s + When a spacecraft is launched into
outer space, the velocity attained by this should be greater than the escape velocity so that the rocket
doesn’t fall back onto earth + Escape velocity is different at the poles of the earth compared to that from
the equator because the radius is slightly more at the equator.
32. Pressure: Pressure is defined as force acting normally on unit area of the surface
33. Atmospheric Pressure: The earth’s atmospheric air is surrounded by a layer of gases and so this air
surrounding the earth exerts a pressure. The atmospheric pressure decreases near Earth’s surface, with
height at a rate of about 3.5 millibars for every 30 meters (100 feet).
34. Pascal: It can be defined as a force of one newton applied over a surface area of a one-meter square.
35. Pressure in liquid: Force exerted on unit area of wall or base of the container by the molecules of liquid
is the pressure of liquid + The pressure exerted by liquid at depth h below the surface of liquid is given as
p-hdg where d is the density of liquid + In a static liquid at same horizontal level, pressure is same at all
points + Pressure at a point in a static liquid has same value in all directions + Pressure at a point in a
liquid is proportional to the depth of the point from the free surface + Pressure at a point in a liquid is
proportional to the density of the liquid.
36. Pascal law for pressure of liquid: Pascal's law applies to both liquids and gases, but it's most commonly
observed in liquids due to their incompressible nature + If gravitational attraction is negligible, in
equilibrium condition, pressure is same at all points in a liquid + If an external pressure is applied to an
exclosed fluid, it is transmitted undiminished to every direction + Hydrolic lift, hydrolic press, Hydrolic
brake work on Pascal law.
37. Effect of pressure on Melting Point (MP) and Boiling Point (BP): The M.P. of substances which
expands on fusion increases with the increa pressure; for example - wax. + The M.P. of substances which
contracts on fusion decreases with the increase in temperature for example - ice. + Boiling point of all the
substances increases with the increase in pressure + The effect of pressure on melting and boiling points
is important in various industrial processes, such as refining petroleum, manufacturing polymers, and
synthesizing pharmaceuticals, where precise control over temperature and pressure is necessary for
desired product properties.
38. Floatation: The tendency of an object to rise up to the upper levels of the fluid or to float on the fluid
surface is known as floatation + Sinking is just the opposite process of floatation which means the
tendency of an object to go deep down to the lower levels of the fluid + The phenomenon of floatation
totally depends on the density of the object placed in the fluid and the density of the fluid in which it is
placed.
39. Law of Floatation: The fluid in which a body floats should relocate or displace the fluid of its own
weight to float; this is known as the law of floatation. For example: If a brick of wood weighing 300kg
(3000N) floats in water, then this means that it displaces 300kg (3000N) of water; however, in other
fluids of different properties, if the same wood brick is placed, then it will only float if it is able to
displace the same 300kg of fluid.

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40. Conditions for an Object to Float: The fluid in which the object has to float should have a density more
than that of the average density of the floating object + The total weight of the object must be equal to the
upthrust force of the fluid on the object + To displace a huge amount of fluid, the volume of the object
submerged must be huge enough.
(Note : The ship can be assumed to be like a floating bowl of iron in water, but the bowl does not sink even
though iron is denser than water. Because of its hollow shape, it contains air, which causes its average
density to be lesser than that of water. If you fill sand into the bowl, it will keep floating, but in a surplus
mass of sand, the bowl will sink, which is called overloading in ships.)
41. Surface tension: It is the tendency of fluid surfaces to shrink into the minimum surface area possible.
Surface tension is defined as, The ratio of the surface force F to the length L along which the force acts
(T= F/L) + Examples :
 Insects walking on water
 Floating a needle on the surface of the water.
 Rainproof tent materials where the surface tension of water will bridge the pores in the tent material
 Clinical test for jaundice
 Surface tension disinfectants (disinfectants are solutions of low surface tension).
 Cleaning of clothes by soaps and detergents which lowers the surface tension of the water
 Washing with cold water
42. Viscosity : It is a measurement of how resistant a fluid is to attempts to move through it + A fluid with a
low viscosity is said to be "thin," while a high viscosity fluid is said to be "thick." + It is easier to move
through a low-viscosity fluid (like water) than a high-viscosity fluid (like honey).
 Forumula: F / A = n (dv / dr) (where F represents force and A represents area. So, F/A, or force
divided by area, is another way of defining viscosity. Dv divided dr represents the "sheer rate," or the
speed the liquid is moving. The n is a constant unit equal to 0.00089 Pa s (Pascal-second), which is a
dynamic viscosity measurement unit)
43. Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids: Temperature and pressure affect the viscosity of a fluid. The
viscosity of liquids increases rapidly with an increase in temperature + On increasing pressure viscosity of
liquid molecules increases due to the increase in the resistance to the flow of liquid + If the viscosity does
not change with pressure, we describe something as being a Newtonian fluid + And, if the viscosity does
change as stress or temperature changes, we describe something as being a non-Newtonian fluid + Non-
Newtonian fluids are further classified into categories such as shear-thinning (decreasing viscosity with
increasing shear rate), shear-thickening (increasing viscosity with increasing shear rate), and viscoelastic
(exhibiting both viscous and elastic properties) + Water is an example of Newtonian fluid and toothpaste
is an example of Non-Newtonian fluid.
44. Elasticity: It is the property of an object or material which causes it to be restored to its original shape
after distortion + It is said to be more elastic if it restores itself more precisely to its original configuration
+ A rubber band is easy to stretch, and snaps back to near its original length when released, but it is not as
elastic as a piece of piano wire.
45. Hooke's law: One of the properties of elasticity is that it takes about twice as much force to stretch a
spring twice as far + That linear dependence of displacement upon stretching force is called Hooke's law.
46. Stress: When the body is deformed by the application of external forces, forces within the body are
brought into play + Elastic bodies regain their original shape due to internal restoring forces + The
internal forces and external forces are opposite in direction + If a force F is applied uniformly over a
surface of area A then the stress is defined as the force per unit area (Stress = Force/Area)
47. Strain : A body under stress gets deformed + The fractional change in the dimension of a body produced
by the external stress acting on is called strain + The ratio of charge of any dimension to its original
dimension is called strain + Since strain is the ratio of two identical physical quantities, it is just a
number. It has no unit and dimension.
48. Simple Harmonic Motion: It is defined as a motion in which the restoring force is directly proportional
to the displacement of the body from its mean position + The direction of this restoring force is always

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towards the mean position + It is a special case of oscillation along with a straight line between the two
extreme points (the path of SHM is a constraint) + Path of the object needs to be a straight line + There
will be a restoring force directed towards the equilibrium position (or) mean position + Mean position in
Simple harmonic motion is a stable equilibrium + The velocity of an object undergoing SHM is
maximum at the equilibrium position and decreases to zero at the extreme points.
49. Periodic Motion: A motion repeats itself after an equal interval of time. For example, uniform circular
motion + There is no equilibrium position + There is no restoring force + There is no stable equilibrium
position.
50. Oscillation Motion : To and from motion of a particle about a mean position is called an oscillatory
motion in which a particle moves on either side of the equilibrium (or) mean position is an oscillatory
motion + It is a kind of periodic motion bounded between two extreme points. For example, Oscillation of
Simple Pendulum, Spring-Mass System + The object will keep on moving between two extreme points
about a fixed point is called the mean position (or) equilibrium position along any path. (the path is not a
constraint) + There will be a restoring force directed towards equilibrium position (or) mean position + In
an oscillatory motion, the net force on the particle is zero at the mean position + The mean position is a
stable equilibrium position.
51. Waves : A wave is a disturbance in a medium that carries energy without a net movement of particles + It
may take the form of elastic deformation, a variation of pressure, electric or magnetic intensity, electric
potential, or temperature + Transfers energy + Usually involves a periodic, repetitive movement + Does
not result in a net movement of the medium or particles in the medium (mechanical wave) +
Characteristics of waves :
 The particles of the medium traversed by a wave execute relatively small vibrations about their mean
positions but the particles are not permanently displaced in the direction of propagation of the wave.
 Each successive particle of the medium executes a motion quite similar to its predecessors
along/perpendicular to the line of travel of the wave.
 During wave motion only transfer of energy takes place but not that of a portion of the medium.
52. Types of waves :
 Mechanical Waves: Mechanical waves can be produced or propagated only in a material medium.
These waves are governed by Newton’s laws of motion. For example, waves on water surface,
waves on strings, sound waves etc + Mechanical waves are of two types:
o Transverse wave motion: In transverse waves the particles of the medium vibrate at right angles to the
direction in which the wave propagates + Waves on strings, surface water waves and electromagnetic
waves are transverse waves + In electromagnetic waves (which include light waves) the disturbance that
travels is not a result of vibrations of particles but it is the oscillation of electric and magnetic fields
which takes place at right angles to the direction in which the wave travels.
o Longitudinal wave motion: In these types of waves, particles of the medium vibrate to and from
about their mean position along the direction of propagation of energy + These are also called
pressure waves + Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves.
 Electromagnetic Waves: These are the waves which require no material medium for their production
and propagation, i.e., they can pass through vacuum and any other material medium. Common
examples are visible light; ultra-violet light; radiowaves, microwaves etc
 Matter waves: These waves are associated with moving particles of matter, like electrons, protons,
neutrons etc.
53. Wavelength: The distance travelled by the disturbance during the time of one vibration by a medium
particle is called the wavelength (λ) + In case of a transverse wave the wavelength may also be defined as
the distance between two successive crests or troughs + In case of a longitudinal wave, the wavelength (λ)
is equal to distance from centre of one compression (or refraction) to another.
54. Wave Velocity : Wave velocity is the time rate of propagation of wave motion in the given medium. It is
different from particle velocity. Wave velocity depends upon the nature of medium. Wave velocity (υ) =
frequency (v) x wavelength (λ)

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55. Amplitude : The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of the particles of the medium from
their mean position.
56. Frequency : The number of vibrations made by a particle in one second is called Frequency. It is
represented by v. Its unit is hertz (Hz) v =1/T
57. Time Period : The time taken by a particle to complete one vibration is called time period. T = 1/v, it is
expressed in seconds.
58. Sound waves : Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves + According to their frequency range,
longitudinal mechanical waves are divided into the following categories:
 Audible or Sound Waves: The longitudinal mechanical waves which lie in the frequency range 20
Hz to 20000 Hz are called audible or sound waves + These waves are sensitive to human ear + These
are generated by the vibrating bodies such as tuning fork, vocal cords etc.
 Infrasonic Waves: The longitudinal mechanical waves having frequencies less than 20 Hz are called
Infrasonic + These waves are produced by sources of bigger size such as earth quakes, volcanic
eruptions, ocean waves and by elephants and whales.
 Ultrasonic Waves: The longitudinal mechanical waves having frequencies greater than 20000 Hz are
called ultrasonic waves + Human ear can not detect these waves + But certain creatures like dog, cat,
bat, mosquito can detect these waves Bat not only detect but also produce ultrasonic + Ultrasonic
waves can be produced by Galton's whistle or Hartman's generator or by the high frequency
vibrations of a quartz crystal under an alternating electric field (Piezo-electric effect) or by the
vibrations of a ferromagnetic rod under an alternating magnetic field (Magnetostriction)
59. The speed of sound : It is defined as the distance through which a sound wave’s point, such as a
compression or a rarefaction, travels per unit of time. The speed of sound remains the same for all
frequencies in a given medium under the same physical conditions.
60. Factors Affecting the Speed of Sound
 Density of the Medium : When the medium is dense, the molecules in the medium are closely
packed, which means that the sound travels faster+ Therefore, the speed of sound increases as the
density of the medium increases.
 Temperature of the Medium : The speed of sound is directly proportional to the temperature +
Therefore, as the temperature increases, the speed of sound increases.
61. Speed of Sound in Different Media :
 Speed of Sound in Solid : Solids are significantly denser than liquids or gases, and this means that
the molecules are closer to each other in solids than in liquids and liquids than in gases + This
closeness due to density means that they can collide very quickly + Effectively it takes less time for a
molecule of a solid to bump into its neighbouring molecule + Due to this advantage, the velocity of
sound in a solid is faster than in a gas + Sound travels 35 times faster in diamonds than in the air.
 Speed of Sound in Liquid : Similarly, the density of a liquid is greater than the density of a gas +
Therefore the distances between molecules are more in liquids than in solids but are less than in gases
+ Hence the speed of sound in liquids lies in between the speed of sound in solids and gases.
 Speed of Sound in Water : The speed of sound in water is more than that of the air, and sound
travels faster in water than in the air +:The speed of sound in water is 1480 metres per second.
 Speed of Sound in Gas : Since gases expand to fill the given space, density is relatively uniform
irrespective of gas type, which isn’t the case with solids and liquids + The velocity of sound in gases
is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature (measured in Kelvin) + The velocity of
sound in air at 20oC is 343.2 m/s which translates to 1,236 km/h.
 Speed of Sound in Vacuum : The speed of sound in a vacuum is zero metres per second, as there are
no particles present in the vacuum + The sound waves travel in a medium when there are particles for
the propagation of these sound waves + Since the vacuum is an empty space, there is no propagation
of sound waves

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62. Diffraction of sound: Wavelength of sound is of the order of 1 m. If an obstacle of that range appears in
the path of sound, sound deviates at the edge of obstacle and propagates forward. This phenomenon is
called diffraction of sound.
63. Doppler effect : It is defined as the increase (or decrease) in the frequency of sound, light, or other waves
as the source and observer move towards (or away from) each other.
64. Mach Number: It is defined as the ratio of speed of source of sound to the speed of sound in the same
medium under the same condition of temperature and pressure.
65. Shock waves: A body moving with supersonic speed in air leaves behind it a conical region of
disturbance which spreads continuously + Such a disturbance is called shock wave + This wave carries
huge energy and may even make cracks in window panes or even damage a building.
66. Bow Waves: When a motor boat in a sea travels faster than sound, then waves just like shock-waves are
produced on the surface of water
67. Heat : Heat is the form of energy which produces the sensation of warmth. Its SI unit is joule and other
unit calorie (1 cal = 4.2 Joule) + The transfer of heat is always from hotter to colder body.
68. Temperature : Temperature is measure of hotness or coldness of a body + The heat flows from one body
to another due to the difference in their body temperature.
69. Ways in which heat can flow :
 In Conduction, heat is generally transferred to solids. Conductors are elements that permit heat
transfer through them effortlessly. For example Copper, Aluminium, and Iron. Insulators are
materials that do not allow heat to pass through them easily. For example, Wood and Plastic
 In Convection, the heat transfer executes itself through gases and liquids. Air and water are bad
conductors of heat
 In Radiation, for the transfer of heat, there is no requirement of any medium. The heat from the Sun
that reaches us is an example of radiation
70. Total Radiation Pyrometer : When a body is at high temperature, it glows brightly and the radiation
emitted by the body is directly proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature of the body +
Radiation pyrometer measures the temperature of a body by measuring the radiation emitted by the body
+ This thermometer is not put in contact with the body + But it cannot measure temperature below 800°C
because at low temperature emission of radiation is very small and cannot be detected + Total radiation
pyrometers are commonly used in industrial settings to measure the temperature of high-temperature
furnaces, engines, and other machinery.
71. Specific Heat Capacity: The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the
temperature by one degree Celsius + The relationship between heat and temperature change is usually
expressed in the form where c is the specific heat + The relationship does not apply if a phase change is
encountered, because the heat added or removed during a phase change does not change the temperature
+ The specific heat of water is 1 calorie/gram °C = 4.186 joule/gram °C which is higher than any other
common substance +:As a result, water plays a very important role in temperature regulation + The
specific heat per gram for water is much higher than that for a metal, as described in the water-metal
example + For most purposes, it is more meaningful to compare the molar specific heats of substances.
72. Thermal Expansion: It is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a change in
temperature, through heat transfer + Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular
kinetic energy of a substance + When a substance is heated, the kinetic energy of its molecules increases
+ Thus, the molecules begin moving more and usually maintain a greater average separation + Materials
which contract with increasing temperature are unusual; this effect is limited in size, and only occur
within limited temperature ranges + The degree of expansion divided by the change in temperature is
called the material's coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature.
73. Newton's law of cooling : The rate of loss of heat by a body is directly proportional to the difference in
temperature between the body and the surrounding + Temperature difference in any situation results from
energy flow into a system or energy flow from a system to surroundings + The former leads to heating,
whereas latter leads to cooling of an object + Newton's Law of Cooling states that the rate of temperature

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of the body is proportional to the difference between the temperature of the body and that of the
surrounding medium + This statement leads to the classic equation of exponential decline over time
which can be applied to many phenomena in science and engineering, including the discharge of a
capacitor and the decay in radioactivity.
74. Kirchhoff's law: According to Kirchhoff's law, the ratio of emissive power to absorptive power is same
for all surfaces at the same temperature and is equal to emissive power of black body at that temperature.
Kirchhoff's law signifies that good absorbers are good emitter. Example : If a shinning metal ball with
some black spot on its surface is heated to high temperature and seen in dark, the shinning ball becomes
dull but the black spots shines brilliantly, because black spot absorbs radiation during heating and emit in
dark.
75. Stefan's law: The thermal energy radiated by a blackbody radiator per second per unit area is
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature
76. Change of State: Any material can remain in any of its three states (solid, liquid and gas) + To change
the substance from one state to other state is called change of state + For this either substance is heated or
heat is extracted from the substance.
 Fusion: Fusion or melting is the process by which a solid changes into the liquid state at certain fixed
temperature by the absorption of heat energy + The fusion point or melting point is the fixed
temperature at which a solid starts changing into the liquid state.
 Freezing: The process by which a substance is changed from liquid state to solid state is called
freezing + Freezing takes at a fixed temperature called freezing point (F.P) + For a substance Melting
point = Freezing point + Melting of a substance changes with the change in pressure + Melting point
of substances which contracts in the processes of fusion decreases with the increase in pressure.
 Vaporization: The process by which a substance is changed from liquid state to vapour state
 Evaporation: Evaporation is the process by which water changes from liquid to vapour below its
boiling point.
 Boiling: When a liquid is heated, it eventually reaches a temperature at which the vapor pressure is
large enough that bubbles form inside the body of the liquid. This temperature is called the boiling
point. Once the liquid starts to boil, the temperature remains constant until all of the liquid has been
converted to a gas.
 Condensation: Condensation is the change of water from its gaseous form (water vapor) into liquid
water + Condensation generally occurs in the atmosphere when warm air rises, cools and loses its
capacity to hold water vapor + As a result, excess water vapor condenses to form cloud droplets
(Note : Boiling point of a liquid increases with the increase in pressure + Boiling point of a liquid
increases with the addition of impurity.)
 Latent Heat or heat of transformation: Latent heat, characteristic amount of energy absorbed or
released by a substance during a change in its physical state that occurs without changing its
temperature : The latent heat associated with melting a solid or freezing a liquid is called the heat of
fusion; that associated with vaporizing a liquid or a solid or condensing a vapour is called the heat of
vaporization + The latent heat is normally expressed as the amount of heat (in units of joules or
calories) per mole or unit mass of the substance undergoing a change of state.
 Sublimation: Sublimation is the term for when matter undergoes a phase transition directly from a
solid to gaseous form, or vapor, without passing through the more common liquid phase between the
two + It is a specific case of vaporization.
77. Thermodynamics : Thermodynamics in physics is a branch that deals with heat, work and temperature,
and their relation to energy, radiation and physical properties of matter.
78. Laws of thermodynamics
 First law of thermodynamics: Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, it can only be
transferred from one form to another.
 Second law of thermodynamics: The entropy of any isolated system always increases.

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 Third law of thermodynamics: The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the
temperature approaches absolute zero.
 Zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two thermodynamic systems are in thermal equilibrium with a
third system separately, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
(Note : Entropy is the measure of the number of possible arrangements the atoms in a system can have.
Enthalpy is the measurement of energy in a thermodynamic system.)
79. Light : It is a type of energy that can be converted into other types of energy + Light does not require a
physical medium to propagate
80. Rectilinear Propagation of Light : Light travels in a straight line in a homogeneous transparent
medium, which is known as rectilinear propagation of light.
81. Reflection of Light : It describes the phenomenon by which a ray of light changes its propagation
direction when it encounters a boundary between different media through which it cannot pass.
82. Refraction : The deviation in the path of light when it passes from one medium to another medium of
different density is called refraction + The twinkling of stars is due to atmospheric refraction of starlight +
Since light bends towards the normal the apparent position of the star is slightly different from its actual
position as it passes through the atmosphere + Hence the star appears slightly higher than its actual
position + Due to changing condition of earth's atmosphere the apparent position of the star changes
slightly and the intensity of light reaching the eye also fluctuates.
83. Incident Ray (IO) : The ray of light striking the surface of separation of the media through which it is
traveling is known as the incident ray.
84. Point of Incidence (O) : The point at which the incident ray strikes the surface of separation of the two
media is called the point of incidence.
85. Normal (N) : The perpendicular drawn to the surface of separation at the point of incidence is called the
normal.
86. Refracted Ray (OR) : The ray of light which travels into the second medium, when the incident ray
strikes the surface of separation between the media 1 and 2, is called the refracted ray.
87. Angle of Incidence : The angle which the incident ray makes with the normal at the point of incidence, is
called angle of incidence.
88. Angle of Refraction (r) : The angle which the refracted ray makes with the normal at the point of
incidence, is called angle of refraction + A ray of light refracts or deviates from its original path as it
passes from one optical medium to another because the speed of light changes.
89. Laws of Refraction : The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the surface at the point of
incidence all lie in one plane + For any two given pair of media, the ratio of the sine of the angle of
incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant + The above law is called Snell's law after the
scientist Willebrod Snellius who first formulated it
90. Lens : A lens is a piece of transparent glass which concentrates or disperses light rays when passes
through them by refraction. Related Terms:
 Pole : The centre of the spherical refracting surface of the lens is called the pole. The point where the
principal axis meets the surface of the lens.
 Optical Centre : The point on the principal axis at the centre of the lens is called Optical centre.
 Centre of Curvature : A lens has two spherical surfaces, these two spherical surfaces form a part of
a sphere. The centre of these spheres is known as the centre of curvature.
 Principal axis : The principal axis is an imaginary line passing through the centres of curvature and
the pole.
 Aperture : The area of the lens suitable for refraction is called Aperture. The aperture of the lens is
the effective diameter of its light-transmitting area.
 Focus : Focus is the point onto which collimated light parallel to the axis is focused.
 Focal length : The focal length is the distance between the optical centre and the focal point or focus
of the lens
 Power : The power of the lens is the reciprocal of its focal length. The S.I unit of power is Dioptre.

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91. Types of Lenses :

 Aspheric Lens : Aspheric lens is often known as a non-spherical lens + Aspheric lens is a lens whose
surface is not part of a sphere or a cylinder + The complex surface of an aspheric lens reduces or
eliminates optical aberrations as compared to a simple lens + A single aspheric lens can replace a
combination of simple lenses resulting in a system with a much-reduced size.
 Cylindrical Lens : Lenses that have a curvature along only one axis are classified as cylindrical
lenses + Their main purpose is to convert laser diode elliptical light into a round beam or to focus
light into a line + Motion picture anamorphic lenses are an example of such lenses.
 Fresnel Lens : A Fresnel lens is a lens whose optical surface is divided into narrow rings. This
allows the lens to be much thinner and lighter than conventional lenses.
 Other Lenses : Lenses that have a curvature along only one axis are classified as cylindrical lenses +
Their main purpose is to convert laser diode elliptical light into a round beam or to focus light into a
line + Motion picture anamorphic lenses are an example of such lenses.
 Lenticular lenses : These are a group of microlenses that are used in lenticular printing + These
lenses produce images that have an illusion of depth + A bifocal lens has two or more or graduated
focal lengths + A gradient index lens is a lens with flat optical surfaces while an axicon lens features
a conical optical surface.
92. Concave and Convex Lens
 Concave Lens : A concave lens is a type of lens with at least one side curved inwards. A concave
lens with both sides curved inward is known as a biconcave lens + Concave lenses are diverging
lenses, that is, they spread out light rays that have been refracted through it + They have the ability to
diverge a parallel beam of light
 Convex Lens : A convex lens is a lens with an outward curve + Unlike the concave lens, the
thickness at the centre of a convex lens is more than the thickness at the edges of the lens + Convex
lenses are converging lenses + They have the ability to converge a parallel beam of light into a point
+ This point is called the focal point of the convex lens and the distance from the optical centre to the
focal point is called the focal length + The focal point is on the opposite side of the lens from which
the light rays originate.

93. Powers of lens : The power of a lens is the measure of the degree of divergence or convergence of the
light ray striking it. The degree of divergence or convergence relies on the lens’s focal length + If the
focal length is given in metres (m), the power of the lens is measured in Diopters (D), as in the unit of
power of the lens is diopter
94. Dispersion of light : The phenomenon of splitting of visible light into its component colours is called
dispersion + Dispersion of light is caused by the change of speed of light ray (resulting in angle of
deviation) of each wavelength by a different amount.
95. Examples of some natural phenomenon based on these processes
 Formation of the rainbow: The natural example of the phenomenon of dispersion of light is the
formation of a rainbow. Any rainbow is formed due to the refraction of each light spectrum with a
sorely different angle after entering the tiny drops and reflecting off from the inside and then the light
leaves the small drop.
 Atmospheric Refraction: When the refraction of sunlight occurs due to the earth’s atmosphere as it
consists of many layers of different densities, this process is referred to as atmospheric refraction.
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 Changing position of stars: Due to atmospheric refraction of earth, stars lighten up. On the other
hand, the temperature and density of various layers of the atmosphere are changing and hence cause
the changing position of the star
96. Colours:
 Primary Colours of Light : When we speak of white light, we primarily associate it with the entire
visible light spectrum (VIBGYOR) + White light can also be created by mixing only three distinct
light frequencies, given that they are broadly separated on the visible light spectrum + Therefore, any
three colours of light that create white light when combined with the right intensity are known as
primary colours of light + The most common set of primary colours is red (R), yellow (Y) and blue
(B), as they match the sensitivities of the three colour sensing cones of the eye + When the red, blue
and yellow light is mixed together with the proper intensity, white (W) light is obtained.
 Complementary Colour of Light : Any two colours that produce white light when mixed are known
as complementary colours of each + In the traditional RYB color model, the complementary colour
pairs are red–green, yellow–purple, and blue–orange + For example, the complementary colour of
blue light is orange + This is expected since orange is the combination of red and yellow light, and
when red and yellow light are added to blue light, it will produce white light + Thus, blue light and
orange light represent a pair of complementary colours of light; they add together to produce white
light.
 Colour Vision and Colour Blindness : Colour perception in the human eye is governed by cone
cells + Cone cells can identify red light, blue light and yellow light + Each eyeball consists of 7
million cone cells + Based on the relative intensity of the light and the wavelengths that reach the
cells, the combination of red, yellow and blue reception enables humans to perceive all the colours in
the visible light spectrum + People considered colourblind have shortfalls in their cone cells + Most
colourblind people are unable to see only some colours; being unable to see any colour at all is very
rare + Colour blindness affects about 8% of men and 0.5 per cent of women.
97. Interference : It is the phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form the resultant wave of the
lower, higher or same amplitude +The most commonly seen interference is the optical interference or
light interference + This is because light waves are generated randomly by most of the sources + This
means that light waves coming out of a source do not have a constant amplitude, frequency or phase
98. Scattering of Light: It is a physics term that refers to a variety of physical
processes in which moving particles or radiation of some kind, such as light or
sound, are forced to deviate from a straight path due to localised non-
uniformities (including particles and radiation) in the medium through which
they pass.
99. Polarization: Itis defined as a phenomenon caused due to the wave nature of
electromagnetic radiation + Sunlight travels through the vacuum to reach the
Earth, which is an example of an electromagnetic wave + These waves are called
electromagnetic waves because they form when an electric field interacts with a
magnetic field.
100. Static electricity: It is the build up of an electrical charge on the surface of an object + It's called "static"
because the charges remain in one area rather than moving or "flowing" to another area + Static electricity
leads to the attraction or repulsion of objects and can cause the generation of sparks or electric shocks +
Factors like friction, material separation, and contact with charged objects contribute to static electricity
generation.
101. Electric charge: It is a fundamental property of matter + Electrons carry a charge of negative one
"electron unit", and protons a charge of positive one "electron unit" + Electric charge is conserved in a
closed system + The SI unit for electric charge is the Coulomb.
 Conductors allow charge to move freely through them. Metals are good conductors.
 Insulators keep charged particles nearly fixed in place. Glass, rubber and plastic are good
insulators.

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102. Electric Field of hollow conductor: Electric field intensity inside a charged hollow conductor is zero.
Charge given to such a conductor (or conductor of any shape) remains on its surface only. This explains
why a hollow conductor acts as an electrostatic shield. It is for this reason that it is safer to sit in a car or
bus during lightning.
103. Electric Potential: Electric potential at a point in an electric field is the work done in bringing a unit
positive charge from infinity to that point. SI unit of electric potential is volt. It is a scalar quantity.
104. Potential Difference: Work done in bringing a unit positive charge from one point to other point is the
potential difference between the two points + Its SI unit is the volt (V), which is equivalent to one joule
per coulomb (J/C), and it is scalar quantity, meaning it has magnitude but no direction.
105. Electric Capacity: Electric capacity of a conductor is defined as the charge required to increase the
potential of the conductor by unity. If potential of a conductor is increased by V when a charge Q is
given to it, capacity of the conductor is Q/V
106. Electrochemical Cell : Electrochemical cell is a device which converts chemical Cells are basically of
two types: 1. Primary cell 2. Secondary cell. Examples: Voltaic Cell, Leclanche Cell, Daniel Cell, Dry
Cell etc.
107. Primary Cell : In primary cell electrical energy is obtained from the irreversible chemical reaction
taking inside the cell + After complete discharge, primary cell becomes unserviceable + Primary cells
are also preferred in situations where frequent battery maintenance or replacement is impractical or
inconvenient, such as in certain medical devices and electronic gadgets.
108. A secondary cell or battery: It is one that can be electrically recharged after use to their original pre-
discharge condition, by passing current through the circuit in the opposite direction to the current during
discharge.
109. Current : An electric circuit is formed when a conductive path is created to allow electric charge to
continuously move + This continuous movement of electric charge through conductors of a circuit is
called a current, and it is often referred to in terms of “flow,” just like the flow of a liquid through a
hollow pipe.

110. Voltage : The force motivating charge carriers to “flow” in a circuit is called voltage + Voltage is a
specific measure of potential energy that is always relative between two points.
111. Resistance: Current tends to move through conductors with some degree of friction, or opposition to
motion. This opposition to motion is more properly called resistance. The amount of current in a circuit
depends on amount of voltage and amount of resistance in the circuit to oppose current flow

112. Ohm’s Law: Ohm’s principal is that the amount of electric current through a metal conductor in a
circuit is directly proportional to the voltage impressed across it, for any given temperature. This
relationship is expressed by the equation I = V/R, where I is the current, V is the voltage, and R is the
resistance of the conductor. Ohm's Law is fundamental in understanding and analyzing electrical
circuits, allowing for the prediction of current flow based on voltage and resistance.

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113. Fuse : An electrical fuse is a safety device that operates to provide protection against the overflow of
current in an electrical circuit + An important component of an electrical fuse is a metal wire or strip
that melts when excess current flows through it.

114. Atomic physics: It is the study of the composition of the atom, its interactions with other particles and
subatomic energy states + This branch of physics has been proved to be a brilliant application of
quantum mechanics + It is one of the essential pillars of modern physics.
115. Radioactivity: Due to nuclear instability, an atom’s nucleus exhibits the phenomenon of Radioactivity
+ Energy is lost due to radiation that is emitted out of the unstable nucleus of an atom. Two forces,
namely the force of repulsion that is electrostatic and the powerful forces of attraction of the nucleus,
keep the nucleus together + These two forces are considered extremely strong in the natural
environment + The chance of encountering instability increases as the size of the nucleus increases
because the mass of the nucleus becomes a lot when concentrated + Types of radioactive decay include
alpha decay, beta decay, and gamma decay, each involving the emission of specific particles or
electromagnetic radiation.
116. Laws of Radioactivity: Radioactivity is the result of the decay of the nucleus + The nucleus’s decay
rate is independent of temperature and pressure + Radioactivity is dependent on the law of conservation
of charge + The physical and chemical properties of the daughter nucleus are different from the mother
nucleus + The emission of energy from radioactivity is always accompanied by alpha, beta, and gamma
particles + The rate of decay of radioactive substances is dependent on the number of atoms that are
present at the time.
117. Nuclear energy: Nuclear reactions cause changes in
the nucleus of atoms which in turn leads to changes in
the atom itself + Nuclear reactions convert 1 element
into a completely different element + Suppose if a
nucleus interacts with any other particles and then
separates without altering the characteristics of other
nuclei then the process is called as nuclear scattering
rather than specifying it as a nuclear reaction.
 Nuclear Reactions – Types
o Inelastic scattering: This process takes place
when a transfer of energy occurs. It occurs
above threshold energy.i.e Et = ((A+1)/A)* ε1,
where Et is called as the inelastic threshold
energy and ε1 is the energy of the first excited
state. When the incident particle's energy
exceeds the threshold energy, inelastic
scattering occurs leading to excitation or other energy transitions within the nucleus.
o Elastic Scattering: It occurs when there is energy transfer between a particle and intends nuclei.
It is the most vital process for slowing down neutrons. Total kinetic energy of the system remains
conserved during elastic scattering ensures conservation of momentum and energy.

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o Transfer Reactions: The absorption of a particle followed by discharge of 1 or 2 particles is

referred as transfer reactions.

o Capture Reactions: When nuclei capture neutral or charged particles followed by discharge of ˠ-
rays, it is termed as capture reactions. Radioactive nuclides are produced by neutron capture
reactions.

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CHAPTER – 3 BIOLOGY

Please Note: Cell Basics is covered in Health Section

1. Classification of organisms
 Monera: It includes all prokaryotic organism like bacteria, cynobacteria and archiobacteria.
 Protista: It includes unicellular form found in aquatic habitats, Diatoms flagellates and protozoa.
o Note : Euglena have both heterotrophic and autotrophic mode of nutrition. So, it is placed
between plant and animal.
 Fungi: It includes nongreen plants. It has saprophytic nutrition and growing on dead and decaying
organic matter. Example: Mushroom, Mucor, Albugo etc.
 Planatae: It includes all plants except algae, diatoms, fungi and member of monera and protista.
 Animalia: Almost all animal comes under this kingdom except protozoan.
o Including vertebrates (animals with a backbone) and invertebrates (animals without a backbone).
Examples include mammals (humans, dogs, and whales), birds (sparrows, eagles), reptiles
(snakes, turtles), amphibians (frogs, salamanders), and various invertebrates like insects
(butterflies, ants), mollusks (snails, octopuses), and more.
2. Classification of plantae
 Cryptogamous plants : No flower and seed + Three types
o Thalophyta : Largest group of plant kingdom + no roots, stem and leaves + no conducting issue
+ Divided into two groups
 Algae : Have chronologically and autotrophic mode of transportation + may be unicellular,
colonial or filamentous . Useful Algae :
 As a food: Porphyra, Ulva, Surgassum, Laeminaria, Nostoc etc.
 In making Iodine: Laeminaria, Fucus, Echlonia etc.
 As a manure : Nostoc, Anabana, kelp etc.
 In making medicines: Chloreloline from Chlorella and Tincher iodine is made from Laminaria.
 In research works: Chlorella Acetabularia, Belonia etc.
 Blue-green algae : Also known as Cyanobacteria + Microscopic organisms found naturally in all types
of water + These single-celled organisms live in fresh, brackish (combined salt and freshwater), and
marine water + These organisms use sunlight to make their own food + In warm, nutrient-rich (high in
phosphorus and nitrogen) environments, cyanobacteria can multiply quickly.
 Spirogyra : These are free-floating green algae present in freshwater habitats such as ponds, lakes, etc.
They prefer clean, nutrient-rich water for optimal growth. Spirogyra are commonly known as “water silk
or pond silk” + They have a filamentous and unbranched vegetative structure. This filamentous
morphology helps in nutrient absorption and photosynthesis + There are around 400 species of
Spirogyra found + The genus Spirogyra is named after the unique spiral chloroplast present in the cells
of algae + Spirogyra are photosynthetic and contribute substantially to the total carbon dioxide fixation
carried out + They increase the level of oxygen in their habitat + Many aquatic organisms feed on them.
 Important points :
 Agar-Agar is prepared from algae
 Red snow : Phenomenon that has been known since ancient times + It is the algae that give
the snow its red tinge + This alga species, Chlamydomonas Chlamydomonas nivalis, exists in
snow in the polar and glacial regions, and carries a red pigment to keep itself warm.
 Sea snot : It is marine mucilage, which floats up on the surface of the sea like a brown
phlegm + This thick slimy layer of organic matter looks like a viscous, brown and foamy
substance + It is formed when algae are overloaded with nutrients as a result of water
pollution combined with the effects of climate change + The nutrient overload occurs when
algae feast on warm weather caused by global warming + Water pollution adds to the
problem +

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 Fungi : Study of fungi is called Mycology + eukaryotic, non-vascular, non-motile and

heterotrophic organisms + may be unicellular or filamentous + reproduce by means of spores
+ exhibit the phenomenon of alternation of generation + lack chlorophyll and hence cannot
perform photosynthesis + store their food in the form of starch + Biosynthesis of chitin
occurs in fungi + The nuclei of the fungi are very small + Having no embryonic stage + They
develop from the spores + The mode of reproduction is sexual or asexual + Some fungi are
parasitic and can infect the host + Fungi produce a chemical called pheromone which leads to
sexual reproduction in fungi. Examples : Mushrooms, moulds and yeast.
 Classification of Fungi :
 Saprophytic – The fungi obtain their nutrition by feeding on dead organic substances.
Examples: Rhizopus, Penicillium and Aspergillus.
 Parasitic – The fungi obtain their nutrition by living on other living organisms (plants or
animals) and absorb nutrients from their host. Examples: Taphrina and Puccinia.
 Symbiotic – These fungi live by having an interdependent relationship with other species
in which both are mutually benefited. Examples: Lichens and mycorrhiza.
 Note : Lichens are the symbiotic association between algae and fungi. Here both algae and
fungi are mutually benefited as fungi provide shelter for algae and in reverse algae synthesis
carbohydrates for fungi. Mycorrhiza is the symbiotic association present between fungi and
plants. Fungi improve nutrient uptake by plants, whereas, plants provides organic molecules
like sugar to the fungus.
 Bryophyta : Land plants + Lack of Xylem and phloem tissue + may be of thallus like and leafy erect
structure are in moss + Lack true roots, stem and leaves
 Peridophyta : Mostly found in wet shady places, forests and mountains + body is differentiated into
root, stem and leaves + Reproduction occurs by spores produced inside the sporangia
 Phanerogamous : Plants are well-developed + Plants bears flowers, fruits and seeds + classified into
sub-groups
o Gymnosperm : Plants are in the form of trees and bushes + Differentiated into root, stem and
leaves + Woody, perennial and tall + Plants bear naked seed + Tap roots are well developed +
Pollination takes place through air + The longest plant of the Plant kingdom, Sequoia gigentia
comes under it (Its height is 120 meters + This is also called Red Wood of California) + The
smallest plant is Zaimia Pygmia + Living fossils are Cycas, Ginkgo biloba and Metasequoia + A
Ginkgo biloba is also called Maiden hair tree + Ovule and Antherozoids of Cycas is the largest in
Plant kingdom + Corolloid roof of cycas help in absorption of water and fixation of nitrogen +
Some gymnosperms exhibit unique reproductive structures like cones or strobili.
o Angiosperm: Seeds are found inside the fruits + roots leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds are fully
developed.
3. Photosynthesis
 Process : Plants use light energy to convert
carbon dioxide and water into glucose and
oxygen + Leaves contain microscopic cellular organelles known as chloroplasts + Each
chloroplast contains a green-coloured pigment called chlorophyll + Light energy is absorbed by
chlorophyll molecules whereas carbon dioxide and oxygen enter through the tiny pores of
stomata located in the epidermis of leaves + Another by-product is sugars such as glucose and
fructose + These sugars are used by the plants as an energy source
 Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
o Light Intensity: Increased light intensity results in a higher rate of photosynthesis and vice
versa
o CO2: Higher concentration of carbon dioxide helps in increasing the rate of photosynthesis
o Temperature: For efficient execution of photosynthesis, it is important to have a temperature
range between 25° to 35° C.

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oWater: As water is an important factor in photosynthesis, its deficiency can lead to problems
in the intake of carbon dioxide.
o Nutrient availability: Adequate levels of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium are essential for optimal photosynthesis.
o Pollution: Industrial pollutants and other particulates may settle on the leaf surface. This can
block the pores of stomata which makes it difficult to take in carbon dioxide.
4. Plant harmones :

Auxins : Widely used in agricultural and horticultural practices + Found in growing apices of roots
and stems and then migrate to other parts to act + Induces parthenocarpy i.e. development of fruit
without fertilisation e.g. in tomatoes + Prevents premature fall of leaves, flowers, fruits + Useful in
stem cuttings and grafting where it initiates rooting + Promotes flowering e.g. in pineapple
 Gibberellins : Acidic in nature + Found in higher plants and fungi + Promotes bolting (sudden
elongation of internodes just before flowering in rosette plants like cabbage, beet) + Delays
senescence + Induces parthenocarpy + Elongation of the stem and reverses dwarfism + Induces
maleness in certain plants like cannabis + Helps in regulating seed germination by breaking
dormancy and promoting embryo growth + They are involved in fruit development, influencing
fruit size, shape, and quality.
 Cytokinins : Play an important role in cytokinesis process + Promotes lateral and adventitious
shoot growth and used to initiate shoot growth in culture + Helps in overcoming apical
dominance induced by auxins + Stimulate the formation of chloroplast in leaves + Promotes
nutrient mobilisation and delay leaf senescence + Helps in regulating cell division and
differentiation, promoting overall plant growth and development + Cytokinins interact with
auxins to regulate root growth and branching, maintaining overall plant architecture.
 Abscisic Acid Function : It is a growth-inhibiting hormone + It is also called “stress hormone”
as it increases the tolerance of plants + Induces abscission of leaves and fruits + Inhibits seed
germination + Induces senescence in leaves + Accelerates dormancy in seeds that is useful for
storage purposes + Stimulates closure of stomata to prevent transpiration under water stress
 Ethylene Plant Hormone : It acts as a growth promoter as well as an inhibitor + Occurs in
gaseous form + It is synthesised in the ripening fruits and tissues undergoing senescence +
Hastens the ripening of fruits + Controls epinasty of leaves + Breaks seed and bud dormancy + It
influences root development, inhibiting root elongation and promoting root hair formation.
5. Plant diseases
 Viral Diseases:
o Mosaic disease of tobacco: Leaves get shrinked and become small. The chlorophyll of leaves get
destroyed + By Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) + Control - Affected plants should be burnt

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o Bunchy top of banana : By banana virus + Plants become dwarf and all the leaves get
accumulated like a rose on the branch.
o Fiji Virus : Also known as Southern Rice Black-Streaked Dwarf Virus (SRBSDV) + first
reported in southern China in 2001 + Causes a disease on rice and maize that leads to serious
yield losses + Spreads by the white-backed plant hopper (Sogatella furcifera), which injects it
while sucking the sap from mostly young plants + The virus is specific to the phloem and is not
transmitted by seed or grain + The infected tillers can be pulled out easily.
o Bacteriophages : Bacteria can be infected by tiny viruses called bacteriophages (phages).
Bacteriophages are so small they do not even have a single cell, but are instead just a piece of
DNA surrounded by a protein coat.
o Mycoviruses : Also known as mycophages, are viruses that infect fungi + The majority of
mycoviruses have double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) genomes and isometric particles, but
approximately 30% have positive-sense, single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA) genomes
o Citrus Tristeza Virus (CTV): Causes yellowing and decline of citrus trees + Transmitted by
aphids and through grafting + Control involves planting certified virus-free nursery stock.
o Potato Leaf Roll Virus (PLRV): Leads to stunted growth and rolled leaves in potato plants +
Transmitted by aphids + Control includes crop rotation and planting resistant varieties.
o Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus (TYLCV): Causes yellowing and curling of tomato leaves +
Transmitted by whiteflies + Control involves insecticides and resistant tomato cultivars.
 Bacterial Disease:
o Wilt of Potato : Also known as ring disease because brown ring is formed on the xylem + By
Pseudomonas solonacearum bacteria + Conduction system of the plant is affected.
o Black Arm of cotton : By Xanthomonas Bacteria + In this disease a water body (brown) is
formed on the leaves.
o Bacterial blight of Rice: By Xanthomonas oryzae bacteria + Yellow-greenish spot is seen on
both side of leaves + Vascular bundles get blocked due to bacterial growth.
o Citrus Canker: By Xanthomonas citri bacteria. It has originated in China. Leaves, branches,
fruits all are affected by this disease.
o Tundu disease of wheat: By Corinobacterium titrici bacteria and Enzuina Titriki Nematode + It
leads to the formation of characteristic red or purple streaks on the lower parts of wheat leaves +
In this disease lower parts of the leaves are faded and turned
o Sandalwood spike disease (SSD) : Caused by phytoplasma — bacterial parasites of plant tissues
— which are transmitted by insect vectors + first reported in Kodagu in 1899 + Classified as
“vulnerable” by IUCN + Presently, there is no option but to cut down and remove the infected
tree to prevent the spread of the disease.
o Xoo infection : Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) causes a serious bacterial leaf blight
disease in rice + It is also known as Bacterial blight + Xoo is a gram-negative bacteria +
Prevention - cultivation of rice varieties with genes that confer resistance to Xoo infection.
o Crown Gall Disease: Caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacteria + Results in the formation
of tumor-like growths (galls) on the stems and roots of plants.
o Fire Blight of Apple and Pear: Caused by Erwinia amylovora bacteria + Leads to wilting,
blackening, and death of blossoms, shoots, and branches.
o Soft Rot of Potato: Caused by various species of Pectobacterium and Dickeya bacteria + Results
in soft, mushy decay of potato tubers + Control involves proper storage conditions and disease-
free seed potatoes.
 Fungal Diseases:
o Yellow Rust disease : It appears as yellow stripes of powder or dust on leaves and leaf sheaths of
the wheat crop + This yellow powder comes out on clothing or fingers when touched + This
occurs when the rust colonies in the leaves drain the carbohydrates from the plant and reduce the
green leaf area + In India, it is a major disease in the Northern Hill Zone and the North-Western

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Plain Zone and spreads easily during the onset of cool weather and when wind conditions are
favourable + Rain, dew and fog favour the disease’s development.
o Athelia rolfsii : For the first time, fruit rot caused by the fungus Athelia rolfsii is being reported
in jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) in India + It is a soil-borne fungal pathogen + Attacks
various commercially cultivated crops belonging to different families + One disease which is
found in immature jackfruit is the Rhizopus fruit rot, but it does not affect mature fruit.
o Fusarium wilt TR4 : It cripples plantations by first attacking the leaves, which turn yellow from
their trailing edges before wilting away + It infected the most commonly sold variety, Grand Nain
(musa acuminata).
o Late Blight of Potato: Caused by the fungus Phytophthora infestans + Results in dark, water-
soaked lesions on leaves, stems, and tubers + Led to the Irish Potato Famine in the 1840s.
o Powdery Mildew of Cucurbits: Caused by various species of the fungi Podosphaera and
Erysiphe + Appears as white powdery spots on leaves, stems, and fruits + Control involves
fungicides and resistant cultivars.
o Damping off of seedling is caused by fungus Pythium debaryanum.
o Red root of sugarcane is caused by fungus colletotrichum falcatum.
6. Classification of Animal kingdom

 Mains groups of phylum chordata

o Pisces : Aquatic life + All these are cold blooded animals + Its heart pumps only impure
blood and have two chamber + Respiration takes place through gills
 Example : Hippopotamus, scoliodon, Torpedo
o Amphibia : Found both on land & water + Creatures are amphibian + Cold blooded +
Respiration takes place through gill, skin and lungs + Heart have three chamber, two auricles
and one ventricle
 Example : Frog, Necturus, toad etc.
o Reptilia: Crawlling animal + Land vertebrate, cold-booded, terrestrial or aquatic vertebrates
+ It contains two pair of limbs + Skeleton is completely flexible + Respiration takes place
through lungs + Its eggs are covered with shell made up of Calcium carbonate + Cobra is the
only snake which makes nests + Cobra emits their venom through fangs + Heloderma is only
poisonous lizard + Sea snake which is called Hydrophis is world's most poisonous snake.
 Examples: Lizard, snake, tortoise, crocodile, turtle, sphenodon etc.
 Note: Mesozoic era is called the era of reptiles.
o Aves: Warm blooded tetrapod vertebrates with flight adaptation + Its fore-feet modified into
wings to fly + Boat shaped body is divisible into head, neck, trunk and tail + Its respiratory
organ is lungs + Birds have no teeth + Beak help in feeding + A Beak is formed by jaw.
 Example-crow, peacock, parrot etc.
o Mammalia: Sweat glands and oil glands are found on skin + All these animals are warm
blooded + Its hearts are divided into four chamber + Tooth comes twice in these animals.

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(Diphyodont) + There is no nucleus in its red blood cells (except in camel and lama) + Skin
of mammal have hair + External ear (Pinna) is present in mammal + Mammals are divided
into three sub-classes:
 Prototheria- It lays eggs. Example - Echidna
 Metatheria - It bears the immature child. Example - Kangaroo
 Eutheria-It bears the well developed child. Example - Human
 Note: In mammal the highest body temperature is of goat. (Average 39 degree Celsius) +
Echidna and Duck billed Platypus are the egg laying mammal + Allantois of mammalian
embryo help in respiration + Excretion in hemichordata takes place by glomerulus.

Microbial pathogens : A pathogen is defined as an organism causing disease to its host, with the severity
of the disease symptoms referred to as virulence + Pathogens are taxonomically widely diverse and
comprise viruses and bacteria as well as unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes.

6. Human blood
 About blood : Fluid connective tissue that consists of plasma, blood cells and platelets + Transports
substances like digested food from the small intestine to the other parts of the body + carries oxygen from
the lungs to the cells of the body + Transports waste for removal from the body + Two parts :
o Plasma : Straw coloured, viscous fluid constituting nearly 55 per cent of the blood + 90-92 per cent
of plasma is water and proteins contribute 6-8 per cent of it + Fibrinogen, globulins and albumins are
the major proteins + Fibrinogens are needed for clotting or coagulation of blood + Globulins
primarily are involved in defense mechanisms of the body + Albumins help in osmotic balance +

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Plasma also contains small amounts of minerals like Na+, Ca++, Mg++, HCO3-, Cl-, etc. + Glucose,
amino acids, lipids, etc., are also present in the plasma as they are always in transit in the body +
Plasma serves as the medium for transporting nutrients, gases, hormones, and waste products
throughout the body + Factors for coagulation or clotting of blood are also present in the plasma in an
inactive form + Plasma without the clotting factors is called serum + Plasma also contains various
electrolytes essential for maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance, nerve conduction, and muscle
function.
o Blood Corpuscles : Remaining 40% of the blood

 Red Blood Cells (RBC) : Erythrocytes or RBC are the most abundant of all the cells in blood +
A healthy adult man has, on an average, 5 million to 5.5 million of RBCs mm-3 of blood + RBCs
are formed in the red bone marrow in the adults + RBCs are devoid of nucleus in most of the
mammals and are biconcave in shape + They have a red coloured, iron containing complex
protein called haemoglobin, hence the colour and name of these cells + RBCs have an average
life span of 120 days after which they are destroyed in the spleen (graveyard of RBCs).
 White Blood Cells (WBC) : Also known as Leucocytes are also known as white blood cells +
they are colorless due to the lack of haemoglobin + They are nucleated and are relatively lesser in
number which averages 6000-8000 mm-3 of blood + Types of White Blood Cells :
 Granulocytes
o Eosinophils : They are the cells of leukocytes, which are present in the immune system +
Responsible for combating infections in parasites of vertebrates and for controlling mechanisms
associated with allergy and asthma + Produced in the bone marrow and makes 2 to 3 per cent of
whole WBCs. These cells are present in high concentrations in the digestive tract.
o Basophils : Least common of the granulocytes, ranging from 0.5 to 1 per cent of WBCs + They
contain large cytoplasmic granules, which play a vital role in mounting a non-specific immune
response to pathogens, and allergic reactions by releasing histamine and dilating the blood vessels +
These white blood cells have the ability to be stained when exposed to basic dyes, hence referred to as
basophil + These cells are best known for their role in asthma and their result in inflammation and
bronchoconstriction in the airways + They secrete serotonin, histamine and heparin.
o Neutrophils : They are normally found in the bloodstream + They are predominant cells, which are
present in pus + Around 60 to 65 per cent of WBCs are neutrophils with a diameter of 10 to 12
micrometres + The nucleus is 2 to 5 lobed and the cytoplasm has very fine granules + Neutrophil

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helps in the destruction of bacteria with lysosomes, and it acts as a strong oxidant + Neutrophils are
stained only using neutral dyes. Hence, they are called so + Neutrophils are also the first cells of the
immune system to respond to an invader such as a bacteria or a virus + The lifespan of these WBCs
extends for up to eight hours and is produced every day in the bone marrow.
 Agranulocytes
o Monocytes : These cells usually have a large bilobed nucleus, with a diameter of 12 to 20 micrometres +
The nucleus is generally half-moon shaped or kidney-shaped and it occupies 6 to 8 per cent of WBCs +
They are the garbage trucks of the immune system + They migrate into tissues and clean up dead cells,
protect against bloodborne pathogens and move very quickly to the sites of infections in the tissues
o Lymphocytes : They play a vital role in producing antibodies + They are commonly known as natural
killer cells + They play an important role in body defence + These are colourless cells formed in
lymphoid tissue, hence referred to as lymphocytes + There are two main types of lymphocytes – B
lymphocytes and T lymphocytes + These cells are very important in the immune systems and are
responsible for humoral and cell-mediated immunity.
 Platelets (Thrombocytes) : Thrombocytes are specialized blood cells produced from bone marrow +
Platelets come into play when there is bleeding or haemorrhage + They help in clotting and
coagulation of blood + Platelets help in coagulation during a cut or wound.
 Coagulation of Blood : It is in response to an injury or trauma + This is a mechanism to prevent excessive
loss of blood from the body + Dark reddish brown scum is formed at the site of a cut or an injury over a
period of time + It is a clot or coagulam formed mainly of a network of threads called fibrins in which dead
and damaged formed elements of blood are trapped + Fibrins are formed by the conversion of inactive
fibrinogens in the plasma by the enzyme thrombin + Thrombins, in turn are formed from another inactive
substance present in the plasma called prothrombin.
 Blood Groups :
o ABO grouping : Based on the presence or absence of two surface antigens (chemicals that can induce
immune response) on the RBCs namely A and B + Similarly, the plasma of different individuals contain
two natural antibodies (proteins produced in response to antigens). + ABO blood groups are controlled by
the gene I

o Rh grouping : Another antigen, the Rh antigen similar to one present in Rhesus monkeys (hence Rh), is
also observed on the surface of RBCs of majority (nearly 80 per cent) of humans + Such individuals are
called Rh positive (Rh+ve) and those in whom this antigen is absent are called Rh negative (Rh-ve) + An
Rh-ve person, if exposed to Rh+ve blood, will form specific antibodies against the Rh antigens
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7. Human digestive system :

 The digestive system comprises of Alimentary Canal and Accessory Organs.
o Alimentary Canal : It starts at the mouth (buccal or oral cavity), passes through the pharynx,
esophagus or food pipe, stomach, small intestines, large intestines, rectum, and finally ends at
the anus.

o Mouth: Teeth are designed for grinding food particles into small pieces and are moistened
with saliva before the tongue pushes the food into the pharynx.
o Pharynx: A fibromuscular y-shaped tube which are attached to the terminal at the end of the
mouth + Mainly involved in the passage of chewed/crushed food from the mouth through the
Esophagus
o Esophagus: This is a muscular tube that connects the pharynx, which is a part of an upper
section of the gastrointestinal tract + It supplies swallowed food along with its length.
o Stomach: It serves as a muscular bag that is situated towards the left side of the abdominal
cavity, beneath the diaphragm + It acts as a storage for food and provides enough time to
digest meals + It also produces digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid that maintains the
process of digestion.
 Mucus: It is an aqueous secretion produced by the mucous membranes. It functions by
protecting the stomach lining and gastric pits from the acid, which is produced by the
glands to destroy the bacteria that entered along with the food particles.
 Digestive enzymes: They are the group of enzymes that functions by breaking down
polymeric macromolecules like biopolymers into their smaller and simpler substances.
 Hydrochloric acid: It is the digestive fluid formed by the stomach during the process of
digestion + Destroyes harmful microorganisms present in the food particles.

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o Small Intestine: It is a thin, long tube of about 10 feet long and a part of the lower
gastrointestinal tract + It is present just behind the stomach and acquires a maximum area of
the abdominal cavity.
 Intestinal juice contains the following enzymes:
 Erepsin: It converts the remaining protein and peptone into amino acids.
 Maltase: It converts maltose into glucose.
 Sucrase: It converts the sucrose into glucose and fructose.
 Lactase: It converts the lactose into glucose and galactose.
 Lipase: It converts the emulsified fats into glycerol and fatty acids.
o Large Intestine: This is a thick, long tube measuring around 5 feet in length + It is present
just beneath the stomach and wraps over the superior and lateral edges of the small intestine +
It absorbs water and consists of bacteria (symbiotic) that support the breakdown of wastes to
fetch small nutrients.
o Rectum: Waste products are passed into the end of the large intestine called the rectum and
eliminated out of the body as a solid matter called stool + It is stored in the rectum as semi-
solid feces which later exits from the body through the anal canal through the process of
defecation.
o Pancreas: Large gland present just behind the stomach + It is short with its anterior
connected to the duodenum and posterior pointing towards the left part of the abdominal
cavity + The pancreas releases digestive enzymes to complete the process of chemical
digestion.
 Pancreatic juice from the pancreas combines with food and it contains the following
enzymes:
 Trypsin: It converts the protein and peptone into polypeptides and amino acids.
 Amylase: It converts the starch into soluble sugar.
 Lipase: It converts emulsified fats into glycerol and fatty acids.
Ptyalin : Produced by salivary glands and secreted into the oral cavity during chewing + It accelerates the
conversion of starch to dextrin and maltose + The chloride ions found in saliva activate ptyalin + Saliva
contains the enzyme ptyalin, which converts starch to maltose + Ptyalin enzymes are in charge of breaking
down starch (carbs) into basic carbohydrate molecules like maltose.
Pepsin : Pepsinogen, the inactive form of pepsin, is secreted by chief cells in the stomach lining + It is an
activated digestive enzyme found in gastric juice that cleaves proteins into smaller peptides + It is an
endopeptidase that is released in the stomach lining by the gastric chief cells and is one of the crucial
digestive enzymes found in humans and other animals + The enzyme is an aspartic protease that uses a
catalytic aspartate in its active site
Gastrin : It is a linear peptide hormone secreted by the walls of the pyloric canal ends + The pyloric canal is
the area or the junction between the stomach and the duodenum, where the stomach connects the small
intestine of mammals + It is released into the bloodstream when food enters the stomach, and is carried by
the circulatory system to the gastric cells in the stomach wall, which triggers the secretion of gastric juice +
The gastric juice primarily constitutes hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen + Hydrochloric acid helps break
apart fibrous matter in food and kills bacteria that may have been ingested, and pepsinogen is a precursor of
the protein-splitting enzyme pepsin.
o Liver: Roughly triangular, reddish-brown accessory organ of the digestive system located to
the right of the stomach + It produces bile, which helps in the digestion of fat in the small
intestine + The bile is stored and recycled in the gallbladder + Small, pear-shaped organ that
is located just next to the liver.
8. Circulatory system :
 Heart : It remains safe in the pericardial membrane + Its weight is approximately 300 grams + Heart
of the human is made up of four chambers + In the anterior side there is a right auricle and a left
auricle + In the posterior side of the heart there is a right ventricle and a left ventricle persist + A

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Between the right auricle and the right ventricle there is a tricuspid valve + Between the left auricle
and left ventricle there is a bicuspid valve + The blood vessels carrying the blood from the body
towards the heart is called vein + In the vein there is impure blood i.e. carbon dioxide mixed blood.
Its exception is pulmonary vein, which always carry pure blood + Pulmonary vein carries the blood
from lungs to left auricle + The blood vessels carrying the blood from the heart towards the body is
called artery + In artery there is pure blood i.e. oxygen mixed blood + Its exception is pulmonary
artery + Pulmonary artery carries the blood from right ventricle to lungs + It contains impure blood +
In the right part of the heart, there remains impure blood i.e. carbon dioxide mixed blood and in the
left part of the heart there remains pure blood i.e. Oxygen mixed blood + The artery carrying blood to
the muscles of the heart are called coronary arteries + Any type of hindrance in it causes heart attack.
 Course of circulation: Mammals have double circulation. It mean blood have to cross two times
from heart before circulating throughout the body. Right auricle receive impure blood from the body
which goes into right ventricle. From here the blood went into pulmonary artery which send it to the
lung for purification. After purification it is collected by pulmonary vein which bring it back to heart
in left auricle. From auricle it went into left ventricle. Now this purified blood is went into aorta for
different organ of body + This circulation is done is a cardiac cycle
o Cardiac cycle : Rhythmic systole (Contraction) and diastole (relaxation) of auricle and ventricle
constitutes a cardiac cycle.
o A Heart beat: Heart keeps beating rhythmically throughout the life. There is a node from which
originate contraction of heart.
9. Excretory System : Removal of nitrogenous substances formed during metabolism from the body of
human is called excretion + The main excretory organs of human are as follows
 Kidneys: Its weight is 140 grams + Outer part is called cortex and the inner part is called medulla +
Each kidney is made up of approximately 1,30,00000 kidney ducts which are called nephrons +
Nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney + There is a cup like structure in the every
nephron called Bowman's capsule + Glomerulus is made up of thin blood vessels found in the
Bowman's capsule which is made up of two types of arterioles + The process of filtration of liquids
into the cavity of Bowman's capsule, is called ultra filtration + The main function of the kidneys is
purification of blood plasma i.e. to excrete the unwanted nitrogenous waste substances through
urination + Supply of blood to kidneys takes place in large quantity in comparison to other organs +
The stone formed in kidneys is made up of calcium oxalate.
o Afferent arteriole: Which carries the blood to the glomerulus.
o Efferent arteriole: By which the blood is taken out of the glomerulus.
 Skin: Oil gland and sweat glands found in the skin respectively secretes sebum and sweat.
 Liver: Liver cells play the main role in excretion by converting more and more amino acids and
ammonia of blood into urea.
 Lungs: The lungs excretes two types of gaseous substances carbon dioxide and water vapour. The
excretion of some substances like garlic, onion and some spices in which vapour component is
present excreted by the lungs.
10. Nervous system :
 Neuron : Neuron is a structured and functional unit of
the nervous system and unlike other cells, neurons are
irregular in shape and able to conduct electrochemical
signals + The different parts of a neuron are discussed
below + Dendrite stretches out from the cell body of a
neuron, and it is the shortest fibre in the cell body +
Axon is the longest thread on the cell body of a
neuron and has an insulating and protective sheath of myelin around it + Cell body consists of
cytoplasm and nucleus + Synapse is the microscopic gap between a pair of adjacent neurons over
which nerve impulses pass, when moving from one neuron to the other.

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 Nerves: Thread-like structures that emerge from the brain and spinal cord + responsible for carrying
messages to all the parts of the body. There are three types of nerves - Sensory nerves send messages
from all the senses to the brain + Motor nerves carry messages from the brain to all the muscles +
Mixed nerves carry both sensory and motor nerves.
Nervous system is a complex network of neurons specialized to carry messages + Two parts :
 Central Nervous System (consists of the brain and spinal cord) : Brain is the central information
processing organ of our body, and acts as the command and control system + It is also the site for
processing of vision, hearing, speech, memory, intelligence, emotions and thoughts + brain is well
protected by the skull + Inside the skull, the brain is covered by cranial meninges consisting of an
outer layer called dura mater, a very thin middle layer called arachnoid and an inner layer (which is in
contact with the brain tissue) called pia mater

o The human brain is composed of three major parts:

 Forebrain: The anterior part of the brain, consists of Cerebrum, Hypothalamus and
Thalamus.
 Cerebrum : It is the largest part of the brain + It consists of the cerebral cortex and other subcortical
structures + It is composed of two cerebral hemispheres that are joined together by heavy, dense
bands of fibre called the corpus callosum + The cerebrum is further divided into four sections or lobes
o Frontal lobe: It is associated with parts of speech, planning, reasoning, problem-solving and
movements.
o Parietal lobe: Help in movements, the perception of stimuli and orientation.
o Occipital lobe: It is related to visual processing.
o Temporal lobe: This region is related to perception and recognition of memory, auditory stimuli
and speech.
 Midbrain: The smaller and central part of the brainstem, consists of Tectum and
Tegmentum.
 Hindbrain: The central region of the brain, composed of Cerebellum, Medulla and Pons.
 Cerebellum : It is the second largest part of the brain, located in the posterior portion of the medulla
and pons + The cerebellum and cerebrum are separated by cerebellar tentorium and transverse fissure
+ Cortex is the outer surface of the cerebellum, and its parallel ridges are called the folia + Apart from
this, the cerebellum has the cerebellar peduncles, cerebellar nuclei, anterior and posterior lobes + The
cerebellum consists of two hemispheres, the outer grey cortex and the inner white medulla + It is

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mainly responsible for coordinating and maintaining the body balance during walking, running,
riding, swimming, and precision control of the voluntary movements.
 Medulla Oblongata : It is a small structure present in the lowest region of the brain + It mainly
controls the body’s autonomic functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and digestion + It plays a
primary role in connecting the spinal cord, pons and the cerebral cortex + It helps us in maintaining
our posture and controlling our reflexes.
 Pons : It is the primary structure of the brain stem present between the midbrain and medulla
oblongata + It serves as a relay signals between the lower cerebellum, spinal cord, the midbrain,
cerebrum and other higher parts of the brain + Functions : Controlling sleep cycles + Regulating the
magnitude and frequency of the respiration + Transfers information between the cerebellum and
motor cortex + Pons is also involved in sensations, such as the sense of taste, hearing and balance.

o Spinal cord : It is a cylindrical bundle of nerve fibers and associated tissues enclosed within the
spine and connect all parts of the body to the brain + It begins in continuation with the medulla
and extends downwards + It is enclosed in a bony cage called vertebral column and surrounded
by membranes called meninges + The spinal cord is concerned with spinal reflex actions and the
conduction of nerve impulses to and from the brain.

 Peripheral Nervous System (includes all the nerves of the body) : The nerve fibres of the PNS are
of two types:
o afferent fibres → tissues/organs to brain.
o efferent fibres → brain to tissues/organs.
o The afferent nerve fibres transmit impulses from tissues/organs to the CNS and the efferent fibres
transmit regulatory impulses from the CNS to the concerned peripheral tissues/organs + The PNS
is divided into two divisions called somatic neural system and autonomic neural system + The
somatic neural system relays impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles while the autonomic
neural system transmits impulses from the CNS to the involuntary organs and smooth muscles of
the body
 Somatic Neural System → Brain to Voluntary muscles.
 Autonomic Neural System → Brain to Involuntary muscles.

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11. Human Eye: The eye is an important and one of the most complex sensory organs that we humans are
endowed with + It helps us in visualizing objects and also helps us in light perception, colour and depth
perception + Besides, these sense organs are pretty much similar to cameras, and they help us see objects
when light coming from outside enters them + That being said, it is quite interesting to understand the
structure and working of the human eye
Structure of Human Eye: A human eye is roughly 2.3 cm in diameter and is almost a spherical ball filled
with some fluid.
 Sclera: It is the outer covering; a protective tough white layer called the sclera (white part of the
eye).
 Cornea: The front transparent part of the sclera is called the cornea. Light enters the eye through
the cornea.
 Iris: A dark muscular tissue and ring-like structure behind the cornea is known as the iris. The
colour of the iris actually indicates the colour of the eye. The iris also helps regulate or adjust
exposure by adjusting the iris.
 Pupil: A small opening in the iris is known as a pupil. Its size is controlled with the help of iris. It
controls the amount of light that enters the eye.
 Lens: Behind the pupil, there is a transparent structure called a lens. By the action of ciliary
muscles, it changes its shape to focus light on the retina. It becomes thinner to focus on distant
objects and becomes thicker to focus on the nearby objects.
 Retina: It is a light-sensitive layer that consists of numerous nerve cells. It converts images
formed by the lens into electrical impulses. These electrical impulses are then transmitted to the
brain through optic nerves.
 Optic nerves: Optic nerves are of two types. These include cones and rods.
 Cones: Cones are the nerve cells that are more sensitive to bright light. They help in detailed
central and colour vision.
 Rods: Rods are the optic nerve cells that are more sensitive to dim lights. They help in peripheral vision.
12. Refractive Defects of Vision:
 Myopia or Near-Sightedness : Myopia is commonly known as near-sightedness + In this condition,
the person can see the objects nearby but cannot see distant objects clearly + Faraway objects appear
blurry, and a person will not be comfortable seeing them + Myopia condition takes place when the
shape of the eyes leads the light rays to bend in a wrong way, focusing images in front of the retina
rather than focusing on the retina.
 Hypermetropia or Far-Sightedness : It is commonly known as far-sightedness + In this condition,
the person can see objects at a distance but cannot see nearby objects clearly +:Usually, the person
with this disorder squints to see nearby objects + Hypermetropia is caused when the light rays from a
closeby object are focussed at a point behind the retina.
 Presbyopia : People have difficulties viewing nearby objects clearly without the assistance of
corrective eyeglasses. Presbyopia happens when the ciliary muscles weaken and diminish the
elasticity of the eye lens. Presbyopia can be seen in people above the age of 40 years
13. Skeletal system : It is made up of two parts:
 Axial skeleton : Makes the main axis of the body + total 80 bones
o Skull : There are 29 bones in it + Skull: Out of these, 8 bones jointly protect the brain of the
human + The structure made up of these bones is called forehead + A the bones of the forehead
remain joined strongly by the sutures + There are 14 bone in addition to this which form the face.
Six ear ossicles and one hyoid bone.
o Vertebral Column: Made up of vertebra + All the vertebra are joined by intervertebral disc +
Vertebra is made flexible by these intervertebral disc + Functions - holds the head + provides the
base to the neck and body + helps the human in standing, walking etc + provides flexibility to the
neck and body by which a human can move its neck and body in any direction + provides
protection to spinal cord
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 Appendicular skeleton : It has two parts

o Foot bones - Both hands and feet have 118 bones
o Girdles : To hold the forelimb and hind limb on the axial skeleton + The girdle of forelimb is
called pectoral girdle and girdle of hindlimb is called pelvic girdle + Pectoral girdle joined with
forelimb is called humerus and the bone from pelvic girdle join to hindlimb is called femur.
 Functions of the skeletal system: To provide a definite shape to the body + To provide protection to
soft parts of the body + To provide a base to the muscles for joining + To help in respiration and
nutrition + To form Red Blood Corpuscles.
14. Endocrine system
 Endocrine glands : Unlike exocrine glands(sweat, salivary), endocrine glands secrete their
respective substances directly into the bloodstream rather than through a duct + These endocrine
glands belong to the body’s control system and they produce hormones which help to regulate the
functions of cells and tissues. Some glands are specific to either male (testes) or female (ovaries)
+ Hormones produced by endocrine glands regulate various physiological processes such as
metabolism, growth, reproduction, and stress response.
o Major Endocrine Glands

 Pituitary gland : The pituitary gland secretes growth hormone, which regulates growth
and development throughout life + Enclosed deep within the skull, the pituitary gland is
the size of a pea + It hangs on a stalk at the base of the brain + It consists of an anterior
portion that produces hormones and a posterior portion that has many neural links + This
gland is regarded as the master gland as it controls the functions of all the other glands
(such as the adrenal, thyroid glands) in the endocrine system + The pituitary gland
stimulates the adrenal gland to secrete cortisol, a steroid hormone controls a range of

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activities from controlling the body’s metabolism to stimulating blood pressure + The
pituitary gland also secretes prolactin, which stimulates the production of milk.
 Thyroid gland : The thyroid glands can be found at the front of the neck + It sits low in
the throat, between the windpipe. Brownish red, it has blood vessels coursing through it +
It secretes hormones that are collectively called thyroid hormones + The most prominent
are T3 and T4, which influence the body’s rate of metabolism + The thyroid gland also
produces calcitonin, which helps regulate calcium levels in the blood.
 Parathyroid glands : The parathyroid glands consist of four small glands that are
located behind the thyroids in the neck + They influence the calcium levels in the body
by producing a hormone called Parathyroid Hormone + Sometimes, when the gland
produces excess parathyroid hormones, it can have negative effects such as brittle bones
and kidney stones + Imbalances in PTH levels can result in hyperparathyroidism or
hypoparathyroidism, affecting calcium regulation and bone health.
 Adrenal glands : The adrenal glands sit atop the kidneys and are no larger than a walnut
+ These glands produce over 150 hormones that regulate different functions in the body +
The most well known is Adrenaline, which triggers the flight or fight response + In other
words, this is a stress hormone that helps the organism to either face a dangerous
situation or to avoid it altogether + It does this by: Increasing blood sugar levels +
Increasing the blood supply to the muscles, particularly to the limbs + Dilating the pupils
+ Increasing the heart rate + Tightening the jaw muscles
 Pancreas : The pancreas is exocrine as well as an endocrine gland that sits behind the
stomach + It is roughly 6 inches long and rather flat + It has two primary roles to play:
Producing digestive enzymes + Producing hormones such as insulin and glucagon.
 Insulin is produced by the β cells in the pancreas and it helps in regulating the blood glucose
levels in the body from getting too high + The hormone glucagon is produced by α cells of the
pancreas and it helps the body to prevent the glucose levels from dropping too low + Lack of
glucagon leads to hypoglycemia + Another key difference between the two is insulin becomes
active when the blood glucose levels are high, and glucagon become active only when blood
glucose levels are low.
o Gonads : Some glands are specific to males or females + For instance, the ovaries are
specific to females and are located in the pelvic cavity + While the testes are specific to males
+ Ovaries produce estrogen that is important for reproduction and female sex characteristics
+ Testes produce testosterone that is responsible for male sex characteristics + Also, it results
in increased muscle mass and body hair.
o Pineal gland : The pineal gland is located between the two halves of the brain. It was also
known as the “third eye” for most of history due to its location in the brain and its connection
with light + It produces a hormone known as melatonin which influences the body’s internal
clock + Also known as the Circadian Rhythm, it influences the body’s sleep/wake cycle + Its
effects are not really noticeable unless the individual is sleep-deprived
15. Respiratory system and its organs
 Main organs:
o Nasal passage: Its main function is related to sniffing + Its inner cavity is lined with mucous
membrane + This secretes approximately ½ litre of mucous everyday + This prevents the
particles of dust, bacteria or other small organisms from entering into the body + It makes the
air wet entering into the body and equalises it with the temperature of the body.
o Pharynx : It is situated behind the nasal cavity a common passage for both respiratory and
digestive system.
o Larynx: Pharynx open into anterior wider part of trachea called larynx + The opening is
called glottis + A cartilaginous flop like structure cover the glottis called epiglottis which
prevent the entry of food during swallowing + A pair of vocal cord is present inside the
larynx help in producing sound

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o Trachea: From the base of larynx a tube arises, passes through the neck and reaches upto
middle of thorax is called trachea + It is supported by 'C' shaped cartilaginous ring +
Internally trachea is lined by ciliated and mucus secreting epithelium.
o Bronchi: In the thorocic region trachea divides into two branches called bronchi + Each
bronchus enters into the lung of its own side + After entering into the lung bronchous of each
side divide and redIvide into very fine tube called bronchioles + Finally bronchioles give rise
alveoli or alveolar sac + Alveoli are the site of gaseous exchange
o Lungs : There is a pair of lungs in the thoracic cavity + Its colour is pink, red and looks like
sponge + Right lung is larger in comparison to left lung + Each lung is surrounded by a
membrane which is called pleural membrane + There is a network of blood capillaries + Here
Oxygen enters into the blood and CO2 release out from blood.

 Four parts of process of respiration :

o External respiration :
 Breathing : In lungs air is taken and given out a certain rate which is called breathing
 Inspiration: At this stage, air from the environment enters into the lungs through the
nasal passage, due to increase in the dimension of thoracic cavity a low pressure is
formed in the lungs and air enters into the lungs from environment + This air continues to
enter until the pressure of air inside and outside the body lungs
 Expiration: In this process air comes out of the lungs.
 Exchange of gases : Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide due to the differences in
partial pressures
o Transportation of gases : Transportation of oxygen takes place by haemoglobin present in
blood + Transportation of carbon dioxide from cells to lung takes place by haemoglobin only
to the extent of 10 to 20% and through circulation of blood
o Internal respiration: Inside body, gaseous exchange takes place between bood and tissue
fluid which is called internal respiration + Gaseous exchange in lungs is external respiration.
o Cellular respiration: Glucose is oxidised by oxygen reached into the cell + This process is
called cellular respiration.
 Two types of respiration
o Anaerobic respiration : Oxidation of food takes place in absence of oxygen
o Aerobic respiration : Oxidation of food takes place in presence of oxygen.

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