International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 50 (2020) 101738

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International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/ijdrr

Introducing experiences from African pastoralist communities to cope with

climate change risks, hazards and extremes: Fostering poverty reduction
Walter Leal Filho a, b, Habitamu Taddese c, Mulubrhan Balehegn d, Daniel Nzengya e,
Nega Debela f, Amare Abayineh g, Edison Mworozi h, Sampson Osei i, Desalegn Y. Ayal j,
Gustavo J. Nagy k, Nsani Yannick l, Saizi Kimu m, Abdul-Lateef Balogun n,
Esubalew Abate Alemu o, Chunlan Li p, q, *, Henry Sidsaph r, Franziska Wolf a, b
a
European School of Sustainability Science and Research, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ulmenliet 20D-21033, Hamburg, Germany
b
Manchester Metropolitan University, Department of Natural Sciences, Chester Street, Manchester M1 5GD, UK
c
Hawassa University, Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, PO Box 128, Shashemene, Ethiopia
d
Mekelle University Department of Animal, Rangeland and Wildlife Sciences, PO Box 231, Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia
e
St Paul’s University, P. O. Private Bag, Limuru, 00217, Kenya
f
Wolkite University, Wolkite, Ethiopia
g
Jimma University College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Department of Rural Development and Agricultural Extension Jimma, Ethiopia
h
Mulago National Referral Hospital, Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, PO Box 7072, Kampala, Uganda
i
Institute for Social Development, University of the Western Cape, Private Bag X17, Bellville 7535, Cape Town, South Africa
j
Addis Ababa University, College of Development Studies, Centre for Food Security Studies, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
k
Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Ecología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Igu�
a 1425, CP 11400, Montevideo, Uruguay
l
Faculty/School of Environmental Science and Technology (SEST) Ardhi University, Tanzania
m
Department of Language and Communication Studies, Bingu School of Culture and Heritage, Malawi University of Science and Technology, PO Box 5196, Limbe,
Malawi
n
Geospatial Analysis and Modelling Research (GAMR) Group, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP), 32610 Seri
Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia
o
Center for Rural Development Studies, College of Development Studies, Addis Ababa University, PO Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
p
Institute for Global Innovation and Development, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China
q
School of Urban and Regional Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
r
University of Chester, Business Research Institute, University of Chester, Riverside Campus, Castle Drive, Chester, CH1 1SL, United Kingdom

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Pastoralist communities all over Africa have been facing a variety of social and economic problems, as well as
environmental change climate risks and hazards for many years. They have also been suffering from climate change and extreme events,
pastoralist communities along with a variety of weather and climate threats, which pose many challenges to herders. On the one hand,
risks
pastoralist communities have little influence on policy decisions; however, on the other hand, they suffer to a
hazards-sustainable livelihoods
vulnerability
significant extent from such policies, which limit their options for sustainable development and poverty alle­
adaptation viation. Also, the socio-cultural legacy of herders, and their role in food security and provision of ecosystem
services, as well as their efforts towards climate change adaptation, are little documented, particularly in Eastern
and Southern African countries. There is a perceived need for international studies on the risks and impacts of
climate change and extreme events on the sustainability of pastoralist communities in Africa, especially in
eastern and southern Africa. Based on the need to address this research gap, this paper describes the climate
change risks and challenges that climate threats pose to the sustainability and livelihoods of pastoralist com­
munities in eastern and southern Africa. Also, it discusses the extent to which such problems affect their well-
being and income. Additionally, the paper reports on the socioeconomic vulnerability indices at country-level;

* Corresponding author. Institute for Global Innovation and Development, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (W. Leal Filho), [email protected] (H. Taddese), [email protected] (M. Balehegn),
[email protected] (D. Nzengya), [email protected] (N. Debela), [email protected] (A. Abayineh), [email protected] (E. Mworozi),
[email protected] (S. Osei), [email protected] (D.Y. Ayal), [email protected] (G.J. Nagy), [email protected] (N. Yannick), saikimu@must.
ac.mw (S. Kimu), [email protected] (A.-L. Balogun), [email protected] (E.A. Alemu), [email protected] (C. Li), [email protected]
(H. Sidsaph), [email protected] (F. Wolf).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101738
Received 17 December 2019; Received in revised form 21 April 2020; Accepted 19 June 2020
Available online 5 July 2020
2212-4209/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
W. Leal Filho et al. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 50 (2020) 101738

identifies specific problems pastoralists face, and a variety of climate adaptation strategies to extreme events
through field survey among pastoralist communities in a sample of five countries, namely Ethiopia, Kenya,
Malawi, Uganda, and Zimbabwe. The study has shown that the long-term sustainability of the livelihoods of
pastoral communities is currently endangered by climate change and the risks and hazards it brings about, which
may worsen poverty among this social group. The study suggests that a more systematic and structured approach
is needed when assessing the climate vulnerability of individual pastoral communities, since this may help in
designing suitable disaster risk reduction strategies. Moreover, the paper shows that it is also necessary to un­
derstand better the socio-ecological systems (SES) of the various communities, and how their livelihoods are
influenced by the changing conditions imposed by a changing climate.

1. Introduction especially in Somalia, Mauritania, Ethiopia, Sudan, and Kenya [16].

Pastoralists are uniquely known to occupy large areas of communally
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [1] has made it shared land and have kinship ties for mutual herding and defence.
clear that Africa is one of the most vulnerable continents to climate Pastoralist communities generally live in isolated, remote and under­
change [2,3]. In general, average summer temperature is expected to developed areas. These areas are most often prone to conflict, drought
increase by 1.5 � C by 2050 in Africa under an optimistic (2 � C) global and vulnerability with a great deal of food insecurity. Consequently,
warming scenario. The area exposed to heat extremes is expected to livestock production remains the most viable opportunity to harness
expand to 45% of the region by 2050. Under a more pessimistic (4 � C) scarce biomass resources, as pastoral areas are less suitable for crop
global scenario, these trends would be exacerbated. Decreasing precip­ husbandry.
itation and rising temperatures would likely worsen agricultural Table 1 offers an overview of the population size and distribution of
growing conditions in large parts of Africa, especially in coastal West the most significant pastoralist communities in Africa.
Africa and in Southern Africa [4]. It is reported that two-thirds of Afri­ It should be noted that enumerating mobile pastoralists represents a
ca’s arable land is expected to be lost by 2025 because of the lack of significant challenge due to the general lack of statistics [29]. A study of
rainfall and drought [5]. This state of affairs suggests that many eco­ census and health survey data across Africa revealed different patterns
nomic activities are likely to be negatively influenced by climate of statistical invisibility among most mobile African pastoralists. Despite
changes which are connected to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) progress in statistical documentation, it is concluded that “it is impos­
[6], including pastoralism, the subject matter of this paper. sible to document the number of them with any accuracy over the last
There are various definitions of pastoralism, whose nature varies half-century” [30]. The novelty of this article, therefore, arises precisely
widely according to the viewpoint or emphasis provided by researchers. from its contribution to penetrate that intellectual darkness. The
Primarily, two standard definitions, which derive from either a pro­ research is meant to provide a better undertaking of the nexus between
duction or livelihood perspective, are broadly used for the term pasto­ climate change and extremes, and their impacts on pastoralists in the
ralism. From the production viewpoint, pastoralism is animal eastern and southern African region.
husbandry, the branch of agriculture concerned with the care, tending, Livestock production in pastoral systems makes a significant
and use of grazing livestock in rangeland areas. From the perspective of contribution to national and regional economies [31]. Livestock or
livelihood (or the means of securing the necessities of life), pastoralism livestock-related activities contribute at least 50% of the total value of
is a subsistence living pattern of tending herds of large animals [7] or a production [14]. In 2010 alone, Sudan and Somaliland traded around 1,
successful livelihood strategy on less productive lands through livestock 800,000 pastoral heads of livestock [32]. Despite the significant
herding [8,9], which is the complex relationships between grazing contribution of pastoralism to local, national and regional economies, it
pressure and carrying capacity [10]. The sustainability of pastoralism is attracts little investment from the government and private sectors.
under pressure due to population growth, frequent droughts, deterio­ Curiously, other sectors - which contribute less than the livestock sector
ration of rangeland, scarcity of water, prevalence of livestock disease, to the regional GDP - enjoy better policy attention and investment [12,
and low livestock market value [8,11,12]. However, pastoralism is seen 33].
as a resilient production system [12] and a viable livelihood strategy for In pastoral areas, many climate risks and hazards (e.g. droughts) lead
millions [13]. to losses of livestock. This, in turn, results in significant damages to
The word ‘pastoralism’ in this article should not be understood to household, social, and economic structures, worsening already poor
refer to societies that exclusively depend on animal rearing. Because of living conditions and leading to higher levels of poverty. For instance,
government pressure and self-initiatives, pastoralists have started many diseases associated with climate change and variability affect
practising food crop production. However, food crop production is in its pastoralists and jeopardize their environment and life-support systems
infancy, and its contribution to household income is minimal. Besides, (AU, 2013; [15,34]. Pastoral communities, whose livelihood largely
sedentary farming has not reached a stage of impeding mobile livestock depends on livestock production, often suffer from consequences of
production. For this reason, it is challenging to label societies in the climate change, especially extreme weather events [35].
studied countries as ‘agropastoralists’. For instance, in rural areas, drought-related impacts include
Approximately 25% of the global land area has been occupied by decreased pasture and water availability, reduced livestock productivity
extensive pastoral production [11]. Although there is a significant and increased vulnerability to disease. At the same time, extreme
variation between countries, approximately 40% of Africa’s landmass is climate-related events accelerate the problems of food insecurity,
inhabited by pastoral communities that largely depend on livestock malnutrition, and competition for limited resources such as water and
production for their livelihood [14]. Pastoral production systems pastures [15,16]. Additionally, as a result of severe droughts, pastoral­
constitute around 10% of the world’s meat production and support some ists are forced to displace their livestock to faraway places, potentially
200 million households, who heavily rely on rearing camels, cattle and exposing them to various health risks [16].
small ruminants, about a third of which are found in Sub-Saharan Africa Both in the Horn of Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa, pastoralists sur­
[11,15]. vive in fragile ecosystems that are adversely affected by drought and are
About 25% of the total population of Africa is constituted of pasto­ frequently threatened by desertification.
ralists and agro-pastoralists. Some 50 million pastoralists and up to 200 The complex relationship between grazing pressure and carrying
million agro-pastoralists live in the arid and semi-arid lands of Africa, capacity-a tool often used in rangeland management to describe the

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W. Leal Filho et al. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 50 (2020) 101738

maximum number of livestock an area can support without endangering communal levels. Adaptation strategies may affect adaptive capacity as
the whole system-, is also a factor which needs to be taken into account. a whole. By so doing, the study sought to identify not only the risks and
Often, grazing intensity in some areas is higher than their carrying ca­ hazards but also the adaptive capacity of pastoralists in different coun­
pacity. A recent study undertaken in Ethiopia, for instance, identified tries as determined by local resources and national factors like human
that overstocking or grazing pressure exceeded 5.1 TLU/ha (7.2 cattle/ development indices and per capita income differences. From a global
ha) [36]. point of view, the study demonstrates the greater vulnerability of Africa
Pastoralists and agro-pastoralists struggle to adapt to various cli­ to climate change. From a regional point of view, the study reveals the
matic change-related challenges. Based on the understanding of these determinants of climate adaptation among pastoralists in Ethiopia,
fragile ecosystems with scarce and variable resources, pastoralists who Kenya, Malawi, Uganda and Zimbabwe.
settle in the arid and semi-arid lands have adopted a free and flexible
pattern of resource use which is proven to be sustainable [14,33]. 2. Impacts of climate change to African pastoralist communities
Climate change is damaging the foundations of pastoralism by
significantly reducing the population size of cattle, goats, sheep, equines This section introduces some of the impacts of climate stressors at the
and camels. Such factors explain the worrisome conditions of pastoral­ broad, regional and local pastoralist community levels, respectively. It
ists and agro-pastoralists in countries such as Ethiopia, Malawi, Uganda should be stated that the broad-scale is seen as the African one, the
and Zimbabwe, which are the subject of this paper. Mobility is a critical regional scale refers to the eastern and southern African region, and the
pastoral risk management strategy, especially when pastoralists face an community level scale refers to the local one..
acute shortage of water and pasture. Mobile pastoral communities,
compared to those with sedentary livelihoods, are less vulnerable to loss 2.1. The broad-scale
of livestock [37].
Some primary factors are likely to compel pastoralists to embrace Scientific evidence on weather patterns indicates a changing climate,
alternative community-based adaptation (CBA) strategies that enhance mainly regarding an increase in temperature and extreme events [41,
their resilience to climate change [38–40]. These include i) creating 42]. With ranges from 0.2 � C to more than 0.5 � C per decade, the pro­
stronger urban-rural socio-economic linkages; ii) income source diver­ jected growth of mean global warming will be rather high in Africa [43,
sification; iii) involvement in local government processes; iv) ensuring 44]. Such warming will have unknown consequences given the level of
adequate social services; v) owning land in the semi-sedentary system; uncertainty and the lack of enough assessments, as well as the multiple
vi) improved communication facilities; vii) change in gender roles [33]. stresses and low adaptive capacity of African smallholders [45]. This
For this paper, coping refers to managing the climate impacts on a vulnerability is also related to poor technological, social and economic
day-to-day basis, whereas adaptation refers to long-term strategies conditions which aggravate the continent’s vulnerability to weather and
leading to better readiness to reduce the impacts of climate change. climate extremes [46,47]. On average, Africa experienced a 0.5 � C rise in
Based on the above considerations, this article tries to answer the temperature in the previous century [48]. High-resolution climate pro­
following fundamental questions: What are the manifestations of jections reveal that Africa will continue experiencing increased mean
climate change of particular relevance to pastoralist communities? How annual temperatures and marked seasonal variation in rainfall amounts
do pastoralists perceive the impact of climate change and variability on and distribution patterns [49].
their livelihoods? Are pastoralists uniquely vulnerable to climate change
and extreme weather events? What are the mechanisms of climate 2.2. The regional scale
adaptation that are frequently used among pastoralists in southern and
eastern Africa? “The purpose of the paper is to offer an overview of the The climate in the studied sites of eastern and southern Africa is
measures and strategies being adopted and implemented by pastoralist characterized as humid equatorial to seasonally arid tropical, showing
communities, to cope with climate change hazards. It is also meant to high variability and sensitivity to small changes in the global climate
describe the pressures pastoralists are subjected to, based on experiences scale. Regional climate variability is expected to worsen the shortage
at the local level”. The responses to these questions and strategies fol­ level of water and pasture and increase food insecurity and conflicts, as
lowed by the pastoralists are based on their perceptions expressed well as the spread of certain diseases and related economic problems
through discussion meetings and questionnaires. [50]. An increase in temperatures and a decrease in rainfall is predicted
The above research questions were inspired by the United Nations in many rural areas in the studied sites. Likewise, it is expected that
2030 plan to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [6]. By rainfall will be unpredictable, and there will be recurrent droughts [1,
considering the SDGs, this article examined broad patterns on the nature 42,51]. For instance, in the drylands of southern Kenya, water is a
and impact of climate change, variability and extreme events (from now seasonally scarce resource for many rural people due to increased de­
on referred to as climate stressors) among pastoralists at the country and mand for water caused by population growth and lack of access to dry

Table 1
Overview of some of the most significant African pastoralist communities.
Community/ethnic group Country/Countries Approximate Population Literature

Bedouin Egypt 380,000 [17]

Algeria 230,000 [18]
Tuareg (a nomadic Berber people) Niger 2,185,285 [19]
Mali 165,869 [20]
Burkina Faso 375,111 [21,22]
Algeria >50,000 [21,22]
Boran Ethiopia 500,000 [23]
Maasai Kenya 841,622 [24,25]
Tanzania 682,000 [26]
Samburu (sub-tribe of Maasai) Kenya 223,947 [24]
Somali Ethiopia 892,381 [27]
Kenya 141,111 [24]
Somalia 3,075,000 [28]
Turkana Kenya 855,399 [24]

3
W. Leal Filho et al. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 50 (2020) 101738

season water areas. Also, the increase in temperature in the dry season Table 2
exacerbates water scarcity, which lowers the moisture level needed for Examples of synergic sustainability challenges posed by climate change, ex­
good pasture [52,53]. Furthermore, conflict can result from scarce re­ tremes, and non-climate stressors to pastoralist communities in Sub-Saharan
sources and increasing population pressures [54]. Africa.
Extreme rainfall, maximum temperature events, and extensive Climate-related Region Impacts/Adverse SDGs References
droughts are among the hazards substantially increasing in Ethiopia challenge effects
[55]. In Malawi, while climate projections vary among models Reduced rainfall Botswana, Domestic water 1 [9].
depending on assumptions, the majority of climate models suggest and water stress. Zimbabwe, and shortage affects 2
temperature increases by 1.1–3.0� Celsius by 2060. Also, an increase in Drought is Ethiopian crop production 3
becoming more lowland areas and livestock. 4
the frequency of days considered to be ‘hot’ in the current climate is frequent and are more In lowland areas: 6
likely, whereas estimated rainfall events are likely to decrease, leading more extended climate- livestock-based 15
to more frequent droughts [56]. In Uganda, the warming trend is ex­ in the dry areas. vulnerable than pastoralists.
pected to continue, with some projections suggesting an increase of up Flooding. the wet areas of
Tanzania or
to 1.5 � C as early as by 2030. Similarly, temperatures could rise between
Zambia.
0.9 � C and 3.3 � C by the 2060s [57]. In Zimbabwe, daily minimum Southern Africa.
temperatures have risen by approximately 2.6 � C over the last century High temperatures East and Water scarcity. 1 [50].
while daily maximum temperatures have risen by 2 � C during the same and changes in southern Africa. Food insecurity 2 [50].
period; while the number of cold days has decreased, the number of hot rainfall. East and and reduced 3
Changes in southern Africa. cereal production 6
days increased [58]. Whereas it is not the purpose of this paper to discuss
temperature and and the yields of 11
climate extremes, the above details outlining a warming trend seen in rainfall. high-value 16
Africa. perennial crops.
Climate-related stressors and the poor socio-environmental condi­ Risk of disease
due to the
tions of pastoralists could generate negative consequences in two layers
expansion of
or on two levels [9,48,50,59]: areas for malaria
transmission.
� To natural systems: Deforestation; rangeland degradation and frag­ Human health.
mentation; poor water access; invasive tree and weed species. Erosion and floods East and Erosion 3 [47,50].
in low-lying southern Africa Costs of about 6
� To human-systems: aid dependency; migration; sedentarization;
areas. (e.g. Tanzania). 5%–10% of gross 11
immigration of non-pastoralists into grazing areas; conflict and po­ domestic product 13
litical crises; weak social safety nets; lack of opportunities for live­ (GDP).
lihood diversification; changes in land tenure and insecure access to The rise in Across Africa, Reduced crop 1 [9,48,61].
temperature and particularly production: 2% 2
land, markets, and other resources; increased vulnerability.
change in Sub-Saharan for sorghum to - 3
precipitation Africa, and east 35% for wheat 10
Like the Ethiopian highlands, in regions of high or complex topog­ pattern: By the and southern crop 11
raphy, the downscaled projections indicate increases in rainfall and end of this Africa. productivity; 13
extreme rainfall by the end of the 21st century [48]. Climate predictions century, the yield reductions 15
mean annual of - 10% in the
such as those presented in the African Chapter of the 5th Assessment
temperature is production of
Report of IPCC [51] suggest that there will be temperature increases and expected to rise maize, sorghum,
rainfall variability in the studied areas. By the middle of the 21st-cen­ by more than 2 millet, sugar
tury, it is estimated that the temperature will increase by 2 � C. Despite �
C. cane, and wheat.
Soil erosion Major droughts Pastoralist 1 [63].
the global phenomenon, in the studied sites - similar to what happens
Water occurred in the livestock 2 [62,63]
elsewhere in Africa - the regions will mainly suffer from drought and availability, 1970s and production. 10 [59]; [64].
other climate-induced shocks and stresses [60]. heat stress. 1980s in the Livestock 11
Sahel. mobility and 13
2.3. The local community-level scale Tanzania controlled 15
Mvomero breeding of 16
district, animals.
Table 2 summarizes some of the sustainability challenges posed by Tanzania. Quality and
climate-related stressors to pastoralist communities in the eastern and quantity of feed.
southern Africa region. The climate-related challenges shown in Table 2 Rural
Livelihoods.
might be related to the following SDGs: 1. No poverty. 2. Zero Hunger. 3.
Massive death of
Good Health and Well-being. 6. Clean Water and Sanitation. 10. livestock in 2016.
Reducing Inequality. 11. Sustainable Cities and Communities. 13. Satellite images
Climate Action. 15. Life on Land. 16. Peace, Justice, and Strong indicated that
Institutions. pasture resources
reduced from
As can be seen in the table above, climate stressors disrupt rural 82% in 1985 to
livelihoods by triggering conditions which may negatively influence 5% in 2015.
agricultural production. Besides crop yield reduction and death of Future climate Sub-Saharan Increase in pests, 1 [48].
livestock, climate change may compound health problems and hamper change. Africa weeds, and 2 [48,65,
The highland diseases. 10 66].
overall wellbeing. That being the case, the prospects of achieving the
regions of Crops and 11
SDGs, such as no poverty, no hunger, good health and wellbeing, clean eastern Africa. livestock. 15
water and sanitation are not high, and hence must raise concerns among Striga weed
both policymakers and the rest of the population. causing cereal
yield reduction.
Diseases in the
3. Methodology used coffee berry
(continued on next page)
In understanding trends related to disasters risk reduction, this study

4
W. Leal Filho et al. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 50 (2020) 101738

Table 2 (continued ) seeks to tackle the currents constraint posed by the paucity of studies
Climate-related Region Impacts/Adverse SDGs References specific to problems faced by pastoralists’ communities in the eastern
challenge effects and southern African region, which focus on climate change, variability
borer; burrowing
and extremes and how they influence their livelihoods. The limited
nematode, black availability of data in most countries poses a challenge to efforts aimed
leaf streak at fostering an understanding of trends at a regional level. Since this
disease (that also study focused on the climate-related impacts, as well as the adaptation
threatens
strategies of pastoralists in five East and South African countries (see
bananas).
Climate change Turkana, Kenya. Possible 1 [64,67]. Fig. 1), it is believed it provides a welcome addition to the literature and
and extreme worsening of 2 expands the knowledge on regional trends.
events. conflicts in 10 The study consisted of the use of two main methods, namely a) the
livelihood 16 collection of field data, complemented by b) an analysis of available
systems.
Increased poverty
literature in the sampled countries. Due to the lack of data on credit,
and competition extension services and off-farm income activities, and since some of
over scarce these facilities or services are not widely available, they were not
resources in rural included in the study. The authors in each country actively engaged in
areas are
the data collection.
transforming the
cultural practice The study is divided into general country-level economic and human
of livestock development [68]; UNDP, 2018), climate vulnerability and adaptation
raiding into a [69] (Section 4.1, Table 3), and an aggregated community-level in situ
commercial research of the pastoralists’ perceptions of climate stressors, impacts,
activity with
criminal motives.
and adaptation options in the five studied countries (Section 4.2). The
The use of national-level indicators were used since they are required by interna­
automatic tional organizations, while a local-level index is required when
weapons has analyzing trends related to local-level governments [70]. As there is a
caused insecurity
lack of appropriate sub-national level indicators for pastoralist com­
and hindered
pastoralists’ munities, we used national-level indices as proxies for the three ele­
mobility. ments of vulnerability (exposure, sensitivity, adaptive capacity) which
are assessed for use by policy-makers [46]. These indices are useful to
Source: Compiled by the authors
develop top-down and bottom-up (mainstreaming) adaptation actions
and policies [71].
Therefore, the secondary data are used as a reference for the country-

Fig. 1. Countries involved in the study and their distribution.

5
W. Leal Filho et al. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 50 (2020) 101738

Table 3 The sites were selected based on the existence of pastoralist com­
The methodological approach of community-level discussion and survey. munities that could be accessed by the research team, and which were
Criteria followed in selecting Discussion and Survey approaches willing to share information with the authors through a focus group
the study sites discussion (FGD) that collected data from each site. The study sites (see
1. Research team expert One Focus Group Discussion (FGD) with semi- Table 1 and Fig. 1) are the following pastoralist communities in Afar,
judgment. structured interviews and open-ended questions Yabello, and Arero (Ethiopia); Kajiado (Kenya); Nakasongola (Uganda);
2. Existence of pastoralist per site. Lake Chilwa, Lower Shire river Nsanji, and Chlkawa (Malawi); Chitu­
communities. The informants provided prior and informed lapsi, Beitbrisge, Chitulapsi (Zimbabwe).
3. Representativeness. consent.
4. Accessibility. The research team summarizes the results in
The provision of data on the sub-national level is not even in Africa.
5. Willingness to share specific tables related to the discussion and Whereas some countries are well organized, and data is widely avail­
information. questions. able, in others it is not so. Therefore, the study uses the national level as
6. Diversity. The research team purposely selected researcher the baseline and uses local indicators to “zoom in” at the local reality.
key informants per FGD session with community
Such as, local dimension is essential in understanding the specific re­
participants in each one (knowledgeable elders,
professionals actively engaged in climate and alities in each country. The study used the following approaches. Firstly,
environmental change impact and adaptation). A the study listed significant climate change, variability and extremes, and
skilled team researcher acts as the moderator who associated impacts that are critical to human wellbeing and livelihoods
asks broad probe questions to elicit responses and across the studied regions from the existing literature. Secondly, field
generate discussion among the participants.
Semi-structured interviews and dialogues with
data was collected to identify the occurrence of those problems in each
critical informants provided the research team country. Finally, given the influence of both socio-economic and
with a flexible way to deepen awareness of the ecological conditions in different countries, the results were discussed to
livelihood issues associated with global comparatively assess the nature of climate stressors and the performance
environmental change and climate extremes at
of adaptation efforts among pastoralists.
each site and focus on their qualitative
importance. Consequently, the comparison moves beyond the traditional juxta­
Open-ended questions provided information positions based on national-level development (developed vs underde­
about the pastoralists’ perceptions of climate veloped) or the type of economic activity (pastoral vs agricultural). By
stressors, overall impacts, and responses. transcending such differences, the study adopts a geographical frame of
analysis to the phenomenon of climate stressors. The comparison builds
level development status affecting the potential top-down capacities, not on qualitative descriptions since the authors could not use standardized
to depict the local realities. Better national-level indices of development measurements for climate risks and the performance of adaptation
are assumed as being associated with a better top-down flow of infor­ efforts.
mation and assistance. Despite that the local reality is often not repre­ Table 3 summarizes the methodology used in the fieldwork. Mani­
sented by national-level circumstances, it is assumed that they influence festations of climate stressors were examined based on extensive focus
it. For instance, the improvements in real-time weather/climate forecast group discussions (FGD), crucial informant semi-structured interviews
and modelling, and communication to pastoralists, will foster adaptive with 20 male representatives of the pastoralist communities in each
capacities [72]. However, this paper focuses on the hypothesis that local country, and open-ended questions. The selection of 20 male re­
actions and attitudes are essential to cope to and adapt to climate spondents per community introduces a gender bias in the community
stressors, and lies on the responses of pastoralists to understand local perception because they were identified by the community leaders and
reality. only access to them was granted. The surveys have two parts, as follows:
In Section 4.1, the ND-GAIN Country Index [69] summarizes a Part 1 asked if they believe that global environmental change and
country’s vulnerability to climate change and other global challenges in climate change, in particular, are affecting their community.
combination with its readiness (the preparedness to take actions) to Part 2 provided the reply to question 1 was a “yes”, continued with a
improve resilience. The definitions of vulnerability elements, ecosystem discussion focused on questions to guide the conversation, as summar­
services, and readiness are described below: ised in Section 4.2 (Tables 5–10).
Exposure: nature and degree to which a system is exposed to direct, Survey participants were recruited based on the instructions pro­
significant climate change impacts. It considers vulnerability indepen­ vided by the traditional leaders. As part of the survey of 20 male rep­
dent of the socio-economic context. resentatives of the pastoralist communities in each country-chosen
Sensitivity: the extent to which a country is dependent upon a sector because they are usually the ones leading households-questions about
negatively affected by a climate hazard, or the proportion of the popu­ coping and adaptation mechanisms to climate stressors were asked and
lation particularly susceptible to a climate change hazard. cross-checked with previous studies. The participants - all male - were
Adaptive Capacity: the availability of resources to support sector- recruited based on the instructions provided by the traditional leaders,
specific sustainable adaptation solutions. who are the foremost authorities in the surveyed communities.
Ecosystem Services: the vulnerability of natural capital to climate The respondents described manifestations of climate stressors,
change, the ecological resources that humans rely upon to support lives perceived ecosystem changes, income and livestock losses, adaptation
and livelihoods. options used, the level of climate change and extreme impacts, and the
Readiness: It measures the ability of a country to leverage in­ climate adaptation mechanisms deployed in each area.
vestments accompanied by alternative adaptation actions through Statements collected from the respondents, which mirrored existing
considering three components, such as commercial readiness, gover­ socio-economic, institutional and governance conditions, were used by
nance readiness and social readiness [46,69,73]. the authors to evaluate the nature of adaptive capacity of each site to
The development, vulnerability and SDG indices serve to estimate climate stressors. This task was supported by the respondents’ intimate
the levels of adaptive capacity and accomplishment of SDGs in each knowledge of local climate impacts and coping responses, as well as the
country. The indices used are i) the Gross National Income (GNI) [68]; socio-economic, political and cultural conditions surrounding them,
ii) the Human Development Index (HDI) [74], and iii) the assessment of which are vital in understanding the dynamics of climate change
the countries’ distance from achieving the SDGs [72]. As stated above, adaptation. In this way, the research dealt with the nature of climate
these indices are not directly associated with local-level adaptive ca­ vulnerability attributable to the skills, knowledge, and experience
pacities but with the potential from the top level. possessed by the locals, but also considered governance issues (the ca­
pacity to downscale measures). Similarly, manifestations of climate

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W. Leal Filho et al. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 50 (2020) 101738

Table 4
Economic and Human Development, vulnerability and readiness status, and the Sustainable Development Goal Index (SDG-I) of the studied countries.
Development ND-Gain Vulnerability and Readiness (2017)

Country Per Capita GNI (US$ PPP) 2018 UNDP Overall Vulnerability Readiness SDG-I
HDI 2017
V E S AC ESS Read 2018 (%)

Ethiopia 2010 0.46 0.57 0.51 0.50 0.71 0.49 0.27 0.45
Kenya 3430 0.59 0.55 0.51 0.50 0.65 0.47 0.28 0.55
Malawi 1310 0.48 0.55 0.49 0.48 0.63 0.51 0.26 0.48
Uganda 1970 0.52 0.58 0.52 0.58 0.66 0.51 0.29 0.49
Zimbabwe 3010 0.53 0.54 0.52 0.55 0.60 0.51 0.20 0.52

Table 5 Table 8
Perceived negative influence of climate-related stressors in the surveyed com­ General impacts of climate change and priorities among Pastoralists. Question:
munities. Question: How significant are the negative influences of climate Which are the main impacts of climate change on your livestock?
change and extreme weather events on the overall and economic well-being, Climatic Impact Percentage of respondents implementing Rank
livestock, agriculture, food security, natural resources and community’s social these measures
institutions?
The decrease in population of 83.3 1
Sectors The extent of the Negative Influence of Global Environmental cattle
Change (%) A decrease in the population 70.8 2
Substantially Moderately Little Very Not Rank of goats
little at The decline in the population 70.8 2
all of sheep
The decline in the population 45.8 4
The well-being 95.8 4.2 0 0 0 1 of equines
of the Impact on other types of 16.7 5
community livestock
as a whole The decrease in population of 8.3 6
Livestock 79.2 20.8 0 0 0 6 camels
Agriculture 91.7 8.3 0 0 0 4
Food security 95.8 4.2 0 0 0 1
The economic 95.8 4.2 0 0 0 1
well-being of Table 9
the Adaptation options to climate change. Question: Which are the options you take
community into account to reduce the severity of the effects caused by climate-related and
Traditional 91.7 8.2 0 0 0 4 non-climate stressors on your land, crops, and livestock?
natural
resources Adaptive response options Percentage of respondents Rank
and social implementing these measures
institutions
Adopt the use of more drought- 91.7 1
resistant crops
Different adaptation strategies 50.0 2
(others)
Table 6
Change in the cultivation period 29.2 3
Climatic stressors and environmental impacts in the surveyed communities. Movement of livestock to other 16.7 4
Question: Which are the main climate-stressors and environmental impacts on areas
your communities? Use rainwater harvesting/ 12.5 5
storage
Climatic Stressors/Impacts Percentage of affected Rank
respondents

Increased frequency and magnitude of 100 1

drought Table 10
Higher variability in climate extremes 100 1 Adaptation options to ameliorate income loss due to climate change. Question:
Reduced crop yield 95.8 2 Which are your preferred options to reduce your losses in income due to climate
Land degradation/soil erosion and water 91.7 3 change and extreme events?
depletion
Reduced productivity and population of 91.7 3 Adaptive response options Percentage of respondents implementing Rank
livestock these measures
Expansion of invasive plants and grasses 33.3 5 Combining pastoralism with 100 1
Other environmental changes 33.3 5 tourism
Income diversification 95.8 2
Different adaptation strategies 75 3
Abandon pastoralism for other 33.3 4
Table 7
jobs
Impacts of climate change on land use. Question: Which are the most critical Considering a migration to 20.8 5
climate impacts and losses on land use and the environment? other cities
Climatic Impact Percentage of affected respondents Rank Change in type of livestock 20.8 5
being reared
Loss of rangelands 100 1
Loss of forests 100 1
Decrease in grassland 95.8 3 extremes and their attendant impacts (such as flooding, drought, erratic
The decline in shrubland 91.7 4
rainfall, and diseases) as well as the community responses were syn­
Loss of farmland 91.7 4
thesized from available studies and were supplemented by field obser­
vations among the sampled pastoralists.

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W. Leal Filho et al. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 50 (2020) 101738

By combining the collected local-level primary and secondary these elements form the basis of a “poverty trap” [77–79], outlined in
national-level data, plus the perceptions of community leaders, the Fig. 2 and here defined as conditions which limit access to resources and
study depicts a broad comparative sketch of the climate impacts and the hence perpetuate poverty.
pastoralists’ responses in the five studies countries, in a way not seen The studied countries in this paper (e.g. Kenya, Ethiopia, and
before. It brings in fresh evidence which addresses the nexus between Uganda, in the range of 15–82%, and Malawi and Zimbabwe in the
climate change and poverty in pastoralism. range of 27%–86%) have some specific populations that have access to
weather and climate services (WCS). These amount of people able to
4. Results and discussion access such services is lower for pastoralist than for farming commu­
nities. Indeed, the lower access to WCS by pastoralists represents a
4.1. Country-level development, vulnerability and readiness status barrier towards coping with climate stressors and improving economic
sustainability, which needs to be addressed by the relevant authorities.
Table 4 introduces the country-level status of socio-economic and Table 6 reveals that the surveyed communities are aware of the risks
human development, the vulnerability and readiness, and the level of of higher variability in extreme climate and weather extremes. They
accomplishment of SDGs of countries included in the study. This over­ perceived impacts of climate change and extremes on land resource
view of the studied countries serves to depict the (lack of) top-down degradation through land deterioration, soil erosion and water deple­
adaptive capacity. This assessment is based on secondary sources such tion, reduced livestock productivity and population as a serious prob­
as the Gross National Income (GNI per capita) and the UNDP’s Human lem. It can be surmised that land degradation and agricultural
Development (HDI) Indices, the ND-Gain overall vulnerability (V: E þ S productivity are highly sensitive to climate stressors. The expansion of
– AC), including ecosystem services vulnerability (ESS), which relates to invasive plants and grasses was the least felt impact of climate change.
pastoralism, the overall readiness, and the percentage of achievement of Responses in Tables 7–9 reinforce such findings.
overall SDG indicators. For instance, a reduction in income and crop and livestock produc­
Kenya and Zimbabwe are lower-middle-income countries, and the tivity was ranked the highest climate change-related impact, followed
other three are low-income ones. Kenya is the only country with medium by a reduction in grass availability, and prevalence of disease (Table 6).
human development, whereas the other four show low HDI. The indices Resource-based conflict and the invasion of low-value invasive woody
of development, vulnerability components (E, S, and AC), and readiness species were not perceived to be significant problems. Despite the de­
are quite similar and interrelated. All five countries show levels of gree of variations, the results show that climate change has affected all
readiness placed in the bottom world quintile, with little capacity to aspects of the pastoralists’ lives in many ways. These adverse effects are
implement adaptation options at the country-level. As a result, the apparent concerning the impacts on land use and the environment
importance of community-level adaptation to overcome climate (Table 7). All respondents agree that climate negatively affected ran­
stressors is discussed hereunder. The studied countries perform well or gelands and forests, while 95.5% of the respondents reported climate
better/score well in regards to Ecosystem Services (associated with the also leads to a decrease in grasslands. Finally, 91.7% of the respondents
pastoralism habitat), and less well in regards to readiness. This fact perceived climate impacts through the losses of shrubland and farmland.
supports the statements of several authors (e.g. Refs. [7–9,12,13]) about The effects on livestock are also substantial, e.g. decreases in cattle
the sustainability of pastoralism and the need for better policies. Finally, population (Table 8); priority is given to the sources of income (cattle,
the five countries show a similar global SDG Index, below the global goats, and sheep). As camels are drought-resistant, they are the least
median [75]. The relatively higher level of achievement of the SDGs in affected, followed by equines; this, coupled with high market value,
Kenya and Zimbabwe is in line with their higher development indices. attracted pastoralists to rear camels. For instance, in Borana, the
recently introduced camel population has increased at the expense of
4.2. Community-level perception survey indigenous cattle breeds at the household level.
As Table 6 shows, climate change affected agricultural production
This sub-section presents the aggregated results of the community- (both crop and livestock), natural resources and household income. In
level field surveys. The topics presented include perceptions of the decreasing order, the impact is not only evidently felt by the pastoralists
pastoralist communities of climate-related stressors and impacts on the but was remarkable on cattle, goats, sheep, and equines (unclear what
communities, assets and environment (Tables 5 and 6), climate impacts table this statement is referring to). Table 9 shows that the use of
on land-use and livestock (Tables 7 and 8) and climate adaptation op­ drought-resistant crops is the most preferred adaptation mechanism,
tions (Tables 9 and 10). Because of the lack of local-level data (e.g. adopted by 91.7% of the respondents, followed by changing the culti­
damages and poverty level), the perceptions of the community leaders, vation period, which is practised by 29.2% of the respondents (Table 9).
supported by national-level indicators, are used. The percentages shown
in the tables are an approximation to express perceptions, not a quan­
titative assessment of the local reality. The community-level bottom-up
approach facilitates engagements with stakeholders and considers the
socio-economic and ecological states of existing vulnerabilities, thereby
making informed decisions to manage future risks [76]. Socio-economic
and environmental sustainability can be improved by the disaster risk
management and adaptation approaches. Therefore, addressing the
fundamental causes of vulnerability is a prerequisite for sustainability in
the context of climate change [42,53]. Tables 5–10 show the pastoral­
ists’ perceptions of the influence of climate-related stressors, vulnera­
bility and impacts. The tables summarize climate impacts on land use,
livestock, and adaptation options for pastoralism and income loss.
The well-being of their communities and their food security are the
main general climate-related concerns of pastoralists. Also, impacts on
agriculture, natural resources and traditional social institutions are
observed (Table 5). Such concerns show that livelihoods, the physical
environment, and social institutions are the most adversely affected by Fig. 2. Elements which are related to the poverty trap in pastoralist
climate and environmental changes. Together with other variables, communities.

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W. Leal Filho et al. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 50 (2020) 101738

Rainwater harvesting/storage is the least used adaptation mechanism, SDGs 1 and 3. Except for Kenya, other countries are doing quite well
which might be explained by poor government support. That only 16.7% regarding the SDG on Life on Land [70].
of respondents practised livestock movement during drought is difficult The main limitation of this paper has to do with the lack of objective
to interpret, since that is the salient feature of the pastoral way of life. measurements of vulnerability and readiness at the community level.
The results presented in Table 5 are in line with those in Table 2 (syn­ However, the main perceived threats, impacts, and several response
ergic sustainability challenges). These results place the negative influ­ options were prioritized, since the observations from the people inter­
ence on livestock above the other assets, and the claim that the viewed in the communities provide evidence which corroborates pre­
introduction of crop production restricts the traditional rangeland vious studies and the international literature.
management and adaptation strategies of the pastoral communities
[80]. 5. Conclusions
Regarding adaptation options, the priority is the use of more
drought-resistant crops and alternative income sources such as tourism, The paper aimed to offer an overview of the extent to which climate
while abandoning pastoralism is not favoured by most respondents. change risks and hazards affect pastoralist communities in eastern and
Indeed, pastoralists take several adaptation measures (see Tables 6–8). southern Africa and to consider how these may be duly considered,
However, they do not prioritize water harvesting/storage like other against a complex background. There are limitations in the methods
researchers have found with herders in the drylands of southern Kenya used, such as the size of the sampled pastoralist communities. However,
[48]. Community-level (bottom-up) adaptation strategies are prioritized these limitations do not detract from the merits of the paper, as one of
because of the lack of adequate financial resources, skills and access to the few investigations which have looked at the influence of climate
timely top-down information (e.g. prognosis and early warning about change risks and hazards to the livelihoods of pastoralist communities in
extreme events). These responses agree with previous works [48,53,81], five African nations.
which are essential for the planning of innovative climate adaptation The relevance of the results obtained can be better assessed if one
options and the implementation of climate risk management (CRM). considers that the study sheds light on the various means being deployed
Mainstreaming community-level climate action and combining by pastoralists in the region to cope with, and adjust to, the impacts of a
bottom-up and top-down approaches to mobilize available resources changing climate.
would facilitate the implementation of new adaptation strategies such as The implications of this paper are threefold. Firstly, the study has
National-level Adaptation Plans-NAPs and CRM supported from the shown that the long-term sustainability of the livelihoods of pastoral
community-level action [25,46,47,71,72]. communities is currently endangered by climate change and the risks
The social capital of pastoralists that was once geographically and hazards it brings about, which may worsen poverty among this
bounded is now spreading across larger areas because of changing flows social group. Secondly, the study suggests that a more systematic and
of people, resources and information, all of which can provide alterna­ structured approach is needed when assessing the climate vulnerability
tive sources of income. This new, diversified income, may also increase of individual pastoral communities. Thirdly, the paper shows that it is
their ability to adapt to climate change and better manage climate- also necessary to understand better the socio-ecological systems (SES) of
related risks [13]. the various communities, and how their livelihoods are influenced by
Finally, the two most preferred adaptation measures to reduce the the changing conditions imposed by a changing climate. Moreover, an
losses in income were combining pastoralism with tourism and diver­ improved understanding of SES may help both policy-makers and
sification of income sources (Table 10). The community leaders have not managers to develop more suitable plans and undertake more adequate
detailed if they are practising agro/eco-tourism, but their interest in climate change adaptation initiatives to increase the resilience of pas­
such an income alternative. Only 33.3% of respondents considered toral communities all over Africa.
abandoning pastoralism, and 20.8% used migration to cities and The strengthening of pastoral communities should focus on tackling
changing types of livestock as adaptation measures. Therefore, pasto­ some pressing issues which concern them now, i.e. from a changing
ralists are more interested in employing more adaptation measures dynamic of flood and drought risks to the inherent vulnerability of the
without abandoning their age-old craft. As regards the communities’ SES they live in. In this context, rural communities should not be
livelihood sustainability, key informants and herders highlight the lack regarded in isolation. Instead, they need to be part of a set of associated
of financial capital, a weak physical capital, and a moderate human, social actors and institutions, which need to be interacting in an inte­
natural and social capital. These results are in close agreement with the grated manner to fulfill their roles as guardians of rangelands. It is not
findings made in Inner Mongolia (China) [75] and in Yogyakarta, only about rearing livestock, but also about land-management and
Indonesia [39]. conservation of biodiversity, as well as handling a wide range of envi­
The perception of climate-related impacts on communities focuses ronmental, social, and economic impacts. Such a combined approach
on well-being and environmental sustainability. Recent literature sup­ would allow for the maintenance of the ecosystem services these areas
ports the environmental sustainability of pastoralism [8,12,82]. provide, with the benefits associated with it.
Conversely, researchers have identified the impacts of climate change It is equally important to assist pastoralist communities and the or­
and extremes on the foundations of pastoral livelihoods: agricultural ganizations which support them, in their efforts towards coping with the
yields, grassland, and income, loss of rangeland and forests. Despite such impacts of stressors such as drought, whose intensity is likely to in­
disparities, it is evident that climate-related and non-climate stressors crease. The ability of individuals and institutions at a local level to deal
have the potential to exacerbate existing threats to human security, with such stressors needs to be fostered. By doing so, pastoralists may be
including food, health, and economic insecurity [48]. Pastoralists’ in a better position to respond to the various pressures they are exposed
concerns tally with the UN SDGs 13, which envisions strengthening the to, and the imminent danger of long-term damages to their socio-
resilience and the adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and ecological systems and their livelihoods. Mainstreaming community-
natural disasters [6]. based adaptation (bottom-up) within the upper-level policies (top-
In summary, the studied eastern and southern African countries face down) seems to be among the best low-cost strategies, and likely to work
significant challenges in achieving many SDGs (e.g.1. poverty; 2. un­ as long as the relevant stakeholders are on board.
dernourishment; 3. health and well-being; 11. cities and communities). To yield the expected benefits attempts to support pastoralist com­
On the other hand, they perform relatively better at the country-level in munities to cope with the many challenges climate change and extreme
achieving SDGs 13 (climate action) and 14 (terrestrial ecosystems) [70]. events pose to them should also consider:
For instance, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda are in a better position to
achieve SDGs 1, 2, 3, while Zimbabwe has good potential regarding

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