Discrete Mathematics Detailed Solutions (Hinglish)

1. Define simple graph. Give an example.

Simple graph ek aisa graph hota hai jisme:

- Koi self-loop nahi hota (yaani koi vertex apne aap se connected nahi hota)

- Koi multiple edges nahi hoti (do vertices ke beech sirf ek edge hoti hai)

Example:

Suppose humare paas 3 vertices hain: A, B, C

Aur edges hain: AB, BC, CA

To yeh ek simple graph hai kyunki:

✔ Har edge do alag vertices ko connect karti hai

✔ Koi self-loop ya duplicate edge nahi hai.

2. Draw a Null graph N4.

Null graph ek aisa graph hota hai jisme sirf vertices hote hain, lekin koi edge nahi hoti.

N4 ka matlab hai Null graph with 4 vertices.

Toh, is graph me:

- Vertices: V = {v1, v2, v3, v4}

- Edges: E = {}

Iska matlab koi bhi vertex kisi bhi vertex se connected nahi hai.

3. Prove that (N, +) is not a group for defined additive operation.

Group banane ke liye 4 properties satisfy honi chahiye:

1. Closure

2. Associativity

3. Identity element

4. Inverse element

(N, +) => Natural numbers with addition

Check karte hain:

✔ Closure: Natural numbers ka addition firse natural number deta hai ✅

✔ Associativity: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) ✅

✔ Identity: 0 hona chahiye, lekin 0 natural number me include nahi hota ❌

❌ Inverse: Kisi bhi natural number ka additive inverse natural number nahi hota (e.g., 2 ka inverse -2 hai jo

N me nahi hai)

Isliye (N, +) group nahi banata.

4. Find the number of distinguishable permutations of the letters in BOOLEAN.

BOOLEAN me total letters = 7

Repeated letter = O (2 times)

Agar sare letters unique hote to permutations = 7! = 5040

Lekin O 2 baar repeat ho raha hai, to formula hoga:

Permutations = 7! / 2! = 5040 / 2 = 2520

Toh BOOLEAN ke distinguishable permutations hain: 2520

5. Which of the following propositions are true and which are false?

(a) If the earth is round, then the earth travels round the sun.

(b) If Alexander Graham Bell invented telephone, then tigers have wings.

Propositional logic me implication (→) tab false hoti hai jab:

Antecedent true ho aur consequent false ho.

(a) Earth is round ✅, Earth travels round sun ✅ ⇒ TRUE implication

(b) Bell invented telephone ✅, Tigers have wings ❌ ⇒ FALSE implication

Isliye:

(a) TRUE

(b) FALSE

6. Draw a graph which is regular but not complete.

Regular graph: Har vertex ka degree same hota hai.

Complete graph: Har vertex baaki sabse connected hota hai.

Example: 4 vertices ka cycle graph C4.

Vertices: A, B, C, D

Edges: AB, BC, CD, DA

Isme har vertex ka degree = 2 ⇒ Regular

Lekin har vertex har dusre se connected nahi ⇒ Not complete

7. State which of the following graphs are simple. Give reason also.

Simple graph ke rules:

- Koi self-loop nahi hona chahiye

- Koi multiple edge nahi honi chahiye

Check karne ke liye:

- Agar graph me vertex apne aap se connected hai to self-loop hai ❌

- Agar do vertices ke beech 2 ya zyada edges hain to multiple edge hai ❌

Agar dono condition satisfy hoti hai to graph simple hai ✅

8. Let f : R → R, where f(x) = x³ – x. Show that f is one-one.

f(x) = x³ – x

Assume f(a) = f(b)

⇒ a³ – a = b³ – b

⇒ a³ – b³ = a – b

⇒ (a – b)(a² + ab + b² – 1) = 0

Toh ya to a = b, ya a² + ab + b² – 1 = 0

Lekin ye quadratic expression 0 tabhi hoga jab a ≠ b ke liye kuch specific value ho.

Lekin mostly a = b hi hona chahiye for f(a) = f(b).

So, f is one-one (injective) on R.

9. What is an invertible function? Give one suitable example.

Invertible function: f(x) tabhi invertible hoti hai jab wo one-one aur onto dono ho.

Example: f(x) = 2x + 3

- Ye one-one hai: f(a) = f(b) ⇒ a = b

- Ye onto hai: Har real y ke liye, x = (y – 3)/2 exist karta hai

Isliye f(x) = 2x + 3 ka inverse function f⁻¹(x) = (x – 3)/2 hoga.

10. Let A = {1,2,3,4,5,7}, B = {1,3,8,9}. Find (a) A ∪ B (b) B ∪ C

(a) A ∪ B = {1,2,3,4,5,7,8,9} (combine both sets and remove duplicates)

(b) B ∪ C – Question incomplete kyunki C defined nahi hai. Agar C diya hota tab calculate karte.

11. In how many ways can 4 questions be selected from 7 questions?

Yeh combination ka case hai:

Formula: nCr = n! / (r!(n – r)!)

Here, n = 7, r = 4

7C4 = 7! / (4!3!) = (7×6×5×4!) / (4!×3×2×1)

= (210) / (6) = 35

Answer: 35 ways

12. Show that C6 is a bipartite graph.

Bipartite graph: Vertices ko do disjoint sets me divide kar sakte hain jisme same set ke vertices ke beech

koi edge nahi ho.

C6: 6 vertices cycle (even cycle)

Even cycle hamesha bipartite hota hai

Split vertices as:

Set1: V1, V3, V5

Set2: V2, V4, V6

All edges alternate set ke beech hain ⇒ Bipartite ✅

13. Draw graphs of the following chemical compounds:

(a) C6H6 (b) CH4

(a) C6H6 (Benzene): 6 carbon atoms in a ring, each bonded with 1 hydrogen ⇒ cyclic graph

(b) CH4 (Methane): 1 carbon in center connected to 4 hydrogen atoms ⇒ star graph

(Diagram not included as per your request)

14. Every graph is not a tree, but the converse is true. Justify.

Tree = Acyclic connected graph

Graph = Can be cyclic or disconnected

Example:

Graph with 4 nodes and a cycle ⇒ Not a tree

Lekin har tree ek graph hota hai

So, har graph tree nahi hota, lekin har tree graph hota hai ✅

15. Define spanning tree with suitable example.

Spanning tree: Given connected graph ka subgraph jo:

- Sab vertices ko connect kare

- Cycle na ho

- Minimum number of edges ho (n – 1 for n vertices)

Example: Graph with 4 vertices A, B, C, D

Edges: AB, BC, CD ⇒ Connects all 4 ⇒ Spanning Tree