Name: Zahid Akhtar

Department: EDUCTION
Course: MA Education
Semester: 1st
Assignment: 1st
Subject: Child Development &
Learning

Assignment No. 01

Q1: Define Growth and Development. Also describe the Principles of Growth and
Development.

Ans:

Growth:

“Growth is an increase in size or the amount of an entity. Growth is used for all
those structural and physiological changes that takes place in an individual”.

Growth is actually external in nature. It can be directly measured. It is like

increase in size and weight. It is mainly concerns with physical aspects of an individual.
Growth stops at particular age. It is biological process and continues from birth to
adulthood.

The progressive development of a living thing, especially the process by which

body reaches its point of complete physical development.

Human Growth:

“Human growth from infancy to maturity involves great changes in body size and
appearance,including the development of the sexual characteristics. The growth process i
s not steady one: at sometimes,
growth occurs rapidly, at others slowly. Individual patterns of growth vary widely
because of differences in heredity and environment. Children tends to have physiques
similar to those of their parents”.

Development

“Development is the comprehensive term, it is life long process, it is progressive

change in size, shape, and function during the life of an organism by which its genetic
potentials are translated into functioning adult system”
 Development refers to change or growth that occurs in a child during the life span
from birth to adolescence. This change occurs in an orderly sequence,
involving physical, cognitive, and emotional development. These three main areas of
child development involve developmental changes which take place in a predictable
pattern (age related), orderly, but with differences in the rate or timing of the changes
from one person to another. It is related to the maturation of nervous system and indicates
the acquisition of variety of skills for optimal functioning of individuals.

Development is internal in nature. It can be felt only. It can’t be measured

directly. It means working of internal organ and their functions. Development is the name
of all those changes that take place in the function and activities of different organs of an
individual. For example, when muscles of legs become strong a child begins to creep,
then stand and the start walking, including this an individual gets qualities and attitude as
well. Development deals with all the aspects of personality and has vast scope.

Principles of Growth and Development:

Following are the main Principles of Growth and Development:

 Development Involves change:

The human being is never static. From the time of conception to the time of death,
a person undergoes continued and progressive changes. At every age, some of the
development changes are just beginning, some are at peak and others are in the
process of decline.

 Development is continuous:

Development is continuous because one stage of development lays the foundation

for the next stage of development. For example, an infant can move his limbs
(arms & legs) before grasping objects. Mystery of climbing stairs involves
increasing skills from holding to walking.

 Early Development is more critical the later Development:

Early development is more critical than later development. The environment in

which children live during early years of life has a strong impact on their
hereditary potentials. Relationship with family members is strong way for
development which leads to later development in later life.

 Product of Maturation and learning:

Maturation refers to the sequential characteristics of biological growth and

development. These characteristics occur in sequence and give children new
abilities and maturity. Changes in the brain and nervous system account largely
 for maturation. These changes in the brain and nervous system helps children to
improve thinking (cognitive) and motor (physical) skills.

 Developmental pattern is predictable:

Development proceeds from head to downward is called “Cephalocaudal”

Principle. This principle describes the direction of growth & development.
According to this principle, the child gains control of head first, then arms and
then legs. Infants develop control of head and face movements within the first two
months after birth.

Development proceed from center of body to outward, this principle is called

“Proximodorsal”. This principle also describes developmental direction.
According to this principle the spinal cord develops before the outer parts of the
body. The child arms develop before the hands & feet develop before fingers and
toes.

 Development procedure form general to specific:

In motor (Physical) development, the infant will be able to grasp an object with
whole hand before using only the thumb and forefinger. The infants’ first
movements are very generalized, undirected and reflexive, waving arms or
kicking before being able to reach or creep towards an object.

 Individual differences in Development:

Although the patters and sequences for growth and development are usually the
same for all children but the rates at which individual reach developmental stages
will be different. Some children are more active while others are more passive.

 Child develops as a unified whole:

The child intellectual behavior is related to his physical wellbeing. Physical

wellbeing is affected by his emotions and emotions are affected by his successes
and failures in school and by the environment in the family. The children who are
physically weak are slow in the development of mental process also.

 Development follows an orderly process:

The development of child takes place in orderly sequence. A child learns to stand
before he walks, he babbles before he speaks clearly and learn to sit before he
stands.

 Development takes place in stages:

 The development of child takes place in stages. Each stage has certain unique
characteristics and behavior. The entire period of development is divided into
different stages like infancy, babyhood, childhood, adolescence, adulthood etc.

Q2: Briefly describe the stages of physical development and why teacher should have
the knowledge of physical development of child?

Ans:

Physical development refers to the advancements and refinements of motor skills,

or, in other words, children’s abilities to use and control their bodies. These
advancements are evident in gross-motor and fine-motor skills, and they are essential to
children’s overall health and wellness. Gross- motor skills involve the use of large
muscles in the legs or arms, as well as general strength and stamina. Examples of such
skills include jumping, throwing, climbing, running, skipping, and kicking. Fine-motor
skills involve the use of small muscles in the arms, hands, and fingers. They are
supported by advancements in perception, or the ways in which children use their senses
to experience the world around them. Examples of such skills include stringing beads,
scribbling, cutting, and drawing. Fine-motor skills enable children to perform a variety of
self-help tasks, such as using utensils and dressing themselves. There is a great deal of
variation in the development of fine-motor skills.
Children’s motor abilities in preschool develop as a result of physical
development. As their bodies mature, children progressively strengthen their muscles and
are able to better control their bodies. Skill mastery and development, however, are also
the result of brain growth and development. For example, consider a preschooler kicking
a ball back and forth with a peer or caregiver. This child must have acquired control over
muscles and their movement in order to be able to kick the ball. The child also depends
upon vision to determine the location and direction in which to kick the ball and on
hearing for instructions from a peer or caregiver. We will explore the body-brain
connection and its impact on children’s overall learning and growth in more detail in
Lesson Two (Developmental Milestones) when we examine influences on physical
growth and factors that affect children’s physical development.
There are three stages of Physical Development;
1. Pre-Natal Stage
2. Peri-Natal Stage
3. Post-Natal/Postpartum Stage
Here is the brief description of these three stages.
1. Pre-Natal development:
Pre-Natal development is the process in which an embryo and later fetus
develops during gestation. Prenatal development starts with fertilization the first stage in
embryogenesis which continues in fetal development until birth. In human pregnancy,
prenatal development, also known as antenatal development, is the development of the
embryo following fertilization, and continued as fetal development. By the end of the
tenth week of gestational age the embryo has acquired its basic form and is referred to as
a fetus. The next period is that of fetal development where many organs become fully
developed. This fetal period is described both topically (by organ) and chronologically
(by time) with major occurrences being listed by gestational age.
2. Peri-Natal development:
The Peri-Natal period (from Greek peri, “about, around” and Latin nasci “to be
born”) is “around the time of birth". In developed countries and at facilities where expert
neonatal care is available, it is considered from 22 completed weeks (154 days) of
gestation (the time when birth weight is normally 500 g) to 7 completed days after birth.
In many developing countries, the starting point of this period is considered 28 completed
weeks of gestation (or weight more than 1000 g).In ICD-10, a medical classification list
by the WHO, there is a particular chapter relating to certain conditions originating in the
perinatal period. The antepartum period (from Latin ante “before” and parere “to give
birth”) is literally equivalentto Pre-Natal (from Latin pre- “before” and nasci “to be
born”). Practically, however, antepartum usually refers to the period between the
24th/26th week of gestational age until birth, for example in antepartum hemorrhage.
3. Post-Natal development:
A Postpartum period or Post-Natal period is the period beginning immediately
after the birth of a child and extending for about six weeks. Less frequently used are the
terms puerperium or puerperal period. The World Health Organization (WHO)
describes the postnatal period as the most critical and yet the most neglected phase in the
lives of mothers and babies; most deaths occur during the postnatal period.
It is the time after birth, a time in which the mother’s body, including hormone levels and
uterus size, returns to a non-pregnant state. Lochia is postpartum vaginal discharge,
containing blood, mucus, and uterine tissue. In scientific literature, the term is commonly
abbreviated to Px, where x is a number; for example, “day P5” should be read as “the
fifth day after birth”. This is not to be confused with medical nomenclature that uses G P
to stand for number of pregnancy and outcome of pregnancy.

1. INFANCY:
This is a period of new born. Growth is temporarily at a stands till.
2. BABYHOOD:
At this stage, the babies are completely helpless during the early part. Gradually
they learn to control the muscles so that they can become independent.
3. CHILDHOOD:
This period lasts from two to thirteen years of age. It is subdivided into two parts:
i. EARLYCHILDHOOD:
The child learns to gain control over the environment and starts learning to make
social adjustments.
5. ADOLESCENCE: It is twelve years onward still the individual as sums adulthood. It
is again divided into two stages:
i. EARLYADOLESCENCE:
Physical growth is rapid in both boys and girls. There is enhanced mental activity
in general.
ii. LATERADOLECENCE:
it is characterized by tapering off of physical growth but the psychological
development continues in many complex ways preparing him to adjust to the demands of
society as an adult.
6. ADULTHOOD:
By this time, physical changes are nearly complete but the psychological
adjustments continue.

Why teacher should have the knowledge of physical development of child:

It is very necessary for the teacher to have knowledge of child's physical

development because if teacher knows the child in all aspects he/she may able to teach
him/her with full confidence and proficiency.

To explore some of the widely held assumptions concerning the role of child
development knowledge in teaching young children. These assumptions first came into
question in the process of preparing a commentary on four essays written by early
childhood practitioners in response to the question "What is needed to move beyond an
initial level of competence as an early childhood teacher?" (Katz, 1994).

The four essayists nominated a variety of competencies that most likely apply to
teachers of children of all ages and not solely to teachers of preschoolers. Examples of
some of the competencies nominated included that "teachers should have clear goals,"
and "should be lifelong learners," and others that are pertinent to teachers of all age
groups. However, one competence recommended without apparent hesitation by all four
essayists-and not likely to be suggested for teachers at other levels-is "the possession of a
thorough knowledge of child development."

Similarly, the assumption that child development knowledge is essential for early
childhood teachers emerged in a survey conducted in England (Early Childhood
Education Research Project, 1994). The majority of head teachers (principals)
representing every type of early childhood setting ranked "Knowledge of Child
Development" as the single most influential contributor to the professional development
of practitioners who work with children under 8 years of age. The teachers surveyed
ranked "Knowledge of School Subjects" relatively low as a factor contributing to the
competence of early childhood practitioners. Even the heads of schools for statutory
[compulsory] age children rated "Knowledge of School Subjects" lower in importance to
teaching competence than knowledge of child development.
 In combination, the four essays by early childhood practitioners in the United
States, and the results of the Early Childhood Education Research Project in England,
provoked a discussion with a close colleague concerning precisely how knowledge of
child development might influence teaching practices. We began by speculating about
how knowledge of the nature of physical development-to say nothing of knowledge of
social development-might or should influence the pedagogical and curriculum decisions
of teachers of young children. Our first assumption was that on the basis of knowledge of
physical development a teacher would assume that 4-year-olds are "by nature" physically
active and therefore cannot remain still for very long; we agreed that this principle of
physical development should be taken into account in planning curriculum and designing
pedagogy.

On further reflection, however, we realized that this developmental principle may

have limited generalizability. In many countries, young children-even toddlers-sit still for
what seem to U.S. observers to be very long periods of time. I recall my own initial
amazement when first observing large groups of preschoolers in the People's Republic of
China sitting for long periods watching quietly as their classmates performed songs and
dances. We then acknowledged that young children in our own country are capable of
being still for extended time periods as, for example, during the lamentably long periods
they sit in front of television sets. These examples, of course, should not be taken to
imply that young children necessarily like to sit still for very long periods or that such
experiences enhance their physical, social, or intellectual development.

Nonetheless, this discussion and reflection led me to question the tacit

assumptions implied by the four essayists and our English colleagues, namely, that
mastery of child development knowledge and principles can contribute significantly and
positively to competence in teaching and curriculum planning for young children.

These discussions in turn lead me to question what is meant by the term

development in general, and child development in particular, and whether it is reasonable
to assume that there is an agreed-upon body of child development knowledge and
principle for teachers to use as a basis for decisions about appropriate curriculum and
pedagogical practices. As a result of the reflections that resulted from the discussions, I
no longer possess the certainty I once had concerning the reliability of child development
knowledge and hence its value to teachers of young children.

Q3: Describe in detail the intellectual Development.

Ans:
The increase in the power of thinking and understanding is called mental
development. The intellectual development begins with rapid sensory and perceptual
development in the early years of life. By this third year child the child develops skilful
perceptual ability in the exploration of his world. For about ten years he built it, reaching
his maximum capacity in adolescence when his senses and perceptions are sharp and
keen as they will not he again. General ability shows a steady and continuous growth
from childhood through adolescence. The maximum intellectual capacity seems to
develop in the period from fifteen to seventeen.
Thursion discovered that different mental abilities measured at different ages.
Found that of the seven primary mental abilities the perceptual speed factor was the first
to mature. Space and reasoning attained maximum level at the age of fourteen. The
memory and number factors matured at sixteen. The factors which mature the latest were
word fluency and verbal comprehension.
The concept of distance and space develop quite early. Concepts of number time
and cause and effect relations develop rather gradually. Heredity sets the limits which
environment can’t transcend. These limits are not easily known. The school should
provide such an environment as well as release the intellectual abilities of children
especially those who belong to lower socio-economic classes. The method of teaching
should also aim at developing, understanding, thinking and reasoning.

Educational Implication of Mental Development:

Mental development of child is as necessary as physical development. The
educational implications can be of great help both for the teachers and parents in
educating the child.
1. Proper Classification of child:
Keeping the fact of individual differences in mind, the children should not be
taught with the same method and in the same atmosphere. They should be grouped and
classified in different classes on the basis of their level of cognition and intelligence.
Thus the teacher will have a harmonious group of children; they will have the same
mental level and other performance. In this way they will grow in harmonious
development.
2. A pleasant method of instruction:
The method of instruction plays pivotal role in the mental development of child.
An interesting and pleasant method of teaching ensures the proper cognition of child.
Thus the teacher must adopt modern and effective methods in order to ensure the proper
cognitive development of children.
3. Treatment with mentally retarded children:
Mentally retarded children need proper treatment both from the teacher and the
parents. Therefore they should not be treated harshly but in a good and friendly way.
4. Development of creative thinking:
The teacher should stress on the development of creative thinking in his pupils.
He should provide them with useful material such as books, magazines and other things
needed for the development of such thinking.

Piaget’s theory of intellectual development

Piaget’s theory of intellectual development is a comprehensive theory about the
nature and development of human intelligence. It was first created by the Swiss
developmental psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980). The theory deals with the nature of
knowledge itself and how humans gradually come to acquire, construct and use it.
Piaget’s theory is mainly known as developmental stage theory. To Piaget, cognitive
development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes resulting from
biological maturation and environmental experience. He believed that children construct
an understanding of the world around them, experience discrepancies between what they
already know and what they discover in their environment and then adjust their ideas
accordingly. Child-centered classrooms and "open education" are direct applications of
Piaget’s views. Despite its huge success, Piaget’s theory has some limitations that Piaget
recognized himself: for example, the theory supports sharp stages rather than continuous
development.
1. Sensori-motor stage:
Cognitive development is Jean Piaget’s theory. Through a series of stages, Piaget
proposed four stages of cognitive development: the sensori-motor, preoperational,
concrete operational and formal operational period. The sensori-motor stage is the
first of the four stages in cognitive development which “extends from birth to the
acquisition of language”. In this stage, infants progressively construct knowledge and
understanding of the world by coordinating experiences (such as vision and hearing) with
physical interactions with objects (such as grasping, sucking, and stepping). Infants gain
knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform within it. They progress
from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the
end of the stage. Children learn that they are separate from the environment. They can
think about aspects of the environment, even though these may be outside the reach of the
child’s senses. In this stage, according to Piaget, the development of object permanence is
one of the most important accomplishments. Object permanence is a child understands
that objects continue to exist even though he or she cannot see or hear them. Peek-a-boo
is a good test for that. By the end of the sensori-motor period, children develop a
permanent sense of self and object. Piaget divided the sensori-motor stage into six sub-
stages”.
2. Pre-operational stage:
Piaget’s second stage, the pre-operational stage, starts when the child begins to
learn to speak at age two and lasts up until the age of seven. During the Pre-operational
Stage of cognitive development, Piaget noted that children do not yet understand concrete
logic and cannot mentally manipulate information. Children’s increase in playing and
pretending takes place in this stage. However, the child still has trouble seeing things
from different points of view. The children’s play is mainly categorized by symbolic play
and manipulating symbols. Such play is demonstrated by the idea of checkers being
snacks, pieces of paper being plates, and a box being a table. Their observation of
symbols exemplifies the idea of play with the absence of the actual objects involved. By
observing sequences of play, Piaget was able to demonstrate that, towards the end of the
second year, a qualitatively new kind of psychological functioning occurs, known as the
Pre-operational Stage. The pre-operational stage is sparse and logically inadequate in
regard to mental operations. The child is able to form stable concepts as well as magical
beliefs. The child, however, is still not able to perform operations, which are tasks that
the child can do mentally, rather than physically. Thinking in this stage is still egocentric,
meaning the child has difficulty seeing the viewpoint of others. The Pre-operational Stage
is split into two sub-stages: the symbolic function sub-stage, and the intuitive thought
sub-stage. The symbolic function sub-stage is when children are able to understand,
represent, remember, and picture objects in their mind without having the object in front
of them. The intuitive thought sub-stage is when children tend to propose the questions of
“why?" and “how come?" This stage is when children want to understand everything.
3. Concrete operational stage
The concrete operational stage is the third stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development. This stage, which follows the preoperational stage, occurs between the ages
of 7 and 11 (preadolescence) years and is characterized by the appropriate use of logic.
During this stage, a child’s thought processes become more mature and “adult like”. They
start solving problems in a more logical fashion. Abstract, hypothetical thinking is not yet
developed in the child, and children can only solve problems that apply to concrete
events or objects. At this stage, the children undergo a transition where the child learns
rules such as conservation. Piaget determined that children are able to incorporate
Inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning involves drawing inferences from observations
in order to make a generalization. In contrast, children struggle with deductive reasoning,
which involves using a generalized principle in order to try to predict the outcome of an
event. Children in this stage commonly experience difficulties with figuring out logic in
their heads. For example, a child will understand that “A is more than B” and “B is more
than C”. However, when asked “is A more than C?” the child might not be able to
logically figure the question out in his or her head. Two other important processes in the
concrete operational stage are logic and the elimination of egocentrism. Egocentrism is
the inability to consider or understand a perspective other than one’s own. It is the phase
where the thought and morality of the child is completely self focused. During this stage,
the child acquires the ability to view things from another individual’s perspective, even if
they think that perspective is incorrect. For instance, show a child a comic in which Jane
puts a doll under a box, leaves the room, and then Melissa moves the doll to a drawer,
and Jane comes back. A child in the concrete operations stage will say that Jane will still
think it’s under the box even though the child knows it is in the drawer. (See also False-
belief task.) Children in this stage can, however, only solve problems that apply to actual
(concrete) objects or events, and not abstract concepts or hypothetical tasks.
Understanding and knowing how to use full common sense has not yet been completely
adapted. Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were able to
incorporate inductive logic. On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty using
deductive logic, which involves using a general principle to predict the outcome of a
specific event. This includes mental reversibility. An example of this is being able to
reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. For example, a child might
be able to recognize that his or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a
dog is an animal, and draw conclusions from the information available, as well as apply
all these processes to hypothetical situations. The abstract quality of the adolescent’s
thought at the formal operational level is evident in the adolescent’s verbal problem
solving ability. The logical quality of the adolescent’s thought is when children are more
likely to solve problems in a trial-and-error fashion. Adolescents begin to think more as a
scientist thinks, devising plans to solve problems and systematically test opinions. They
use hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which means that they develop hypotheses or best
guesses, and systematically deduce, or conclude, which is the best path to follow in
solving the problem. During this stage the adolescent is able to understand love, logical
proofs and values. During this stage the young person begins to entertain possibilities for
the future and is fascinated with what they can be. Adolescents also are changing
cognitively by the way that they think about social matters. Adolescent egocentrism
governs the way that adolescents think about social matters, and is the heightened self-
consciousness in them as they are which is reflected in their sense of personal uniqueness
and invincibility. Adolescent egocentrism can be dissected into two types of social
thinking, imaginary audience that involves attention-getting behavior, and personal fable,
which involves an adolescent’s sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility. These two
types of social thinking begin to affect a child’s egocentrism in the concrete stage.
However, it carries over to the formal operational stage when they are then faced with
abstract thought and fully logical thinking.
4. Formal operational stage
The final stage is known as the formal operational stage (adolescence and into
adulthood, roughly ages 11 to approximately 15-20): Intelligence is demonstrated
through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. This form of thought
includes “assumptions that have no necessary relation to reality. At this point, the person
is capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning. During this time, people develop the
ability to think about abstract concepts. Piaget stated that "hypothetico-deductive
reasoning" becomes important during the formal operational stage. This type of thinking
involves hypothetical “what-if” situations that are not always rooted in reality, i.e.
counterfactual thinking. It is often required in science and mathematics.
_ Abstract thought emerges during the formal operational stage. Children tend to think
very concretely and specifically in earlier stages, and begin to consider possible outcomes
and consequences of actions.
_ Metacognition, the capacity for “thinking about thinking” that allows adolescents and
adults to reason about their thought processes and monitor them.
_ Problem-solving is demonstrated when children use trial-and-error to solve problems.
The ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical way emerges.
While children in primary school years mostly used inductive reasoning, drawing general
conclusions from personal experiences and specific facts, adolescents become capable of
deductive reasoning, in which they draw specific conclusions from abstract concepts
using logic. This capability results from their capacity to think hypothetically.
Q4: Explain in detail the Erik Erickson Theory of social development.
Ans:
The understanding of social laws, principles and abiding by the following those
social laws and principles is called social development. A socially developed person is
that which knows how to deal with members of society and who is aware of the duties
and rights while living in the society.
Social development depends on the interaction of organisms and the environment.
Environment plays a more active part. Physical, mental, intellectual and emotional
growth is predominantly genetic. But in social group it is the social environment which is
predominant. The process of socialization starts right from birth where as emotional
conditions can he created in the fetus by some bright light or loud sound.
The process of preparing children to live in society to assimilate its culture and to
be its functioning members is called socialization. Every culture has some plan, a system
of positive and negative sanctions, formal and informal agencies, in harmony with its
moral religious, economic and other values for accomplishing this goal. Socialization is
also learning of one’s social role of role-taking. A role is a pattern of behavior which is
expected of an individual by others in social system. The individual’s social efficiency
and happiness depends to a large extent on the understanding of these roles and on the
ease and flexibility with which he shifts from one role to another.
According to F. S Powers social growth is actually progressive improvement
through directed activity. This definition emphasis four things.
1. Social growth is progressive and not a product of any one time in life.
2. Social growth is brought about the directed activity of society. There are both
formal and informal agencies to influence a child’s induction into the cultural
heritage. The most important formal agencies for this purpose are family, religion
and the school. The informal include the playground, the club, cinema, radio and
television, newspaper and the market.
3. Socialization process through increasing understanding of cultural heritage, social
customs, mores, folkways or ways of living and acting, traditional values etc.
4. Socialization results in certain behavior patterns which no doubt conforms to
social values but is flexible enough to limit of deviation and variation.
Independent way of thinking and behaving is a social value by itself in a
democratic society.
Erikson’s stages of social development:
As articulated by Erik Erikson, in collaboration with Joan Erikson, is a
comprehensive psychoanalytic theory that identifies a series of eight stages, in which
a healthy developing individual should pass through from infancy to late adulthood.
All stages are present at birth but only begin to unfold according to both a natural
scheme and one’s ecological and cultural pbringing. In each stage, the person
confronts, and hopefully masters, new challenges. Each stage builds upon the
successful completion of earlier stages. The challenges of stages not successfully
completed may be expected to reappear as problems in the future. However, mastery
of a stage is not required to advance to the next stage. The outcome of one stage is not
permanent and can be modified by later experiences. Erikson’s stage theory
characterizes an individual advancing through the eight life stages as a function of
negotiating his or her biological forces and socio-cultural forces. Each stage is
characterized by a psychosocial crisis of these two conflicting forces (as shown in the
table below). If an individual does indeed successfully reconcile these forces
(favoring the first mentioned attribute in the crisis), he or she emerges from the stage
with the corresponding virtue. For example, if an infant enters into the toddler stage
(autonomy vs. shame and doubt) with more trust than mistrust, he or she carries the
virtue of hope into the remaining life stages.
1.1 Hope: trust vs. mistrust (oral-sensory, infancy, 0–2 years)
_ Existential Question: Can I Trust the World?
The first stage of Erik Erikson’s theory centers around the infant’s basic needs being met
by the parents and this interaction leading to trust or mistrust. Trust as defined by Erikson
is “an essential truthfulness of others as well as a fundamental sense of one’s own
trustworthiness.” The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother, for sustenance
and comfort. The child’s relative understanding of world and society come from the
parents and their interaction with the child. A child’s first trust is always with the parent
or caregiver; whomever that might be; however, even the caregiver is secondary where as
the parents are primary in the eyes of the child. If the parents expose the child to warmth,
regularity, and dependable affection, the infant’s view of the world will be one of trust.
Should the parents fail to provide a secure environment and to meet the child’s basic
needs; a sense of mistrust will result. Development of mistrust can lead to feelings of
frustration, suspicion, withdrawal, and a lack of confidence. According to Erik Erikson,
the major developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people,
especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent
sources of food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust- that others are dependable
and reliable. If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns
mistrust- that the world is an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous
place. While negative, having some experience with mistrust allows the infant to gain an
understanding of what constitute dangerous situations later in life, yet being at the stage
of infant or toddler; it is a good idea not to put them in situations of mistrust, the child’s
number one needs are to feel safe, comforted, and well cared for.
1.2 Will: autonomy vs. shame and doubt (early childhood, 2–4 years)
_ Existential Question: Is It Okay to Be Me?
As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to
explore their surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base of a security from
which the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents’ patience and
encouragement helps foster autonomy in the child. Children at this age like to explore the
world around them and they are constantly learning about their environment. Caution
must be taken at this age while children may explore things that are dangerous to their
health and safety. At this age children develop their first interests. For example, a child
who enjoys music may like to play with the radio. Children who enjoy the outdoors may
be interested in animals and plants. Highly restrictive parents, however, are more likely to
instill in the child a sense of doubt, and reluctance to attempt new challenges. As they
gain increased muscular coordination and obility, toddlers become capable of satisfying
some of their own needs. They begin to feed themselves, wash and dress themselves, and
use the bathroom. If caregivers encourage self-sufficient behavior, toddlers develop a
sense of autonomy—a sense of being able to handle many problems on their own. But if
caregivers demand too much too soon, refuse to let children perform tasks of which they
are capable, or ridicule early attempts at self-sufficiency; children may instead develop
shame and doubt about their ability to handle problems.
1.3 Purpose: initiative vs. guilt (locomotor-genital, preschool, 4–5years)
_ Existential Question: Is it Okay for Me to Do, Move, and Act?
Initiative adds to autonomy the quality of undertaking, planning and attacking a task for
the sake of just being active and on the move. The child is learning to master the world
around them, learning basic skills and principles of physics. Things fall down, not up.
Round things roll. They learn how to zip and tie, count and speak with ease. At this stage,
the child wants to begin and complete their own actions for a purpose. Guilt is a
confusing new emotion. They may feel guilty over things that logically should not cause
guilt. They may feel guilt when this initiative does not produce desired results. The
development of courage and independence are what set preschoolers, ages three to six
years of age, apart from other age groups. Young children in this category face the
challenge of initiative versus guilt. As described in Bee and Boyd (2004), the child during
this stage faces the complexities of planning and developing a sense of judgment. During
this stage, the child learns to take initiative and prepare for leadership and goal
achievement roles. Activities sought out by a child in this stage may include risk-taking
behaviors, such as crossing a street alone or riding a bike without a helmet; both these
examples involve self-limits. Within instances requiring initiative, the child may also
develop negative behaviors. These behaviors are a result of the child developing a sense
of frustration for not being able to achieve a goal as planned and may engage in behaviors
that seem aggressive, ruthless, and overly assertive to parents. Aggressive behaviors,
such as throwing objects, hitting, or yelling, are examples of observable behaviors
during this stage. Preschoolers are increasingly able to accomplish tasks on their own,
and can start new things. With this growing independence come many choices about
activities to be pursued. Sometimes children take on projects they can readily accomplish,
but at other times they undertake projects that are beyond their capabilities or that
interfere with other people’s plans and activities. If parents and preschool teachers
encourage and support children’s efforts, while also helping them make realistic and
appropriate choices, children develop initiative-independence in planning and
undertaking activities. But if, instead, adults discourage the pursuit of independent
activities or dismiss them as silly and bothersome, children develop guilt about their
needs and desires.
1.4 Competence: industry vs. inferiority (latency, school age, 5–12 years)
_ Existential Question: Can I make it in the World of People and Things?
The aim to bring a productive situation to completion gradually supersedes the whims
and wishes of play. The fundamentals of technology are developed. The failure to master
trust, autonomy, and industrious skills may cause the child to doubt his or her future,
leading to shame, guilt, and the experience of defeat and inferiority. The child must deal
with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense of inferiority, failure, and incompetence.
“Children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as individuals.” They work
hard at “being responsible, being good and doing it right.” They are now more
reasonable to share and cooperate. Allen and Marotz (2003) also list some perceptual
cognitive developmental traits specific for this age group. Children grasp the concepts of
space and time in more logical, practical ways. They gain a better understanding of cause
and effect, and of calendar time. At this stage, children are eager to learn and accomplish
more complex skills: reading, writing, telling time. They also get to form moral values,
recognize cultural and individual differences and are able to manage most of their
personal needs and grooming with minimal assistance. At this stage, children might
express their independence by talking back and being disobedient and rebellious. Erikson
viewed the elementary school years as critical for the development of self-confidence.
Ideally, elementary school provides many opportunities to achieve the recognition of
teachers, parents and peers by producing things drawing pictures, solving addition
problems, writing sentences, and so on. If children are encouraged to make and do things
and are then praised for their accomplishments, they begin to demonstrate industry by
being diligent, persevering at tasks until completed and putting work before pleasure. If
children are instead ridiculed or punished for their efforts or if they find they are
incapable of meeting their teachers’ and parents’ expectations, they develop feelings of
inferiority about their capabilities. At this age, children start recognizing their special
talents and continue to discover interests as their education improves. They may begin to
choose to do more activities to pursue that interest, such as joining a sport if they know
they have athletic ability, or joining the band if they are good at music. If not allowed to
discover their own talents in their own time, they will develop a sense of lack of
confidence.
1.5 Fidelity: identity vs. role confusion (adolescence, 13–19 years)
_ Existential Question: Who Am I and What Can I Be?
The adolescent is newly concerned with how they appear to others. Superego identity is
the accrued confidence that the outer sameness and continuity prepared in the future are
matched by the sameness and continuity of one’s meaning for oneself, as evidenced in
the promise of a career. The ability to settle on a school or occupational identity is
pleasant. In later stages of adolescence, the child develops a sense of sexual identity. As
they make the transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescents ponder the roles they
will play in the adult world. Initially, they are apt to experience some role confusion,
mixed ideas and feelings about the specific ways in which they will fit into society—and
may experiment with a variety of behaviors and activities (e.g. tinkering with cars, baby-
sitting for neighbors, affiliating with certain political or religious groups). Eventually,
Erikson proposed, most adolescents achieve a sense of identity regarding whom they are
and where their lives are headed. The teenager must achieve identity in occupation,
gender roles, politics, and, in some cultures, religion. Erikson is credited with coining the
term. Each stage that came before and that follows has its own 'crisis’, but even more so
now, for this marks the transition from childhood to adulthood. This passage is necessary
because “Throughout infancy and childhood, a person forms much identification. But the
need for identity in youth is not met by these.” This turning point in human development
seems to be the reconciliation between 'the person one has come to be' and 'the person
society expects one to become'. This emerging sense of self will be established by
'forging' past experiences with anticipations of the future. In relation to the eight life
stages as a whole, the fifth stage corresponds to the crossroads: What is unique about the
stage of Identity is that it is a special sort of synthesis of earlier stages and a special sort
of anticipation of later ones. Youth has a certain unique quality in a person’s life; it is a
bridge between childhood and adulthood. Youth is a time of radical change—the great
body changes accompanying puberty, the ability of the mind to search one’s own
intentions and the intentions of others, the suddenly sharpened awareness of the roles
society has offered for later life. Adolescents “are confronted by the need to re-establish
[boundaries] for themselves and to do this in the face of an often potentially hostile
world.” This is often challenging since commitments are being asked for before particular
identity roles have formed. At this point, one is in a state of 'identity confusion', but
society normally makes allowances for youth to “find themselves,” and this state is called
'the moratorium': The problem of adolescence is one of role confusion—a reluctance to
commit which may haunt a person into his mature years. Given the right conditions—and
Erikson believes these are essentially having enough space and time, a psychosocial
moratorium, when a person can freely experiment and explore—what may emerge is a
firm sense of identity, an emotional and deep awareness of who he or she is. As in other
stages, bio-psycho-social forces are at work. No matter how one has been raised, one’s
personal ideologies are now chosen for oneself. Often, this leads to conflict with adults
over religious and political orientations. Another area where teenagers are deciding for
themselves is their career choice, and often parents want to have a decisive say in that
role. If society is too insistent, the teenager will acquiesce to external wishes, effectively
forcing him or her to ‘foreclose’ on experimentation and, therefore, true self-discovery.
Once someone settles on a worldview and vocation, will he or she be able to integrate
this aspect of self-definition into a diverse society? According to Erikson, when an
adolescent has balanced both perspectives of “What have I got?” and “What am I going
to do with it?” he or she has established their identity:
Dependent on this stage is the ego quality of fidelity—the ability to sustain loyalties freely
pledged in spite of the inevitable contradictions and confusions of value systems. (Italics
in original) Given that the next stage (Intimacy) is often characterized by marriage, many
are tempted to cap off the fifth stage at 20 years of age. However, these age ranges are
actually quite fluid, especially for the achievement of identity, since it may take many
years to become grounded, to identify the object of one’s fidelity, to feel that one has
“come of age.” In the biographies Young Man Luther and Gandhi’s Truth, Erikson
determined that their crises ended at ages 25 and 30, respectively: Erikson does note that
the time of Identity crisis for persons of genius is frequently prolonged. He further notes
that in our industrial society, identity formation tends to be long, because it takes us so
long to gain the skills needed for adulthood’s tasks in our technological world. So… we
do not have an exact time span in which to find ourselves. It doesn't happen automatically
at eighteen or at twenty-one. A very approximate rule of thumb for our society would put
the end somewhere in one’s twenties.
1.6 Love: intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood, 20-39 years)
_ Existential Question: Can I Love?
The Intimacy vs. Isolation conflict is emphasized around the age of 30. At the start of this
stage, identity vs. role confusion is coming to an end, though it still lingers at the
foundation of the stage (Erikson, 1950). Young adults are still eager to blend their
identities with friends. They want to fit in. Erikson believes we are sometimes isolated
due to intimacy. We are afraid of rejections such as being turned down or our partners
breaking up with us. We are familiar with pain and to some of us rejection is so painful
that our egos cannot bear it. Erikson also argues that “Intimacy has a counterpart:
Distantiation: the readiness to isolate and if necessary, to destroy those forces and people
whose essence seems dangerous to our own, and whose territory seems to encroach on
the extent of one’s intimate relations” (1950). Once people have established their
identities, they are ready to make long-term commitments to others. They become
capable of forming intimate, reciprocal relationships (e.g. through close friendships or
marriage) and willingly make the sacrifices and compromises that such relationships
require. If people cannot form these intimate Relationships – perhaps because of their
own needs – a sense of isolation may result; arousing feelings of darkness and angst.
1.7 Care: generativity vs. stagnation (adulthood, 40–64 years)
_ Existential Question: Can I Make My Life Count?
Generativity is the concern of guiding the next generation. Socially-valued work and
disciplines are expressions of generatively. The adult stage of generativity has broad
Application to family, relationships, work, and society. “Generativity, then is primarily
the concern in establishing and guiding the next generation... the concept is meant to
include... productivity and creativity.” During middle age the primary developmental task
is one of contributing to society and helping to guide future generations. When a person
makes a contribution during this period, perhaps by raising a family or working toward
the betterment of society, a sense of generativitya sense of productivity and
accomplishment- results. In contrast, a person who is self-centered and unable or
unwilling to help society move forward develops a feeling of stagnation- dissatisfaction
with the relative lack of productivity. Central tasks of middle adulthood are:
_ Express love through more than sexual contacts.
_ Maintain healthy life patterns. _ Develop a sense of unity with mate.
_ Help growing and grown children to be responsible adults.
_ Relinquish central role in lives of grown children.
_ Accept children’s mates and friends.
_ Create a comfortable home.
_ Be proud of accomplishments of self and mate/spouse.
_ Reverse roles with aging parents.
_ Achieve mature, civic and social responsibility.
_ Adjust to physical changes of middle age.
_ Use leisure time creatively.
1.8 Wisdom: ego integrity vs. despair (maturity, 65 – death)
_ Existential Question: Is it Okay to Have Been Me?
As we grow older and become senior citizens we tend to slow down our productivity and
explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our
accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a
successful life. If we see our life as unproductive, or feel that we did not accomplish our
life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to
depression and hopelessness. The final developmental task is retrospection: people look
back on their lives and accomplishments. They develop feelings of contentment and
integrity if they believe that they have led a happy, productive life. They may instead
develop a sense of despair if they look back on a life of disappointments and unachieved
goals. This stage can occur out of the sequence when an individual feels they are near the
end of their life (such as when receiving a terminal disease diagnosis).
1.9 Ninth stage
_ Psychosocial Crises: All first eight stages in reverse quotient order Joan M. Erikson,
who married and collaborated with Erik Erikson, added a ninth stage in The Life Cycle
Completed: Extended Version. Living in the ninth stage, she wrote, “old age in one’s
eighties and nineties brings with it new demands, reevaluations, and daily difficulties.”
Addressing these new challenges requires “designating a new ninth stage.” Erikson was
ninety-three years old when she wrote about the ninth stage. Joan Erikson showed that all
the eight stages “are relevant and recurring in the ninth stage.” In the ninth stage, the
psychosocial crises of the eight stages are faced again, but with the quotient order
reversed. For example, in the first stage (infancy), the psychosocial crisis was “Trust vs.
Mistrust” with Trust being the “syntonic quotient” and Mistrust being the “diatonic.”
Joan Erikson applies the earlier psychosocial crises to the ninth stage as follows. “Basic
Mistrust vs. Trust: Hope” In the ninth stage, “elders are forced to mistrust their own
capabilities” because one’s “body inevitably weakens.” Yet, Joan Erikson asserts that
“while there is light, there is hope” for a “bright light and revelation.” “Shame and
Doubt vs. Autonomy: Will” Ninth stage elders face the “shame of lost control” and
doubt “their autonomy over their own bodies.” So it is that “shame and doubt challenge
cherished autonomy.” “Inferiority vs. Industry: Competence” Industry as a “driving
force” that elders once had is gone in the ninth stage. Being incompetent “because of
aging is belittling” and makes elders “like unhappy small children of great age.”
“Identity confusion vs. Identity: Fidelity” Elders experience confusion about their
“existential identity” in the ninth stage and “a real uncertainty about status and role.”
“Isolation vs. Intimacy: Love” In the ninth stage, the “years of intimacy and love” are
often replaced by “isolation and deprivation.” Relationships become “overshadowed by
new incapacities and dependencies.” “Stagnation vs. Generativity: Care” The
generativity in the seventh stage of “work and family relationships,” if it goes
satisfactorily, is “a wonderful time to be alive.” In one’s eighties and nineties, there is
less energy for generativity or caretaking. Thus, “a sense of stagnation may well take
over.
Q5: Explain in detail the social learning theories.

Ans:
Social learning theory Social learning theory (Albert Bandura) posits that
learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely
through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or
direct reinforcement. In addition to the observation of behavior, learning also occurs
through the observation of rewards and punishments, a process known as vicarious
reinforcement. The theory expands on traditional behavioral theories, in which behavior
is governed solely by reinforcements, by placing emphasis on the important roles of
various internal processes in the learning individual theory.
Social learning theory integrated behavioral and cognitive theories of learning in
order to provide a comprehensive model that could account for the wide range of learning
experiences that occur in the real world. As initially outlined by Bandura and Walters in
1963 and further detailed in 1977, key tenets of social learning theory are as follows:
1. Learning is not purely behavioral; rather, it is a cognitive process that takes place in a
social context.
2. Learning can occur by observing a behavior and by observing the consequences of the
behavior (vicarious reinforcement).
3. Learning involves observation, extraction of information from those observations, and
making decisions about the performance of the behavior (observational learning or
modeling). Thus, learning can occur without an observable change in behavior.
4. Reinforcement plays a role in learning but is not entirely responsible for learning.
5. The learner is not a passive recipient of information. Cognition, environment, and
behavior all mutually influence each other (reciprocal determinism). Social learning
theory draws heavily on the concept of modeling, or learning by observing a behavior.
Bandura outlined three types of modeling stimuli:
_ Live model
in which an actual person is demonstrating the desired behavior
_ Verbal instruction
in which an individual describes the desired behavior in detail and instructs the
participant in
How to engage in the behavior in which modeling occurs by means of the media,
including movies, television, Internet, literature, and radio. Stimuli can be either real or
fictional characters. Exactly what information is gleaned from observation is influenced
by the type of model, as well as a series of cognitive and behavioral processes, including:
_ Attention
In order to learn, observers must attend to the modeled behavior. Attention is impacted by
characteristics of the observer (e.g., perceptual abilities, cognitive abilities, arousal, past
performance) and characteristics of the behavior or event (e.g., relevance, novelty,
affective valence, and functional value).
_ Retention
In order to reproduce an observed behavior, observers must be able to remember features
of the behavior. Again, this process is influenced by observer characteristics (cognitive
capabilities, cognitive rehearsal) and event characteristics (complexity).
_ Reproduction
To reproduce a behavior, the observer must organize responses in accordance with the
model. Observer characteristics affecting reproduction include physical and cognitive
capabilities and previous performance.
_ Motivation
The decision to reproduce (or refrain from reproducing) an observed behavior is
dependent
On the motivations and expectations of the observer, including anticipated consequences
and
Internal standards. An important factor in social learning theory is the concept of
reciprocal determinism.
This notion states that just as an individual’s behavior is influenced by the environment,
the environment is also influenced by the individual’s behavior.[ In other words, a
person’s behavior, environment, and personal qualities all reciprocally influence each
other. For example, a child who plays violent video games will likely influence their
peers to play as well, which then encourages the child to play more often. This could lead
to the child becoming desensitized to violence, which in turn will likely affect the child’s
real life behaviors.
Social learning in neuroscience
Recent research in neuroscience has implicated mirror neurons as a
neurophysiology basis for social learning, observational learning, motor cognition and
social cognition. Mirror neurons have been heavily linked to social learning in humans.
Mirror neurons were first discovered in primates in studies which involved teaching the
monkey motor activity tasks. One such study, focused on teaching primates to crack nuts
with a hammer. When the primate witnessed another individual cracking nut with a
hammer, the mirror neuron systems became activated as the primate learned to use the
hammer to crack nuts. However, when the primate was not presented with a social
learning opportunity, the mirror neuron systems did not activate and learning did not
occur. Similar studies with humans also show similar evidence to the human mirror
neuron system activating when observing another person perform a physical task. The
activation of the mirror neuron system is thought to be critical for the understanding of
goal directed behaviors and understanding their intention. Although still controversial,
this provides a direct neurological link to understanding social cognition.
Applications Criminology
 Social learning theory has been used to explain the emergence and maintenance of
deviant behavior, especially aggression. Criminologists Ronald Akers and Robert
Burgess integrated the principles of social learning theory and operant conditioning with
Edwin Sutherland's Differential Association Theory to create a comprehensive theory of
criminal behavior. Burgess and Akers emphasized that criminal behavior is learned in
both social and nonsocial situations through combinations of direct reinforcement,
vicarious reinforcement, explicit instruction, and observation. Both the probability of
being exposed to certain behaviors and the nature of the reinforcement are dependent on
group norms.
Developmental psychology
Social learning theorists emphasize observable behavior regarding the acquisition
of these two skills. For gender-role development, the same sex parent provides only one
of many models from which the individual learns gender-roles. Social learning theory
also emphasizes the variable nature of moral development due to the changing social
circumstances of each decision: “The particular factors the child thinks are important
vary from situation to situation, depending on variables such as which situational factors
are operating, which causes are most salient, and what the child processes cognitively.
Moral judgments involve a complex process of considering and weighing various criteria
in a given social situation. For social learning theory, gender development has to do with
the interactions of numerous social factors, involving all the interactions the individual
encounters. For social learning theory, biological factors are important but take a back
seat to the importance of learned, observable behavior. Because of the highly gendered
society in which an individual might develop, individuals begin to distinguish people by
gender even as infants. Bandura’s account of gender allows for more than cognitive
factors in predicting gendered behavior: for Bandura, motivational factors and a broad
network of social influences determine if, when, and where gender knowledge is
expressed.
Management
Social Learning theory proposes that rewards aren't the sole force behind creating
motivation. Thoughts, beliefs, morals, and feedback all help to motivate us. Three other
ways in which we learn are vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological
states. Modeling, or the scenario in which we see someone’s behaviors and adopt them as
our own, aide the learning process as well as mental states and the cognitive process.
(citation? more description)
Media violence
Principles of social learning theory have been applied extensively to the study of
media violence. Many research studies have discovered significant correlations between
viewing violent television and aggression later in life and many have not, as well as
playing violent video games and aggressive behaviors. The role of observational learning
has also been cited as an important factor in the rise of rating systems for TV, movies,
and video games.
Psychotherapy
Another important application of social learning theory has been in the treatment
and conceptualization of anxiety disorders. The classical conditioning approach to
anxiety disorders, which spurred the development of behavioral therapy and are
considered by some to be the first modern theory of anxiety, began to lose steam in the
late 1970s as researchers began to question its underlying assumptions. For example, the
classical conditioning approach holds that pathological fear and anxiety are developed
through direct learning; however, many people with anxiety disorders cannot recall a
traumatic conditioning event, in which the feared stimulus was experienced in close
temporal and spatial contiguity with an intrinsically aversive stimulus. Social learning
theory helped salvage learning approaches to anxiety disorders by providing additional
mechanisms beyond classical conditioning that could account for the acquisition of fear.
For example, social learning theory suggests that a child could acquire a fear of snakes by
observing a family member express fear in response to snakes. Alternatively, the child
could learn the associations between snakes and unpleasant bites through direct
experience, without developing excessive fear, but could later learn from others that
snakes can have deadly venom, leading to a reevaluation of the dangerousness of snake
bites, and accordingly, a more exaggerated fear response to snakes.
School psychology
Many classroom and teaching strategies draw on principles of social learning to
enhance students’ knowledge acquisition and retention. For example, using the technique
of guided participation, a teacher says a phrase and asks the class to repeat the phrase.
Thus, students both imitate and reproduce the teacher’s action, aiding retention. An
extension of guided participation is reciprocal learning, in which both student and teacher
share responsibility in leading discussions. Additionally, teachers can shape the
classroom behavior of students by modeling appropriate behavior and visibly rewarding
students for good behavior. By emphasizing the teacher’s role as model and encouraging
the students to adopt the position of observer, the teacher can make knowledge and
practices explicit to students, enhancing their learning outcomes. With increased use of
technology in the classroom, game based social learning platforms such as Kahoot! are
being integrated into the curriculum to reinforce knowledge while encouraging peer-to-
peer support, debate, critical thinking and development of leadership skills.
Social learning algorithm for computer optimization
In modern field of computational intelligence, the social learning theory is
adopted to develop a new computer optimization algorithm, the social learning algorithm.
Emulating the observational learning and reinforcement behaviors, a virtual society
deployed in the algorithm seeks the strongest behavioral patterns with the best outcome.
This corresponds to searching for the best solution in solving optimization problems.
Compared with other bio-inspired global optimization algorithms that mimic natural
evaluation or animal behaviors, the social leanings algorithms have its prominent
advantages. First, since the self-improvement through learning is more direct and rapid
than the evolution. Second, compared with the interaction and learning behaviors in
animal groups, the social learning process of human beings exhibits a higher level of
intelligence. By emulating human learning behaviors, it is impossible to arrive at more
effective optimizers than existing swarm intelligence algorithms. Experimental results
have demonstrated the effectiveness and efficiency of social learning algorithm, which
has in turn also verified through computer simulation the outcomes of social learning
behavior in human society.