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 Brief Contents
Prefacexix

PART 1 PR Writing: Role and Responsibility 1

1. Public Relations and the Writer 2
2. Ethical and Legal Responsibilities of the PR Writer 12

PART 2 Writing Principles 33

3. Writing to Clarify and Simplify the Complex: Style and Content 34
4. Grammar, Spelling and Punctuation 58
5. Social Media Writing 75

PART 3 Preparing to Write 93

6. Research for the Public Relations Writer 94
7. Writing to Persuade 127

PART 4 Writing for Select Audiences 151

8. Media Kits, Media Pitches, Backgrounders and Columns 152
9. Writing for Public Media 179
10. Email, Memos, Letters, Proposals and Reports 221
11. Newsletters 245
12. Magazines and Brochures 264
13. Speeches, Presentations and Other Orally Delivered Messages 297

PART 5 Writing in Turbulent Times 315

14. Crisis Communication 316

vi

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 Contents

Preface xix

P A R T 1 PR Writing: Role and Responsibility 1

C h apter O N E
Public Relations and the Writer 2
How Strategic Public Relations Writing Is Different 3
Job Descriptions Vary 4
Analyzing, Predicting and Counseling 5
Competence in Convergence 6
Reactions and Responses 7
Stakeholders/Publics, Channels and the Role of the Writer 7
Setting Priorities and Selecting Channels 8
The Role of the Writer 10
Exercises 11

vii

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 viii  Contents

C H A P T E R T W O
Ethical and Legal Responsibilities of the PR Writer 12
Core Values and Personal/Professional Behavior 13
Dynamics 14
Values 15
Influence of Personal Standards 15
Educating 15
Refusing 16
Requesting Reassignment 17
Taking the Assignment 17
Influence of Organization and Industry Standards 17
Perceptions 17
Organizational Culture and Values 18
Automatic Responses 18
What Happens When You Aren’t Told? 19
Influence of Public Relations Standards of Practice 19
Accuracy 20
Honesty, Truth and Fairness 20
False or Misleading Information 21
Influence of Laws and Regulations 22
Negative Laws 22
Contracts 23
Commercial Free Speech 24
Libel Laws and Privacy Issues 24
Copyrights and Other Rights 27
Government Regulators 28
Influence of Priority Publics 29
Shared Values 29
Adversarial Groups 30
Exercises 31

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  Contents  ix

P A R T 2 Writing Principles 33

C H A P T E R T H R E E
Writing to Clarify and Simplify the Complex: Style and Content 34
Message, Recipients, Medium 35
Message 35
Recipients: Publics/Stakeholders and Others 35
Medium 36
Style 36
Readability/Listenability 36
Naturalness 40
Variety 41
Euphony 42
Human Interest 42
Trite Expressions 42
Eliminating Bias 43
Quotes 43
Internet Language Use 43
Content: Simplifying the Complex 44
Know Your Subject 47
Use Plain English 49
Take One Step at a Time 54
Make the Central Points Clear 54
Explain the Unfamiliar with the Familiar 55
Make the Message Accessible 56
Tell Stories 57
Exercise 57

C H A P T E R F O U R
Grammar, Spelling and Punctuation 58
Ambiguity and Grammar 60
That Versus Which 60
Subject–Verb Agreement 61

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 x  Contents

Myths of Grammar 61
Split Infinitives 62
Sentence-Ending Prepositions 62
Usage Manuals 63
Verbs 64
Emotive and Cognitive Meaning 65
Spelling 65
Word Choice and Meaning 69
Punctuation 69
Global English? 72
Always Check 73
Words of Advice to Post on Your Desktop 73
Exercise 74

C H A P T E R F I V E
Social Media Writing 75
Mastering Social Media Writing 75
What Is Social Media? 75
The Digital Diamond 76
Channel Indulgence 77

The Voices of Social Media 78

The Content Challenge 79
Being Invisible 80
Being Unselfish 80
Insidering 80
Writing for SEO 81
What We Know and Don’t Know 81
Determining Keyword Phrases 81
The Science of SEO 81
Blog Writing 82
One-Mississippi, Two-Mississippi … 82
Break the Rules 82
Change the Writing Process 83

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  Contents  xi

Social Media Writing 85

Relevant, Useful and/or Entertaining 85
Invisible 86
Use Hashtags 86
Include a Link (URL) 87
Be Quick, Be Clever 87
Write for the Channel 87
The Science of Short Writing 90
In the End 91

P A R T 3 Preparing to Write 93

C H A P T E R S I X
Research for the Public Relations Writer 94
Planning for Research 94
Research in Public Relations 97
Define and Segment Publics 99
Demographics 99
Psychographics and Lifestyles 100
Two Basic Types of Research 100
Categories of Research for the PR Writer 100
Storing and Retrieving Research Data 103
Sources for PR Writers and Researchers 105
Secondary Sources for Research 105
Primary Sources for Research 106
Verifying 112
Communication Audits 112
Research Using Social Media 113
Skepticism—A Requisite for All Research 114
Questions to Ask 114
Answers Prompt Questions 115
Position Papers 115
Testing Readability 120
Exercises 125

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 xii  Contents

C H A P T E R S E V E N
Writing to Persuade 127
Opinion Formation and Change 130
Opinion, Attitude and Belief 130
Models of Attitude Formation and Message Recipients 131
The Influence of Social Media 132
The Nature of Persuasion 132
Aspects of Persuasion 132
Rokeach’s Value Hierarchy 134
Steps in the Persuasion Process 135
Typology of Steps in Persuasion 137
Persuasion and Logic 137
Expectations 138
Experience 138
Perceptions 138
Connections 139
Values 139
Persuasion and Communication 139
Source 140
Message 141
Medium 143
Public 145
Effect 146
An Alternative Theory 147
Five Ideas to Keep in Mind 148
Exercises 149

P A R T 4 Writing for Select Audiences 151

C H A P T E R E I G H T
Media Kits, Media Pitches, Backgrounders and Columns 152
Media Kit Use 154
Media Kits for Special Events 155
Media Credentials 163
Materials for Media Rooms—Crises and Special Events 163

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  Contents  xiii

Media Pitches 165

Be Prepared and Be Persistent 165
Keep It Short and Use Email 167
Backgrounders 169
Format 175
Columns 175
Public Service Announcements 177
Online PSAs 178
Exercises 178

C H A P T E R N I N E
Writing for Public Media 179
Opportunities for News and Information 179
News Releases 180
Who Gets News Releases? 183
What Is News? 183
Writing News Releases and Structure 183
Approach 183

News Writing Style 187

Electronic Transmission of Releases and Distribution 188
Types of Releases 188

News for Broadcasting 190

Facts, Sights and Sounds 191
Announcements 191
News Conferences 192
Broadcast News Releases 195
Broadcast News Writing Style 196
Physical Preparation 198
Structural Considerations 200
Supplying Pictures and Sound 202
News Features 203
Digital Delivery and Use 203
PR As Broadcast News Suppliers 204
VNRs 204
News on Call 205
Talk Shows 205

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 xiv  Contents

Handling Messages During Crises 206

Advertising Now in the Mix 206
Advertising as a Persuasive Force 207
Appeal 207
Positioning 208
Behavior 209
Basic Guidelines for Writing Advertising Copy 210
Purpose 210
Objective Facts 210
The Publics 211
Media 211
The Creative Approach 211
Visualization 212
Language 215
Repetition 215
Writing Advertising Copy for Electronic Media—Television,
Radio, Online 216
Copywriting for TV Commercials or Public Service Announcements 217
Copywriting for Radio Commercials or PSAs 217
Government Regulations 218
Exercises 219

C H A P T E R T E N
Email, Memos, Letters, Proposals and Reports 221
Email 221
Formats and Content 224
Style 225
Memos 226
Memo Formats 226
Classifications of Memos 229
Factors Affecting the Use of Memos 232
Letters 233
Business Letter Format 233
Types of Letters 235

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  Contents  xv

Proposals and Reports 237

Proposals and Reports Compared 237
Organization of Proposals and Reports 238
Readability and Applicability 240
Annual Reports 241
Direct Response and Direct Advertising 241
Out-of-Home Media 242
Sales Promotion 243
Exercises 244

C H A P T E R E L E V E N
Newsletters 245
Criteria for Successful Newsletters 246
Filling Unmet Needs 248
Uniqueness 250
Writing 250
Distribution 250
Knowledge and Skills 251
Frequency 251
Format 252
Types and Functions of Newsletters 253
Employee and Member Newsletters 253
Special-Interest Subscriber Newsletters 255
Technical and Content Considerations 256
Reporting and Writing for Newsletters 256
Writing Tips for Newsletters 258
Fitting Newsletter Copy and Design 258
Writing and Designing Newsletters on Computers 261
Designing 261

Exercises 263

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 xvi  Contents

C H A P T E R T W E L V E
Magazines and Brochures 264
Magazines 264
Topics 265
Employee Publications 270
Association Publications 271
Trade and Industry Publications 271
Corporate Publications for the Public 275
Brochures 275
Purpose 281
Persuade 281
Inform and Educate 282
Concept 282
Purpose and Object 282

Giving Shape to Information 284

Rules 284
Accuracy 285
Active Voice 285
Style 285
Tone 285
Visuals 286
Designing Brochures 287
Format 287
Using Computer Templates 290
Type 290
Paper 291
White Space 292
Color 292
Reproduction 293
Letterpress 293
Offset 294
Gravure 294
Distribution 294
Exercises 295

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  Contents  xvii

C H A P T E R T H I R T E E N
Speeches, Presentations and Other Orally Delivered Messages 297
Speeches 298
Visualizing the Setting as You Write 299
Types of Speeches 299
Paring and Timing 302
Persuading 303
The Mechanics of Organization 303
Style 303
Setting the Stage and Writing the Finale 306
Presentation Scripts 306
Differences and Similarities 306
Types of Presentations 307
Planning 307
Development 308
Matching Words and Sights 308
Computer Advantages/Disadvantages 310
Other Speech/Presentation Occasions 311
Media Interviews 312
News Conferences 313
Evaluations 313
Exercises 314

P A R T 5 Writing in Turbulent Times 315

C H A P T E R F O U R T E E N
Crisis Communication 316
General Motors Recalls 317
Planning for Crisis Situations 320
Corporate Information 320
Crisis Planning 322
Precrisis Planning 323
Triggering Event/Initial Phase 327
Communication During the Crisis 329
Resolution/Recovery 331

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 xviii  Contents

Overall Public Relations Plan 332

Review, Revise and Affirm the Mission Statement 332
Examine the Present Situation 332
Analyze the Data 334
Prepare Forecasts 334
Write Statements of Objectives and Goals 335
Develop Strategies 335
Define, Prioritize and Analyze Publics 335
Prioritizing Publics 336

Prepare Message Strategies and Statements 336

Develop Media Strategy/Mix 336
Strategic Use of Media 337

Develop Schedule, Assign Responsibilities and

Establish Budget 337
Tactical Implementation 338

Devise Monitoring and Measurement Systems and Procedures 338

Exercises 340

Notes 342
Index 351

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 Preface

W elcome to this 11th edition of Public Relations Writing. The authors are the same,
Doug Newsom and Jim Haynes, PRSA Fellows with years of practice, university teaching
and many workshops at home and abroad. What is different is a slight change in the book’s
subtitle to Strategies and Structures.
Inside you’ll find many changes in the chapters, since the field is constantly in flux.
We welcomed a new colleague to handle the social media chapter for us: Steve Lee, whose
business has been digital communication since its inception in 1998 and thus the focus
of his teaching experience as an adjunct and workshop presenter. The Internet and social
media have affected the way all of us communicate, professionally and personally. To quote
Lee, “Social media has become such a vital tool for public relations practitioners that the
majority of public relations and communications managers believe that understanding
how to use and manage social media channels is essential to success.”
Use the text as a home base to alert you to “learning/teaching” examples you encounter
daily. Practitioners and professors always are sensitive to incidents in all media that create
learning opportunities. Public relations practitioners—especially those in firms and
agencies—discover, discuss and critique incidents daily to help guide their practices. For
professors, such incidents are the next presentation for their classes, and the examples are
always at your fingertips to show, talk and tell.
We, as authors, cannot update any textbook fast enough to keep up, but we welcome
your inquiries, ideas and initiatives. You can find us at [email protected] and jhaynes1102@
sbcglobal.net.
Doug Newsom and Jim Haynes

xix

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 xx  Preface

Acknowledgments
We would like to express our gratitude to colleagues, practitioners and students who offered
informal comments on the book and to more formal directions from reviewers who rec-
ommended changes and offered guidance and suggestions for this edition.
We also are very grateful for the many who signed permissions for us to use materials
that appear in the illustrations.
We ’d also like to thank the dedicated team at Cengage Learning for their support,
mainly Kelli Strieby, Product Manager, and Jeffrey Hahn, Content Developer. Thanks also
to Jyotsna Ojha, Project Manager at Lumina Datamatics.

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 PA RT 1

PR Writing:
Role and
Responsibility
Finding facts, communicating
effectively in all media, knowing the
law and being ethical—all are essential
for the PR writer.

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 C h apt e r O N E

Public Relations
and the Writer

W hat an exciting time to be a writer. Your message can be crafted for any medium you
can imagine, from an electronic app to moving billboard to a tweet, a blog, a newspaper or
magazine piece, a video feature, a television story or a serious white paper for research and
policy recommendations.
The key words are story and purpose. The audience is a given.
In a world of instant communication, all messages are simultaneously local and
global.
You will be telling an organization’s story whatever you write.
The story must be told concisely with clarity, accuracy and memorability.
Writing coach Paula LaRocque in a twist of the idea that all one learns about living is
absorbed in kindergarten says to think of nursery rhymes.
“[W]hen approaching a story, we’ll do well to remember that old Mother Hubbard
went to the cupboard to fetch her poor dog a bone. And that the cow jumped over the
moon, And that the owl and the pussycat went to sea in a beautiful pea-green boat.
“Actor, action, acted upon: the clearest and most logical syntax English can devise. No
wonder the bright beginnings of nursery rhymes have pleased readers for centuries.”1
Good advice for engaging attention is being clear and memorable.
Your pattern for development of every piece of writing, regardless of medium,
will be:
Purpose—telling an organization’s story in terms of what it is, what it does and why it matters.
Building relationships—tying the organization to those exposed to the communication, however,
wherever and whoever these might be.
Writing strategically—delivering a message effectively to get the desired response.

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  Chapter ONE Public Relations and the Writer    3

Communication is wasted if it fails in any of these three.

You should be able to state the purpose in a single declarative sentence, keeping in
mind the expected reaction or response so your message will bring the intended results.
You also want to know if there are unintended reactions or responses, so you need to keep
in mind how to monitor messages to produce prompt, thoughtful reactions.

How Strategic Public Relations Writing Is Different

You may be thinking that you have been writing this way all along. You have sent text
messages, posted and responded to Facebook comments, sent Instagrams, shared videos
and such. The difference is that these were your creations for your own purposes or
reasons. When you write for an organization either as an internal public relations writer or
for a client in an agency or a firm, your message is to achieve a business goal for that orga-
nization, whether it is nonprofit or for profit.
Public relations is the strategic management function that helps an organization
achieve its goals and objectives through building and maintaining goodwill with its various
stakeholders/publics. Effective public relations writers are critical to that success. Your
writing is purposeful, persuasive and principled. Principled? Absolutely. You didn’t see
“spinning” in that sentence, did you? Clients and employers may not understand this, but it
is imperative that you do, as a writer. What PR writers do, the legal and ethical responsibili-
ties involved and what they accomplish for their employers, institutions or clients, is the
topic of this first section.
As more public relations units identify their titles as “strategic communication,” that
often indicates an integrated communications practice involving both advertising and
public relations. Technological changes have already blurred the lines anyway in presen-
tation, format and the interactivity of users with a medium. Additionally, many different
tools go into other PR writer responsibilities such as preparing materials for promotions,
special events, campaigns, crises and specialized areas, such as investor relations.
Because PR writers are responsible for tailoring all types of messages for any medium
and a variety of individuals, writing for public relations takes many forms, as you will
realize as you go through these chapters. The more you know about different media and
diverse publics, the more facile you are with all writing assignments, the better off you will
be in the kaleidoscopic job market.
Always and remaining critical talents for public relations people are the ability to
recognize potential stories and anticipating how these might be received by global audi-
ences. Choosing words and illustrations requires a keen understanding of the complex,
and often conflicting, values held among diverse publics. The demands on today’s writers
are for more versatility, greater understanding of the repercussions of convergence among
traditional media and the impact and connectivity of social media and the requirements
of different media as well as increased competence in using visuals and sounds to help
convey a message.
What is traditionally called “social media” have joined the list of media for any organi-
zational message. You may be tweeting or posting on an organization’s Facebook page or

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Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 Expansion of Metal by Heat.
Provide an iron rod, and fit it exactly into a metal ring; heat the rod
red hot, and it will no longer enter the ring.
Observe an iron gate on a warm day, when it will shut with difficulty;
whereas it will shut loosely and easily on a cold day.
 The Alchemist’s Ink.
Dissolve in water a small quantity, about as much as will lay on a
ten-cent piece, of chloride of cobalt, which is of a bluish-green color,
and the solution will be pink; write with it and the characters will
scarcely be visible; but if gently heated they will appear in brilliant
green, which will disappear as the paper cools.
Dissolve in water a few grains of prussiate of potash; write with this
liquid, which is invisible when dry; wash over with a dilute solution
of iron, made by dissolving a nail in a little aqua fortis; a blue and
legible writing is immediately apparent.
 Chameleon Liquids.
Put a small portion of the compound called mineral chameleon into
several glasses. Pour upon each water at different temperatures and
the contents of each glass will exhibit a different shade of color. A
very hot solution will be of a beautiful green color; a cold one a deep
purple.
Make a colorless solution of sulphate of copper; add to it a little
ammonia equally colorless, and the mixture will be of an intense
blue color; add to it a little sulphuric acid, and the blue color will
disappear; pour in a little solution of caustic ammonia, and the blue
color will be restored. Thus may the liquor be changed at pleasure.
 Magic Dyes.
Dissolve indigo in diluted sulphuric acid, and add to it an equal
quantity of solution of carbonate of potash. If a piece of white cloth
be dipped in the mixture it will be changed to blue; yellow cloth, in
the same mixture, may be changed to green; red to purple; and blue
litmus paper to red.
Nearly fill a wine glass with the juice of beet-root, which is of a deep
red color; add a little lime water and the mixture will be colorless;
dip into it a piece of white cloth, dry it rapidly, and in a few hours
the cloth will become red.
 Wine Changed into Water.
Mix a little solution of subacetate of lead with port wine; filter the
mixture through blotting-paper, and a colorless liquid will pass
through; to this add a small quantity of dry salt of tartar; distill in a
retort, when a spirit will arise, which may be inflamed.
 The Chemistry of Water.
More than two-thirds of the earth’s surface is water, so that in mere
quantity alone it is the most important substance with which we are
acquainted. Without it life would be impossible, for, owing to its
quality of dissolving other bodies, it may be regarded as the great
purifier, as well as the vehicle which brings nourishment to plants
and animals alike.
Not only is water useful, but is among the most beautiful of Nature’s
products. It has carved the valleys between mountain ranges by its
slow dropping for ages, and has made the fairy glens by rushing
down their sides in torrents. The stately rivers and the roaring
oceans are but forms of its might.
In another state it works out those fantastic grottoes, mountains and
fields of glittering white, that make the Polar seas the very head
center of dreamland.
In still another form it paints the rainbow in the sky, and hangs like a
veil over the landscape, passing from the most delicate blue over the
plain to the deep purple clinging to distant hills.
To it the golden and red hues of sunrise and sunset are due. The
light fleecy clouds that speak the beauty of spring, and the great
thunder stocks that gleam, with lightning flashes are all composed of
water, and water alone.
It drives our engines and machinery, and speeds our ships across
the sea. Neither is it confined to this earth alone, for astronomers
tell us that vast seas and even clouds can be seen on the next great
planet to the earth, Mars.
Surely, then, as this wondrous substance is examined, the ancients
can be excused for worshiping the ocean as a god, and the old
alchemists for believing it to be an element.
Nevertheless, water is not a simple substance. It is composed of two
gases, which must be combined before water is produced. These
gases are oxygen and hydrogen. Every atom of water consists of
one part of the former gas and two parts by volume of the latter.
This you may prove in the following way:
Buy a piece of sodium, a metal that must not be touched with the
fingers, and thrust it into a small one-ounce jar half full of water;
cork the jar tightly.
Through a hole in the cork pass a glass tube, the outer end being
drawn in a flame to a fine point. Apply a light at the end of the tube.
The escaping gas will catch fire and burn with a light blue flame.
This gas is hydrogen.
Next empty the jar and fill with warm water, and place by means of
another cork a small glass jar on to the tube. Into the lower jar drop
a piece of blazing hot platinum. Repeat this again and again with the
same piece of platinum, being careful not to uncork the upper jar, so
that every time the metal is dropped into the lower jar, you remove
the upper jar with the tube and two corks. After doing this a dozen
times or more take a match that is still glowing after having been
extinguished, and plunge it into the upper jar. It will burst into flame
immediately, and the gas in the upper jar is oxygen.
 Two Bitters Make a Sweet.
It has been discovered that a mixture of nitrate of silver with
hyposulphite of soda, both of which are remarkably bitter, will
produce the sweetest known substance.
 Visible and Invisible.
Write with French chalk on a looking-glass; wipe it with a
handkerchief and the lines will disappear; breathe on it and they will
reappear. This alteration will take place for a great number of times,
and after the lapse of a considerable period.
 To Form a Liquid from Two Solids.
Rub together in a mortar a small quantity of sulphate of soda and
acetate of lead, and as they mix they will become liquid.
Carbonate of ammonia and sulphate of copper, previously reduced to
powder separately, will also, when mixed, become liquid, and acquire
a most splendid blue color.
The greater number of salts have a tendency to assume regular
forms, or become crystallized, when passing from the fluid to the
solid state; and the size and regularity of the crystals depends in a
great measure on the slow or rapid escape of the fluid in which they
were dissolved.
Sugar is a capital example of this property; the ordinary loaf-sugar
being rapidly boiled down, as it is called; while to make rock-candy,
which is nothing but sugar in a crystallized form, the solution is
allowed to evaporate slowly, and as it cools it forms into those
beautiful crystals termed rock-candy. The threads found in the center
of some of the crystals are merely placed for the purpose of
hastening the formation of the crystals.
 Restoration of Color by Water.
Water being a colorous fluid ought, one would imagine when mixed
with other substances of no decided color, to produce a colorless
compound. Nevertheless, it is to water only that blue vitriol or
sulphate of copper owes its vivid blueness, as will be plainly evinced
by the following simple experiment. Heat a few crystals of the vitriol
in a fire-shovel, pulverize them, and the powder will be of a dull and
dirty white appearance. Pour a little water upon this when a slight
hissing noise will be heard, and at the same moment the blue color
will instantly reappear.
Under the microscope the beauty of this experiment will be
increased, for the instant that a drop of water is placed in contact
with the vitriol, the powder may be seen to shoot into blue prisms. If
a crystal of prussiate of potash be similarly heated its yellow color
will vanish, but reappear on being dropped into water.
 Two Liquids Make a Solid.
Dissolve chloride of lime in water until it will dissolve no more;
measure out an equal quantity of oil of vitriol; both will be
transparent fluids; but if equal quantities of each be slowly mixed
and stirred together, they will become a solid mass, with the
evolution of smoke or fumes.
 Two Solids Make a Liquid.
Rub together in a mortar equal quantities of the crystals of Glauber
salts and nitrate of ammonia, and the two salts will slowly become a
liquid.
 A Solid Opaque Mass Makes a
Transparent Liquid.
Take the solid mixture of the solutions of muriate of lime and
carbonate of potash, pour upon it a very little nitric acid, and the
solid opaque mass will be changed to a transparent liquid.
 Two Cold Liquids Make a Hot One.
Mix four drams of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) with one dram of cold
water, suddenly, in a cup, and the mixture will be nearly half as hot
again as boiling water.
 To Make Ice.
Although this trick is performed by means of chemicals, yet its
product is obtained really by the use of mechanical laws. We must
remember that ice is exactly the same thing as water so far as its
composition is concerned, differing only in its state of density.
Ice, water, and steam differ in density through the possession of a
greater or less quantity of heat. Hence, the turning of water into ice
really is a case of the operation of mechanical laws.
Now for the experiment. Put into a wide-mouthed jam-jar a smaller
glass vessel containing the water to be frozen. Around the latter put
a mixture of sulphate of soda (Glauber’s salt) and hydrochloric acid
(spirits of salts). The proportions must be eight parts of the former
to five of the latter.
The action of these two chemicals on one another is to cause a cold
of fifteen to seventeen degrees below zero, or forty-seven degrees
below freezing point.
The same result may be obtained by mixing equal parts of nitrate of
ammonia and water. In winter-time when the snow is on the ground,
with a mixture of one part snow and one part common table salt an
intense cold of twenty degrees below zero is obtained.
From this last fact we see how stupid are those people who sprinkle
the salt on the pavements to get rid of the snow. True, the latter
melts, but only after the production of intense cold, which is the
cause of many diseases, not only slight ones like colds and
chilblains, but too often the forerunners of consumption and other
lung troubles.
 Curious Change of Colors.
Let there be no other light than a taper in the room; then put on a
pair of dark-green spectacles, and having closed one eye view the
taper with the other. Suddenly remove the spectacles and the taper
will assume a bright red appearance; but if the spectacles be
instantly replaced, the eye will be unable to distinguish anything for
a second or two. The order of colors will therefore be as follows:
green, red, green, black.
 The Protean Light.
Soak a cotton wick in a strong solution of salt and water, dry it, place
it in a spirit lamp, and when lit it will give a bright yellow light for a
long time. If you look through a piece of blue glass at the flame, it
will lose all its yellow light and you will only perceive feeble violet
rays. If before the blue glass you place a pale yellow glass, the lamp
will be absolutely invisible, though a candle may be distinctly seen
through the same glasses.
 To Change the Colors of Flowers.
Hold over a lighted match a purple columbine or a blue larkspur, and
it will change first to pink and then to black. The yellow of other
flowers held as above will continue unchanged.
Thus, the purple tint will instantly disappear from a heart’s-ease, but
the yellow will remain; and the yellow of a wall-flower will continue
the same, though the brown streak will be discharged. If a scarlet,
crimson, or maroon dahlia be tried, the color will change to yellow, a
fact known to gardeners, who by this mode variegate their growing
dahlias.
 Changes of the Poppy.
Some flowers which are red, become blue by merely bruising them.
Thus, if the petals of the common corn-poppy be rubbed upon white
paper, they will stain it purple, which may be made green by
washing it over with a strong solution of potash in water. Put poppy
petals into very dilute muriatic acid, and the infusion will be of a
florid red color; by adding a little chalk, it will become the color of
port wine; and this tint, by the addition of potash may be changed
to green or yellow.
 Changes of the Rose.
Hold a red rose over the blue flame of a common match and the
color will be discharged wherever the fume touches the leaves of the
flower, so as to render it beautifully variegated, or entirely white. If it
be then dipped into water, the redness, after a time, will be restored.
 Marking Indelibly.
Write upon linen with permanent ink (which is a strong solution of
nitrate of silver), and the characters will be scarcely visible; remove
the linen to a dark room, and they will not change; but expose them
to a strong light, and they will be of an indelible black.
 Visible Growth.
Cut a circular piece of card to fit the top of a hyacinth glass, so as to
rest upon the ledge, and exclude the air. Pierce a hole through the
center of the card, and pass through it a strong thread, having a
small piece of wood tied to one end, which, resting transversely on
the card, prevents it being drawn through. To the other end of the
thread attach an acorn; and having half filled the glass with water,
suspend the acorn at a short distance from the surface.
The glass must be kept in a warm room, and in a few days the
steam will hang from the acorn in a drop, the skin will burst, and the
root will protrude and thrust itself in the water, and in a few days
more a stem will shoot out at the other end, and rising upwards, will
press against the card, in which an orifice must be made to allow it
to pass through. From this stem small leaves will soon be observed
to sprout; and in the course of a few weeks you will have a
handsome oak plant, several inches in height.
 Colored Flames.
A variety of rays of light are exhibited by colored flames, which are
not to be seen in white light. Thus pure hydrogen gas will burn with
a blue flame, in which many of the rays of light are wanting.
The flame of an oil lamp contains most of the rays which are
wanting in the sunlight. Alcohol mixed with water, when heated or
burned, affords a flame with no other rays but yellow. The following
salts, if finely powdered, and introduced into the exterior flame of a
candle, or into the wick of a spirit lamp, will communicate to the
flame their peculiar colors:
Chloride of Soda (common salt) Yellow.
“ of Potash Pale violet.
“ of Lime Brick red.
“ of Strontia Bright crimson.
“ of Lithia Red.
“ of Baryta Apple green.
“ of Copper Bluish green.
Borax Yellow.
Or either of the above salts may be mixed with spirit of wine, as
directed, for Red Fire.

Orange Colored Flame.

Burn spirit of wine on chloride of calcium, a substance obtained by
evaporating muriate of lime to dryness.

Emerald Green Flame.

Burn spirit of wine on a little powdered nitrate of silver.

Instantaneous Flame.
Heat together potassium and sulphur, and they will instantly burn
very vividly.
Heat a little nitre on a fire-shovel, sprinkle on it flour of sulphur, and
it will instantly burn. If iron filings be thrown upon red hot nitre, they
will detonate and burn.
 Water of Different Temperatures in
the Same Vessel.
Of heat and cold, as of wit and madness, it may be said that “thin
partitions do their bounds divide.” Thus, paint one half of the surface
of a tin pot with a mixture of lamp black and size, and leave the
other half or side bright; fill the vessel with boiling water, and by
dipping a thermometer, or even the finger, into it shortly after, it will
be found to cool much more rapidly upon the blackened than the
bright side of the pot.
 Warmth of Different Colors.
Place upon the surface of snow, as upon the window-sill, in bright
daylight or sunshine, pieces of cloth of the same size and quality, but
of different colors, black, blue, green, yellow and white; the black
cloth will soon melt the snow beneath it, and sink downwards; next
the blue, and then the green; the yellow but slightly; but the snow
beneath the white cloth will be as firm as at first.
 Laughing Gas.
The above fanciful appellation has been given to nitrous oxide, from
the very agreeable sensations excited by inhaling it. In its pure state
it destroys animal life, but loses this noxious quality when inhaled,
because it becomes blended with the atmospheric air which it meets
in the lungs. This gas is made by putting three or four drams of
nitrate of ammonia in crystals into a small glass retort, which being
held over a spirit lamp, the crystals will melt, and the gas be
evolved.
Having thus produced the gas, it is to be passed into a large bladder
having a stop-cock; and when you are desirous of exhibiting its
effects you cause the person who wishes to experience them to first
exhale the atmospheric air from the lungs, and then quickly placing
the cock in his mouth you turn it, and bid him inhale the gas.
Immediately a sense of extraordinary cheerfulness, fanciful flights of
imagination, an uncontrollable propensity to laughter, and a
consciousness of being capable of great muscular exertion,
supervene. It does not operate in exactly the same manner on all
persons; but in most cases the sensations are agreeable, and have
this important difference from those produced by wine or spirituous
liquors, that they are not succeeded by any depression of mind.
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