Histology of organs
associated with the
digestive tract
Asst. Prof. M. Oktar Guloglu
PANCREAS
• a mixed exocrine-endocrine gland
that produces both digestive
enzymes and hormones
• has a thin capsule of connective
tissue, from which septa extend to
cover the larger vessels and ducts
and to separate the parenchyma into
lobules
• The secretory acini are surrounded
by a basal lamina supported by a
sheath of reticular fibers with a rich
capillary network.
• Endocrine function of the pancreas
involves primarily smaller cells similar
to enteroendocrine cells located in
variously sized clusters called the
pancreatic islets (islets of
Langerhans).
• The digestive enzymes are
produced by cells of serous
acini in the larger exocrine
portion of the pancreas
• Each pancreatic acinus consists
of several serous cells
surrounding a very small
lumen, without myoepithelial
cells
• The acinar cells are polarized,
with round basal nuclei and
numerous zymogen granules
apically, typical of protein
secreting cells
• Intercalated ducts →intralobular ducts → interlobular
ducts→ the main pancreatic duct
• Cells of the intercalated ducts secrete a large volume of
fluid, rich in HCO3− (bicarbonate ions), which alkalinizes
and transports hydrolytic enzymes produced in the
acini.
• The exocrine pancreas secretes approximately 1.5 L of
alkaline pancreatic juice per day and delivers it directly
into the duodenum where the
• HCO3− ions neutralize the acidic chyme entering there
from the stomach and establish the pH for optimal
activity of the pancreatic enzymes
Pancreatic Digestive Enzymes
• Proteases,
• The proteases are secreted as inactive zymogens
(trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, proelastase,
kallikreinogen, and procarboxipeptidases).
• α-amylase,
• Lipases,
• Nucleases (DNAase and RNAase).
• Exocrine secretion in the pancreas is regulated
through two polypeptide hormones produced by
enteroendocrine cells of the small intestine:
• Cholecystokinin (CCK)
• stimulates enzyme secretion by the acinar cells.
• Secretin
• promotes water and HCO3− secretion by the duct cells.
LIVER
• The liver is the largest
internal organ,
• In adults averaging
about 1.5 kg or 2% of
the body weight.
• Located in the right
upper quadrant of the
abdomen just below
the diaphragm
• Has major left and
right lobes with two
smaller inferior lobes
• on the inferior side,
the dual blood
supply from the
hepatic portal vein
and hepatic artery
enters the organ and
the hepatic vein,
lymphatics, and
common hepatic
(bile) duct exit.
• The main digestive function of the liver is production of
bile,
• a complex substance required for the emulsification,
hydrolysis, and uptake of fats in the duodenum.
• The liver is also the major interface between the
digestive system and the blood,
• Nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine are
processed before distribution throughout the body.
• About 75% of the blood entering the liver is nutrient
rich (but O2-poor) blood from the portal vein arising
from the stomach, intestines, and spleen
HEPATOCYTES
• Hepatocytes are large cuboidal or polyhedral
epithelial cells,
• Have large, round central nuclei
• Eosinophilic cytoplasm rich in mitochondria.
• The cells are frequently binucleated and about 50%
of them are polyploid,
• two to eight times the normal chromosome
number
• Hepatocytes are among the most functionally
diverse cells of the body:
HEPATOCYTES
• Synthesis and endocrine secretion into the blood of the
major plasma proteins, including albumins, fibrinogen,
apolipoproteins, transferrin, and many others
• Conversion of amino acids into glucose (gluconeogenesis)
• Breakdown (detoxification) and conjugation of ingested
toxins, including many drugs
• Amino acid deamination, producing urea removed from
blood in kidneys
• Storage of glucose in glycogen granules and triglycerides in
small lipid droplets
• Storage of vitamin A (in hepatic stellate cells) and other fat-
soluble vitamins
• Removal of nonfunctional erythrocytes (by specialized
macrophages, or Kupffer cells)
• Storage of iron in complexes with the protein ferritin
LIVER PARENCHYMA
• The liver parenchyma is organized as thousands of small (~0.7 × 2 mm) hepatic
lobules
• hepatocytes form hundreds of irregular plates arranged radially around a small
central vein
• Plates are supported by a delicate
stroma of reticulin fibers
• Peripherally each lobule has three
to six portal areas with more
fibrous connective tissue, each of
which contains three interlobular
structures that comprise the
portal triad
• A venule branch of the portal
vein, with blood rich in nutrients
but low in O2,
• An arteriole branch of the hepatic
artery that supplies O2,
• One or two small bile ductules of
cuboidal epithelium, branches of
the bile conducting system.
• Between plates of hepatocytes of a
hepatic lobule are vascular sinusoids
• They emerge from the peripheral
branches of the portal vein and
hepatic artery and converge on the
lobule’s central vein
• The venous and arterial blood mixes
in these irregular hepatic sinusoids.
• have thin, discontinuous linings of
fenestrated endothelial cells
surrounded by sparse basal lamina and
reticular fibers.
• The discontinuities and fenestrations
allow plasma to fill a narrow
perisinusoidal space (or space of
Disse) and directly bathe the many
irregular microvilli projecting from
the hepatocytes into this space
• Numerous specialized stellate macrophages, called
Kupffer cells, are found within the sinusoid lining
• These cells recognize and phagocytose aged erythrocytes,
freeing heme and iron for reuse or storage in ferritin
complexes.
• In the perisinusoidal space are hepatic stellate cells (or
Ito cells) with small lipid droplets that store vitamin A
and other fat-soluble vitamins
Hepatocytes Reticular fibers
Sinosoids Portal Triad
• Smaller apical surfaces of the
hepatocytes form bile canaliculi and are
involved in exocrine secretion bile
• They empty into bile canals of Hering
composed of cuboidal epithelial cells
called cholangiocytes
• Bile canals quickly merge in the portal
areas with the bile ductules
• Bile ductules gradually merge, enlarge,
and form right and left hepatic ducts
leaving the liver.
• Into the canaliculi hepatocytes
continuously secrete bile, a mixture of
bile acids
• organic acids such as cholic acid, bile salts
(the deprotonated forms of bile acids),
electrolytes, fatty acids, phospholipids,
cholesterol, and bilirubin
• Bile acids/salts have an important
function in emulsifying the lipids in the
duodenum, promoting their digestion
and absorption.
BILIARY TRACT & GALLBLADDER
Gallbladder
• The gallbladder is a hollow, pear-
shaped organ
• Attached to the lower surface of the
liver,
• capable of storing 30-50 mL of bile that
is concentrated during storage.
• The wall of the gallbladder consists of a
mucosa composed of simple columnar
epithelium and lamina propria, a thin
muscularis with bundles of muscle
fibers oriented in several directions,
and an external adventitia or serosa
• The mucosa has numerous folds that
are particularly evident when the
gallbladder is empty.
• The bile produced by the hepatocytes flows
through:
• the bile canaliculi → bile ductules, →bile ducts →
hepatic duct + the cystic duct from the gallbladder
→ common bile duct (to duedonum)
• The lining epithelial actively transport
water for concentrating bile
• The mechanism for this includes
activity of Na+ pumps in the basolateral
membranes, followed by passive
movement of water from the bile
• Cholecystokinin (CCK) release from
enteroendocrine cells of the small
intestine induce gallbladder
contraction.
• Release of CCK is stimulated by the
presence of ingested fats in the small
intestine.
• Gallbladder removal due to obstruction
or chronic inflammation leads to the
direct flow of bile from liver to gut,
with few major consequences on
digestion.
