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Gamification and LLT

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DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-51447-0_125-1

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Gamification and LLT
Caroline Cruaud, University of South-Eastern Norway, Drammen, Norway,
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6908-4116

Abstract:
Gamification of language learning and teaching (LLT) is a pedagogical method to engage
students by making the learning activities more like games. The emergence of gamification in
the 2010s was strongly connected to the marketing and business sectors. The concept later
found its way into educational research and practice. This article will introduce two main
approaches to the understanding and implementation of gamification in education: an artefact-
centred approach and a situated approach. Central themes in gamification research within LLT
will be explored, such as autonomy and engagement.

Keywords:
Gamification; playful learning; game-based learning; LLT; engagement; educational research;

Introduction
Gamification is often defined as “the use of game elements in non-game contexts” (Deterding
et al. 2011: 1). In other words, an activity usually not linked to game and play (e.g., work,
training) is adapted through the use of game mechanics to make it more engaging. If informally
the term gamification can be applied to any use of games and play in a given field, gamification
in its definition does not refer to the use of full-fledged games, but the framing of an activity
with playful elements and techniques (see Digital Game-Based Language Learning and
Teaching).
The term gamification was first coined in the 2010’s as a marketing technique and created a
new awareness of already existing strategies to increase consumer engagement (e.g., reward
programs, badges). Researchers, and maybe especially educational researchers, contested the
term gamification and its application. The construction of the word itself, with the suffix -
fication from latin ficare to make/to do, seems to imply an automatic transformation of an
activity into a game (Silva 2013).
In reaction to this, students and learning were brought back in focus in the application of
gamification to education. Gamified learning is “using game-based mechanics, aesthetics and
game thinking to engage people, motivate action, promote learning, and solve problems”
(Kapp, 2012: 10).
In language education, gamification first spread in informal learning settings through the
development of language apps; e.g., Duolingo. The use of games and play being already seen
as central in foreign language learning (Council of Europe 2001), examples of research and
practice within the LLT field multiplied rapidly (e.g., Silva 2013, Perry 2015, Lombardi 2015,
Berns 2016, Cruaud 2016).
Definitions of gamification: the boundary challenge

A first wave of research, often within the fields of human computer interaction (HCI) and game
studies, focused on defining gamification and game elements, and especially cutting a clear
boundary between gamification and similar approaches as serious games or playful interactions
(e.g., Deterding et al., 2011; Huotari & Hamari, 2012; Mekler et al. 2013; see also Game
Mechanics and Design Features for DGBLLT). This need for a clear cutting definition, perhaps
expected in a new field, was enhanced by the challenge of the separation between games and
gamified activities.
Gamification is defined as the use of game elements, and not of fully developed computer
games. However the boundary between games and gamified activities can be difficult to trace
(Werbach 2014: 267). Is the training game Zombies Run! that adds story, points and levels to
the sport of running/jogging, a full-fledged game, or is it an example of gamification? If the
game started as the gamification of the running activity, does its existence as a separate game
removes it from the gamification field? There have been two main ways of addressing this
issue in the field of research, that also represent two different understandings of gamification:
an artefact-based approach and a situated approach. The former aims at more precise
descriptions of elements and their application, the latter moves the focus towards the
experience of play. First, let’s discuss the artefact-centred approach.

Game elements: an artefact-centred approach to gamification

The focus on artefacts and systems is already present in the word gamification itself, a word
built from ‘game’ and not ‘play’ (Silva 2013: 4). In addition, the concept of ‘game’ in
gamification is influenced by video games and focused on macro-gameplay, also called the
objective-challenge-reward loop (Philippette 2014: 188). A first approach to gamification
accepts these premises and focus on game elements, systems, and artefacts of play.
Gamification is described as a process, with a list of game elements that one can pick from
depending on what one wants to achieve (Kapp 2012). These may include, for example:
- Reward structures: often taking the form of leaderboards, points, or badges, they
represent the student’s progress in the learning activity
- Levels: either as a way of structuring the learning activity in small chunks, or as the
choice of difficulty for the tasks
 - Storytelling: adding a narrative (e.g., characters, plot) to the activity to contextualise
the learning situation
However, this does not equate with a mindless applying of points and leaderboards to a learning
activity, but rather “a careful and considered application of game thinking to solving problems
and encouraging learning using all the elements of games that are appropriate” (Kapp 2012:
15-16). Gamification has to be combined with a good instructional design to give positive effect
on learning outcomes (Huang et al. 2020: 1897).
A study following this approach is interested in effects: more participation, more engagement,
more content reviewed, and which strategies or game elements will maximise these effects in
the learning situation (e.g., Barata et al. 2013; Huang & Hew 2015; Huang et al. 2020). Within
the educational field, this often translates to increasing student participation in a quantifiable
way, through completed tasks, higher ranking in the leaderboard, length of presence online, or
attendance at lectures.

Playful frame: a situated approach to gamification

Advocating for a reappropriation of the term gamification from the field of marketing and its
focus on consumer engagement, a group of researchers proposes a more holistic understanding
of gamified situations. Where the artefact-centred approach focuses on the game aspect and
elements, the situated approach turns towards play and the students’ experience. The separation
between game and non-game is then addressed by “considering the game to be an experience
rather than a clear system of objects” (Philippette 2014: 189). Gamification is then defined as
the opening of a playful frame in an activity, e.g., giving space for a playful interpretation of
the learning situation (Cruaud 2018b). Central in this approach is the focus on a play-based
approach (Sanchez et al. 2016), on the playful attitude as the fourth dimension of play (Silva
2013) and on the playful frame (Cruaud 2018ab). All build on the premise that “the essence of
the game does not lie […] in the system of objects but in the relationship that develops between
the player and the game” (Philippette 2014: 192).
In this approach, the development of a gamified activity will begin by looking at the context
(e.g., learning French as a foreign language in high school), the people within it, and their
interaction with different artefacts. It will focus “on the learners and tak[e] into consideration
the situation that emerges when they play rather than the artifact dedicated to play” (Sanchez,
et al., 2016: 484).
Another consequence of this approach is highlighting that gamification does not need to be
digital, but can also be used in analog processes (see Lombardi 2015 for an example of paper
gamification).

Central themes in gamification research for LLT

Research on gamification has developed rapidly in the last fifteen years. Several meta analyses
and review studies have shown that gamified systems can have positive effects on student
engagement, motivation, attitude and performance (Subhash & Cudney 2018; Sailer & Homner
2020; Huang et al. 2020). A short overview of central themes within the field of LLT research
will now be presented.

Gamification and learner engagement

Unsurprisingly, a main focus of research studies has been on learner engagement. Findings in
this theme are that learners are engaged in gamified learning activities. Engagement, when
defined, is understood as participation in activities and satisfaction. Gamified learning activities
generally have a positive effect on students participation: students are active and complete more
tasks (e.g., Perry 2015; Lombardi 2015; Cruaud 2016). There also seems to be a positive effect
on students’ level of enjoyement (e.g., Dehghanzadeh et al. 2021; Lombardi 2015). Finally,
student engagement is often linked to motivation and most studies find a positive effect of
gamification on student motivation (e.g., Berns et al. 2016; Shen et al. 2024; see Motivation
and Affect in DGBLLT).

Learner autonomy in gamified learning

Gamified learning opens up for the emergence of learner autonomy (Cruaud 2018a). Students
can create their own learning paths in the language classroom, through the use of gamified
structures (e.g., levels, tasks) and when they are offered the possibility for choice. Findings
also show that students in gamified courses are actively selecting tasks and can mediate their
learning activities (e.g., Perry 2015; Lombardi 2015; Cruaud 2018a; see Autonomy and
DGBLLT).

Gamification and learner anxiety

Taking a playful stance towards a situation, for example when a gamified activity leaves space
for a playful interpretation, gives learners the possibility to distance themselves from the fear
of performing the language and of participating in the class activities. This playful disctance
 can help reduce anxiety and give learners the confidence to speak in their target language
(Reinders & Wattana 2012). Students within a gamified learning situation feel less anxious
about performing in the language (e.g., Perry 2015; Lombardi 2015; Berns et al. 2016) and
more confidence towards the instructional activities (Subhash & Cudney 2018). They start
playing with the language through jokes, exploration of terms and language play finding their
own way of being in the foreign language (Cruaud 2016; see Motivation and Affect in
DGBLLT).

Cross-references
Autonomy and DGBLLT
Game Mechanics and Design Features for DGBLLT
Motivation and Affect in DGBLLT

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