TOPIC: EVOLUTION – SUMMARY

1. BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION: FIXISM VS. EVOLUTIONISM

1.1. Evolution
Evolution is the process of transformation of species over time. There are essentially two theories that
explain very differently how species change over time: fixism and evolutionism.

1.2. Fixism
Fixist ideas were based on the interpretation of Genesis (the first book of the Old Testament, according to
which man was created in the image and likeness of God) and other sacred texts. Thus, it was believed that
species were created by God and remained unchanged over time since their creation (that is, they never
changed).

1.3. Evolutionism
Evolutionary theories are completely opposed to fixism, as they argue that species can change over time —
that is, they evolve. Scientists support these theories with a series of evidences that we will study below.
There are several evolutionary theories, including Lamarck’s theory (Lamarckism), Darwin and Wallace’s
theory (Darwinism), and current theories such as Neo-Darwinism or the Synthetic Theory, Punctuated
Equilibrium, and the Neutral Theory.

2. EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION

2.1. Anatomical and Morphological Evidence

After studying the anatomy of different organisms, scientists found organs with similar internal structures,
suggesting a common origin and development over time.
There are three types of organs:

• Homologous organs: These have the same internal structure but different external structures. The
external structure is related to the organ’s function. For evolutionists, they are evidence of
divergent evolution — that is, organs that belonged to a common ancestor and evolved externally
to adapt to different lifestyles.
• Analogous organs: These have different internal structures but similar external appearances
because they perform the same function. These organs are evidence of convergent evolution —
species not related by ancestry developing similar structures due to similar functional needs.
• Vestigial organs: These are remnants of organs that lost their original function. Species that possess
such organs are thought to be related to species that did use them.
In humans, examples include:
o The appendix, a vestige of a cecum in human ancestors that harbored bacteria for digesting
plant cellulose.
o The coccyx, believed to be the remnant of a lost tail.
o Wisdom teeth, used by hominids with longer jaws for chewing plant tissue.

2.2. Fossil Evidence

In species like modern horses, fossil remains link them to their ancestors, allowing scientists to reconstruct
their evolutionary path. The full set of fossils, ordered from oldest to newest, showing the evolutionary
history of a group is called a phylogenetic series.

2.3. Embryological Evidence

Studies of the embryos of fish, birds, mammals, and humans show many similarities in the early stages of
development, suggesting they had a common ancestor from which they evolved.
2.4. Molecular Evidence
All living beings carry genetic information in the form of nucleotide sequences that are translated into
proteins. Comparing these sequences across species allows us to establish their evolutionary relationships.
For example, cytochrome c is a protein made of 104 amino acids in both humans and chimpanzees — with
exactly the same sequence. In the rhesus monkey, it differs by only one amino acid; in horses, by 11; and in
tuna, by 21. The degree of similarity reflects how closely related the species are to a common ancestor.

2.5. Biogeographic Evidence

The presence of similar species in geographically related regions — like the African ostrich, South American
rhea, and Australian emu — is interpreted as evidence of evolution.

4. LAMARCKISM – THE FIRST EVOLUTIONARY THEORY

Lamarck’s theory of acquired characteristics argued that organisms develop organs based on use
("necessity creates the organ"). These organs, acquired during an organism’s life, were thought to be
passed on to offspring.

Examples:

• A person who builds muscle at the gym would, according to Lamarck, have children already born
with developed muscles.
• He explained the giraffe’s neck this way: ancestors with short necks stretched to reach high leaves,
gradually lengthening their necks and legs. These changes were passed to their descendants.

A) Strengths of Lamarck’s theory:

• It connects evolution with adaptation to environmental changes.

B) Weaknesses of Lamarck’s theory:

• Organs don’t change just to fulfill a need.

• Acquired traits aren’t inherited — only genetic information is passed on to offspring.

5. DARWINISM
Charles Robert Darwin was a 19th-century English naturalist. Though he began studying medicine under
family pressure, he didn’t finish. Later, he earned a degree in theology in 1831 and was offered a position
aboard the Beagle to sail around the world. His mission was to collect exotic plants and animals for later
study by British scientists.

During the five-year voyage, two discoveries especially influenced Darwin:

• Fossils of extinct mammals in Argentina.

• Fourteen distinct species of finches in the Galápagos Islands, unknown on the mainland.

Back in England, Darwin reflected on his findings and in 1858 received a manuscript from Alfred Russel
Wallace outlining an identical theory of evolution. They co-published a paper, but it gained little attention.
A year later, Darwin published On the Origin of Species, where he detailed his theory.

Darwin proposed that evolution is based on two pillars:

 • Species variability: Within the same species, individuals show differences (size, color, etc.) due to
genetic factors.
• Natural selection: Nature selects individuals with traits that give them an advantage in survival and
reproduction. Better-adapted individuals survive and pass on their traits; poorly adapted ones
gradually disappear.

Example:
Giraffes varied in neck length. When food on the ground became scarce, long-necked giraffes accessed
treetop leaves, fed better, and reproduced more. Short-necked giraffes struggled and eventually
disappeared.

Note:
Darwin’s theory had a weakness — it didn’t explain the origin of variability, which was resolved later
through advances in genetics.

6. CURRENT EVOLUTIONARY THEORIES

6.1. Neo-Darwinism
Scientists identified two issues in Darwin’s theory:

• It didn’t explain why individuals within a species differ (variability).

• If natural selection eliminated all variation, evolution would eventually stop.

Neo-Darwinism explains that variability arises through mutations and genetic recombination during sexual
reproduction — both random processes.
It also states that natural selection acts on populations, not individuals. Traits that are better adapted to
the environment persist, while poorly adapted traits disappear. Over time, this leads to new varieties,
breeds, and species.

Example (Giraffes):
Giraffe ancestors had short necks. Mutations and genetic recombination led to some individuals with
slightly longer necks. If this trait was advantageous, those giraffes reproduced more, and over time, the
population developed longer necks and legs.

6.2. Endosymbiotic Theory

Currently, the endosymbiotic theory, proposed by Lynn Margulis in 1967, is accepted. It states that
mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved from bacteria that were engulfed by ancestral eukaryotic cells.
Modern eukaryotes emerged from these symbiotic processes.

7. HUMAN EVOLUTION
Homo sapiens belongs to the Primate group — meaning we are a kind of monkey. It’s incorrect to say we
"descend" from monkeys as if we are no longer part of that group. More specifically, we belong to the
Hominoid primates or great apes, which include two chimpanzee species, gorillas, orangutans, and several
gibbon species. We all share a common ancestor that lived between 4.5 and 7 million years ago.

The first bipedal primates appeared in Africa over 4 million years ago, known as Australopithecus. They
were smaller than modern humans (1.2–1.5 m) and walked upright, as shown by fossilized footprints found
in Tanzania.
Australopithecus had great ecological success, existing for about 2 million years and giving rise to other
bipedal primates: Paranthropus and Homo. These hominins emerged during a climatic crisis 2.6 million
years ago, when soft fruits and plants became scarce.

The first toolmakers were Homo habilis.

Between 1.8 and 1.4 million years ago lived Homo ergaster, tall individuals (up to 1.80 m) with limb
proportions like ours but different skull and brain structures.

Homo populations diversified into new species. In Spain, a new species called Homo antecessor was
described from 800,000-year-old fossils in Atapuerca (Burgos).

In Europe, the evolution of the Homo genus led to Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis), present
between 250,000 and 35,000 years ago.

While Neanderthals lived in Europe, a new species arose in Africa — us, Homo sapiens. We had larger
frontal brains, flat vertical foreheads, and more slender bodies than Neanderthals. Homo sapiens left
Africa, colonizing the entire world — including the Americas and Oceania for the first time.
When we reached Europe, we coexisted with Neanderthals for around 10,000 years. They eventually
disappeared 35,000 years ago, during a particularly cold glacial period. Since then, Homo sapiens has been
the only human species on Earth.