BR JOSEPH PETER K.

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Table of Contents Atomic Properties of the First 20 Elements. ................24

CHAPTER ONE: LABORATORY TECHNIQUES ......... 3 Isotopes.........................................................................26
Introduction to chemistry ............................................... 3 Electronic configuration/ arrangements of the first 20
elements ........................................................................26
The Role of Chemistry in the Society ............................ 3
Dot and Cross Diagrams...............................................26
The School Chemistry Laboratory ................................. 3
CHAPTER FOUR: CHEMICAL BONDING ..................27
Common school chemistry laboratory chemicals .......... 3
Chemical Bonding ........................................................27
Laboratory Safety Rules................................................. 4
General Ideas and Types ..............................................27
The Apparatus or Scientific Tools or Instruments ............. 4
Principles of Bond Formation ......................................28
Apparatus for measuring volume ................................... 4
Rationale for Ionic “Bonding”......................................28
Apparatus for measuring mass ....................................... 5
Electron Dot Structures ................................................28
Apparatus for measuring temperature ............................ 6
Formation of Ions .........................................................28
Apparatus for measuring time ........................................ 6
Structures of Ionic Compounds ....................................29
Apparatus for scooping .................................................. 6
Covalent Bond ..............................................................29
Apparatus for putting liquids/solid for heating. ............. 6
Rationale for Covalent Bonding ...................................30
Apparatus for holding unstable apparatus (during
heating). ......................................................................... 7 Types of Covalent Bonds .............................................30
Apparatus for holding/directing liquid solutions/funnels LEWIS STRUCTURES ...............................................30
(to avoid spillage). ......................................................... 8 METALLIC BONDING ..............................................31
Types of Mixtures .............................................................. 9 CHAPTER 5: THE MOLE CONCEPT .........................32
Solutions/solid-liquid dissolved mixture ....................... 9 RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (RAM) .............................32
Suspension/ precipitates/solid-liquid mixture which do RELATIVE FORMULA MASS/ MOLECULA MASS ..32
not dissolve .................................................................. 10
THE MOLE CONCEPT .................................................32
Miscibles /Liquid-liquid mixtures ................................ 11
DEFINITIONS: ...............................................................32
Immiscibles/Liquid-liquid mixtures ............................. 11
CALCULATIONS OF MOLES. ......................................32
Solid-solid mixtures/Alloys ......................................... 11
Mole and gases. ............................................................34
Methods of separating mixtures ................................... 12
MOLAR VOLUME .....................................................34
Industrial application of Fractional distillation ............ 15
Concertation of a solution. ...........................................36
CHAPTER TWO: MATTER ........................................... 19
How is it measured? .....................................................36
DEFINITION ............................................................... 19
Ways of expressing concentrations. .............................36
KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER ............................. 19
Molarity. .......................................................................36
STATES OF MATTER ............................................... 19
Concentration in percentages. ......................................37
DIFFUSION AND KINETIC ENERGY ..................... 21
CHAPTER 6: STOICHIOMETRY ..................................38
Diffusion of Ammonia and Hydrogen Chloride .......... 21
CHEMICAL REACTIONS &CHEMICAL
Physical/Temporary and Chemical changes ................ 22 EQUATION .................................................................38
CHAPTER THREE ......................................................... 23 Writing Balanced Chemical Equations ........................39
ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS ................. 23 Reacting Masses and Volume ......................................40
The ATOM................................................................... 23 EMPIRICAL FORMULA ............................................42
Structure of the Atom................................................... 23 STOICHIOMETRY QUESTIONS AND POSSIBLE
Atomic Number and Mass Number ............................. 24 ANSWERS .......................................................................43
ELEMENTS ................................................................. 24
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 3 of 45

CHAPTER ONE: LABORATORY h. The following career fields require Chemistry

TECHNIQUES as one of subject areas of advanced/specialized
Introduction to chemistry study:
Chemistry is a branch of Science. Science is basically i. Chemical
the study of living and non-living things. The branch engineering/chemical
of science that study living things is called Biology. engineer
The branch of science that study non-living things is ii. Veterinary
called Physical Science. Physical Science is made up medicine/Veterinary doctor
of: iii. Medicine/Medical
(i) Physics- the study of matter in doctor/pharmacist/nurse
relation to energy iv. Beauty/Beautician v.
(ii) Chemistry- the study of the Teaching/Chemistry
composition of matter. teacher.
Chemistry is thus defined as the branch of science that
deals with the structure composition, properties and The School Chemistry Laboratory
behavior of matter.
Chemistry
The Role of Chemistry in the Society is studied
Chemistry is used in the following: mainly in a
a. Washing/cleaning with soap: science
Washing/cleaning is a chemical process that room called
involves interaction of water, soap and dirt so a school
as to remove the dirt from a garment. chemistry
b. Understanding chemicals of life Living thing
grow, respire and feed. The formation and
growth of cells involve chemical processes in
living things using carbohydrates, proteins and laboratory.
vitamins. The room is better ventilated than normal classroom.
c. Baking: Adding baking powder to dough and It has electricity, gas and water taps. A school
then heating in an oven involves interactions chemistry laboratory has a qualified professional
that require understanding of chemistry. whose called Laboratory technician/assistant.
d. Medicine: Discovery, test, prescription and ➢ All students user in a school chemistry
dosage of drugs to be used for medicinal laboratory must consult the Laboratory
purposes require advanced understanding of technician/assistant for all their laboratory
chemistry. work. A school chemistry laboratory has
e. Fractional distillation of crude oil: Crude oil is chemicals and apparatus.
fractional distilled to useful portions like ➢ A chemical is a substance whose composition
petrol, diesel, kerosene by applying chemistry. is known. All chemical are thus labeled as they
f. Manufacture of synthetic are. This is because whereas physically a
compounds/substances Large amounts of substance may appear similar, chemically they
plastics, glass, fertilizers, insecticides, soaps, may be different.
cements, are manufactured worldwide. ➢ All Chemicals which are not labeled should
Advanced understanding of the chemical never be used. Some chemicals are
processes involved is a requirement. toxic/poisonous, explosive, corrosive, caustic,
g. Diagnosis/test for abnormal body functions. If irritants, flammable, oxidizing, carcinogenic,
the body is not functioning normally, it is said or radioactive.
to be sick/ill. Laboratory test are done to
diagnose the illness/sickness
Care should always be taken when handling any Common school chemistry laboratory
chemical which have any of the above characteristic
properties.
chemicals
1. Distilled water
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 4 of 45

2. Concentrated mineral acid which are very 17. Always work on a clean bench. After
corrosive (on contact with skin they cause completing your experiment, clean all the
painful open wounds) pieces of apparatus you have used and return
3. Concentrated alkali/bases which are caustic (on them to their correct storage places.
contact with skin they cause painful blisters)
4. Very many types of salts
The Apparatus or Scientific Tools or Instruments
Laboratory Safety Rules
➢ An apparator /apparatus are scientific
1. NEVER run while in the laboratory because
tools/equipment used in performing scientific
you may harm or injure yourself and other lab
experiments.
users such as your fellow students.
➢ The conventional apparator used in performing
2. NEVER taste anything in the laboratory to
scientific experiments is called standard
avoid poisoning.
apparator/apparatus.
3. Always consult your teacher before trying any
➢ If the conventional standard
experiment to avoid accidents.
apparator/apparatus is not available, an
4. Label all the chemicals you are using to avoid
improvised apparator/apparatus may be used
confusion.
in performing scientific experiments.
5. Always use a clean spatula for scooping a
➢ An improvised apparator/apparatus is one used
substance from a container to minimise
in performing a scientific experiment for a
contamination.
standard apparator/apparatus.
6. Always hold test-tubes or boiling tubes using a
➢ Most standard apparatus in a school chemistry
test-tube holder when heating to avoid being
laboratory are made of glass because:
burnt
a. Glass is transparent and thus
7. When heating a substance, NEVER let the open
reactions /interactions inside are
end of the tube face yourself or anybody else
clearly visible from outside
because the liquid may spurt out and cause
b. Glass is comparatively cheaper
injury.
which reduces cost of equipping the
8. NEVER look directly into flasks and test-tubes
school chemistry laboratory
where reactions are taking place, because the
c. Glass is comparatively easy to
chemicals may spurt into your eyes and cause
clean/wash after use.
injury
d. Glass is comparatively unreactive
9. NEVER smell gases directly. Instead waft the
to many chemicals.
gaseous fumes near your nose with your hand.
10. Experiments in which poisonous gases and Apparatus for measuring volume
vapours are produced must be carried out in a 1.MEASURING CYLINDER:
fume cupboard or an open space outdoors. ➢ Measuring cylinders are
11. Always keep flammable substances away from apparatus used to measure volume of
flames because they easily catch fire. liquid/ solutions.
12. Always report accidents to teachers or the ➢ They are calibrated/ graduated
laboratory technicians immediately for to measure any volume required to the
necessary action to be taken. maximum.
13. In case of an accident do not scramble for the
same exit, because it may hinder easy escape.
14. Always put off flames that are not in use in
order to avoid accidents and minimise fuel
wastage.
15. If a chemical gets on your skin, rinse it
immediately with alot of water.
16. Always dispose off the chemicals already used
safely to avoid explosions and contamination
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 5 of 45

➢ Measuring cylinders are named according to filler - Pipette filler is used to suck in a liquid
the maximum calibrated/graduated volume e.g. solution into a pipette instead of using the mouth.
“10ml” measuring cylinder is can hold It has a suck, adjust and eject button for ensuring
maximum calibrated/graduated volume of the exact volume is attained. This requires
“10mililitres” /“10 cubic centimetres” “50ml” practice.
measuring cylinder is can hold maximum 4. VOLUMETRIC FLASK.
calibrated/graduated volume of “50mililitres”
A volumetric flask
/“50 cubic centimetres” “250ml” measuring
is thin /narrow but widens at the
cylinder is can hold maximum
calibrated/graduated volume of “250mililitres” base/bottom. It is used to measure
/“250 cubic centimetres” “1000ml” measuring very accurate/exact volumes of a
cylinder is can hold maximum liquid solution. The maximum
calibrated/graduated volume of calibration / graduation mark is a
“1000mililitres”/“1000 cubic centimetres” visible ring. Volumetric flasks are
named according to the maximum
2. BURETTE calibrated/graduated volume e.g.
Burette is a long and narrow/thin “250ml” volumetric flask has a calibrated/graduated
apparatus used to mark at exact volume of “250mililitres”
measure small /“250centimetres” “1l” volumetric flask has a
accurate and exact calibrated/graduated mark at exact volume of “one
volumes of a liquid litre” /“1000 cubic centimeters” “2l” volumetric
solution. It must be flask has a calibrated/graduated mark at exact
clamped first on a volume of “two litres” /“2000 cubic centimeters”
stand before being 5. A DROPPER/TEAT PIPETTE
used. It has a tap to run A dropper/teat pipette is a long thin/narrow
out the required glass/rubber
amount out. They are apparatus that has a
calibrated/ graduated flexible rubber head.
to run out small volume required to the A dropper/teat
maximum 50ml/50cm3 . The maximum pipette is used to measure very small amount/
50ml/50cm3 calibration/ graduation drops of liquid solution by pressing the flexible
reading is at the bottom. This ensure the rubber head. The numbers of drops needed are
amount run out from a tap below can be counted by pressing the rubber gently at a time.
determined directly from burette
reading before and after during Apparatus for measuring mass
volumetric analysis. Burettes are 1. BEAM BALANCE
expensive and care should be taken A beam balance has a pan where a
when using them.

3. PIPETTE
Pipette is a long and narrow/thin apparatus that
widens at the middle used to measure and transfer
small very accurate/exact volumes of a liquid
solution. It is open on either ends. The maximum substance of unknown mass is placed.
25ml/25cm3 calibration/ graduation mark is a The scales on the opposite end are
visible ring on one thin end. To fill a pipette to this adjusted to “balance” with the mass of the
mark, the user must suck up a liquid solution upto unknown substance. The mass from a
a level above the mark then adjust to the mark beam balance is in grams.
using a finger. This requires practice. ii. Pipette
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 6 of 45

2. ELECTRONIC/ELECTRIC BALANCE. scooped to the brim is “one spatula end full”

An electronic/electric balance has a pan A solid scooped to half brim is “half spatula
end full”.

2. A DEFLAGRATING SPOON
A deflagrating spoon is used to scoop solids
which do not require accurate
measurement mainly for heating.
where a substance of unknown mass is Unlike a spatula, a deflagrating
placed. The mass of the unknown spoon is longer.
substance in grams is available
immediately on the screen.
Apparatus for measuring temperature
A thermometer has alcohol or mercury trapped in a
bulb with a thin enclosed outlet for the
alcohol/mercury in the
bulb. If temperature
Apparatus for putting liquids/solid for heating.
rises in the bulb, the
a. TEST TUBE.
alcohol /mercury
expand along the thin A test tube is a narrow/thin glass apparatus
narrow enclosed outlet. open on one side. The end of the opening
The higher the temperature, the more the expansion. is commonly called the “the mouth of the
Outside, a calibration /graduation correspond to this test tube”.
expansion and thus changes in temperature. A
thermometer therefore determines the temperature
when the bulb is fully dipped in to the substance being
tested. To determine the temperature of solid is thus
very difficult. b. BOILING/IGNITION TUBE.

Apparatus for measuring time A boiling/ignition tube is a wide glass apparatus than
The stop watch/clock is the standard apparatus for a test tube open on one side. The
measuring time. Time is end of the opening is commonly
measured using hours, called the “the mouth of the
minutes and second. boiling/ignition tube”..
Common school stop
watch/clock has start, stop
and reset button for
determining time for a c. BEAKER
chemical reaction. This
requires practice. Beaker is a wide
calibrated/graduated lipped
Apparatus for scooping glass/plastic apparatus used
1. SPATULA for transferring liquid
A spatula is used to scoop solids which do solution which do not
not require accurate normally require very
measurement. Both accurate measurements
ends of the spatula Beakers are named
can be used at a according to the maximum
time. A solid calibrated/graduated
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 7 of 45

volume they can hold e.g. “250ml” beaker has a A flat bottomed flask is a moderately narrow
maximum calibrated/graduated volume of glass apparatus with a wide
“250mililitres” /“250 cubic centimeters” “1l” round base with a small flat
beaker has a maximum calibrated/graduated bottom. It has no
volume of “one litre” /“1000 cubic centimeters” “5 calibration/graduation.
l” beaker has a maximum calibrated/graduated Flat bottomed flasks thus
volume of “two litres” /“2000 cubic centimeters” carry/hold exact volumes
of liquids that have been
measured using other
d. CONICAL FLASK. apparatus. The narrow/thin
A conical flask is a moderately narrow glass mouth prevents spirage.
apparatus with a wide base and no They can also hold
calibration/graduation. Conical flasks thus (weighed) solids. A flat bottomed flask must be
carry/hold exact volumes of held/clamped when in use because it’s flat
liquids that have been narrow base is not stable.
measured using other
Apparatus for holding unstable apparatus (during
apparatus. It can also be put
heating).
some solids. The narrow
a. TRIPOD STAND
mouth ensures no spillage.
Conical flasks are named A tripod stand is a three legged metallic
according to the maximum apparatus which unstable
volume they can hold e.g. apparatus are placed on
“250ml” Conical flasks hold (during heating).Beakers.
a maximum volume of “250mililitres” /“250 Conical flasks, round
cubic centimeters” “500ml” Conical flasks bottomed flask and flat
hold a maximum volume of “500ml” /“1000 bottomed flasks are
cubic centimeters” e. placed on top of tripod
stand (during heating).
e. ROUND BOTTOMED FLASK
A round bottomed flask is a moderately narrow
glass apparatus with a wide
round base and no
calibration/graduation.
Round bottomed flask thus b. WIRE GAUZE/MESH
carry/hold exact volumes Wire gauze/mesh is a metallic/iron plate of
of liquids that have been wires crossings. It is
measured using other placed on top of a tripod
apparatus. The narrow/thin stand: i. Ensure even
mouth prevents spillage. distribution of heat to
The flask can also hold prevent cracking glass
(weighed) solids. A round apparatus ii. Hold
bottomed flask must be held/ clamped when in smaller apparatus that cannot reach the edges
use because of its wide narrow base. of tripod stand

f. FLAT BOTTOMED FLASK

c. CLAMP STAND
A clamp stand is a metallic apparatus which
tightly hold apparatus at their “neck” firmly. A
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 8 of 45

clamp stand has a wide metallic base that also used to place a filter paper during
ensures maximum stability. filtration.
The height and position of
2. THISTLE FUNNEL
clamping is variable. This
A thistle funnel is a wide mouthed glass
require practice
apparatus that narrow drastically at
the bottom to a very long extension.
d. TEST TUBE HOLDER
The long extension is usually
A test tube holder is a hand
drilled through a stopper/cork. A
held
liquid solution can thus be directed
metallic
into a stoppered container without
apparatus
spillage.
which
tightly
3. DROPPING FUNNEL
hold test/boiling/ignition tube at their “neck”
A dropping funnel is a wide mouthed glass
firmly on the other end. Some test tube holders
apparatus with a tap that narrow
have wooden handle that prevent heat
drastically at the bottom to a very
conduction to the hand during heating.
long extension. The long extension
is usually drilled through a
e. PAIR OF TONG.
stopper/cork. A liquid solution can
A pair of tong is a scissor-like hand held
thus be directed into a stoppered
metallic apparatus
container without spillage at the
which tightly hold
rate determined by adjusting the tap.
firmly a small solid
4. SEPARATING FUNNEL
sample on the other
A separating funnel is a wide mouthed glass
end.
apparatus with a tap
at the bottom narrow
f. GAS JAR
extension. A liquid
A gas jar is a long wide glass apparatus with a
solution can thus be
wide base. It is open on one
directed into a
end. It is used to collect/put
separating funnel
gases. This requires practice.
without spillage. It
Apparatus for can also safely be
holding/directing liquid removed from the
solutions/funnels (to avoid funnel by opening the tap. It is used to separate
spillage). two or more liquid solution mixtures that form
layers/immiscible. This requires practice.
1. FILTER FUNNEL
A filter funnel is a wide mouthed (mainly
plastic) apparatus that
narrow drastically at the
bottom to a long
extension. When the long
extension is placed on
top of another apparatus,
a liquid solution can
safely be directed
through the wide mouth of the filter funnel into
the apparatus without spirage. Filter funnel is
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 9 of 45

Put about 100 cm3 of water in three separate

beakers. Separately place a half spatula end
full of copper (II) sulphate (VI), Potassium
manganate (VII) and sodium chloride crystals
to each beaker.
Stir for about two minutes.

Observation:
Copper (II) sulphate (VI) crystals dissolve to
form a blue solution.

Types of Mixtures
Substances are either pure or impure.
➢ A pure substance is one which contains only
one substance.
➢ An impure substance is one which contains two
or more substances.
➢ A pure substance is made up of a pure solid,
pure liquid or pure gas.
➢ A mixture is a combination of two or more pure
substances which can be separated by physical Potassium Manganate (VII) crystals dissolve
means. to form a purple solution.

The three states of matter in nature appear mainly

as mixtures of one with the other. Common
mixtures include:
Solutions/solid-liquid dissolved mixture
Experiment: To make a solution of copper (II)
sulphate (VI)/Potassium magnate(VII) /sodium
chloride
Procedure:

Sodium chloride crystals dissolve to make a colourless

solution
Explanation
➢ Some solids, liquids and gases dissolve in some
other liquids.
➢ A substance/liquid in which another substance
dissolves is called solvent.
➢ A substance /solid /gas which dissolves in a
solvent is called solute.
➢ When a solute dissolves in a solvent it forms a
uniform mixture called solution.
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 10 of 45

➢ A solute dissolved in water as the solvent exists ➢ Separately place a half spatula end full of soil,
in another state of matter called aqueous state. maize and lead (II) Iodide to each beaker.
➢ Water is referred as the universal solvent ➢ Stir for about two minutes.
because it dissolves many solutes.
Observation
➢ A solute that dissolves in a solvent is said to be
soluble. Some soil, maize and lead (II) Iodide float in the water
➢ Soluble particles uniformly spread between the
particles of water/solvent and cannot be seen. A brown suspension/precipitate/particles suspended in
Solute + Solvent → solution water containing soil
➢ Solute + Water → aqueous solution of solute
➢ The solute dissolved in water gives the name of
the solution e.g.
Sodium chloride solution is a solution formed
after dissolving sodium chloride crystals/solid
in water. Sodium chloride exists in aqueous state
after dissolving.
Sodium chloride + Water → Sodium chloride solution
NaCl(s) + (aq) → NaCl(aq)
A white suspension/precipitate/particles suspended in
Ammonia solution is a solution formed after water containing flour
dissolving ammonia gas in water. Ammonia
exists in aqueous state after dissolving.
Ammonia gas + Water→ aqueous
ammonia
NH3(g) + (aq) → NH3(aq)
Copper (II) sulphate solution is a solution formed
after dissolving Copper (II) sulphate crystals/solid in
water. Copper (II) sulphate exists in aqueous state
after dissolving. A yellow suspension/precipitate/particles suspended in
Copper (II) sulphate + Water → Copper (II) sulphate water containing Lead (II) iodide. Some soil, maize
solution and lead (II) Iodide settle at the bottom after some time.
CuSO4(s) + (aq) → CuSO4 (aq)
Potassium manganate (VII) solution is a solution
formed after dissolving Potassium manganate(VII)
crystals/solid in water. Potassium manganate (VII)
exist in aqueous state after dissolving.
Potassium manganate (VII) + Water → Potassium
manganate (VII) solution
KMnO4 (s) + (aq) → KMnO4 (aq)

Suspension/ precipitates/solid-liquid mixture which

do not dissolve
Experiment:
Explanation
To make soil, flour and Lead (II) Iodide
suspension/precipitate Some solid substances do not dissolve in a liquid. They
are said to be insoluble in the solvent. When an
Procedure
insoluble solid is put in liquid:
➢ Put about 100 cm3 of water in three separate
beakers.
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 11 of 45

➢ Some particles remain suspended/floating in ➢ Kerosene is miscible in turpentine oil.

the liquid to form a suspension / precipitate . ➢ Miscible mixture form uniform mixture. They
➢ Some particles sink/settle to the bottom to form do not form layers. The particles of one liquid
sediments after being allowed to stand. are smaller than the particles of the other. The
➢ An insoluble solid acquire the colour of the smaller particles occupy the spaces between the
suspension/precipitate .e.g. bigger particles.
✓ A white suspension /precipitate have some fine
Immiscibles/Liquid-liquid mixtures
white particles suspended /floating in the
To form water-turpentine oil and Kerosene-water
liquid. Not “white solution”
miscibles
✓ A blue suspension /precipitate has some fine
blue particles suspended /floating in the liquid. Procedure
✓ A green suspension /precipitate has some fine
green particles suspended /floating in the ➢ Measure 50cm3 of water into 100cm3 beaker.
liquid. Measure 50cm3 of turpentine oil.
✓ A brown suspension /precipitate has some fine ➢ Place the oil into the beaker containing water.
brown particles suspended /floating in the Swirl for about one minute.
liquid. ➢ Measure 50cm3 of water into 100cm3 beaker.
✓ A yellow suspension /precipitate has some fine Measure 50cm3 of kerosene.
yellow particles suspended /floating in the ➢ Place the kerosene into the beaker containing
liquid. water. Swirl for about one minute.

Miscibles /Liquid-liquid mixtures Observation

Experiment ➢ Two liquids form layers.
To form water-ethanol and Kerosene-turpentine ➢ Turpentine and water do not form a uniform
miscibles mixture.
➢ Water and kerosene do not form uniform
Procedure mixture
➢ Measure 50cm3 of ethanol into 100cm3 Explanation
beaker. Measure 50cm3 of water.
➢ Place the water into the beaker containing ➢ Kerosene is immiscible in Water.
ethanol. ➢ Water is immiscible in turpentine oil.
➢ Swirl for about one minute. ➢ Immiscible mixtures do not form uniform
➢ Measure 50cm3 of kerosene into 100cm3 mixtures. They form layers. The size of the
beaker. particles of one liquid is almost equal to the
➢ Measure 50cm3 of turpentine oil. Place the particles of the other.
turpentine oil into the beaker containing ➢ The particles of one liquid cannot occupy the
kerosene. spaces between the particles of the other.
➢ Swirl for about one minute. ➢ The heavier particles settle at the bottom. The
less dense particles settle on top.
Observation ➢
Solid-solid mixtures/Alloys
➢ Two liquids do not form layers. Ethanol and Before solidifying, some heated molten/liquid
water form a uniform mixture. metals dissolve in another metal to form a uniform
➢ Kerosene and turpentine oil form uniform mixture of the two.
mixture
On solidifying, a uniform mixture of the metals is
Explanation formed.
A uniform mixture of two metals on solidifying is
➢ Ethanol is miscible in Water. called alloy.
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 12 of 45

In the alloy, one metallic particle occupies the (b) FILTRATION

spaces between the metallic particles of the other.
Decantation leaves suspended particles in the liquid
Alloy Constituents of Uses of the alloy after separation. Filtration is thus improved
Name the alloy decantation.
Brass Copper andMaking screws and bulb
Zinc caps Filtration is the method of separating insoluble
Bronze Copper and TinMaking clock springs, mixtures/particles/solids from a liquid, using a filter.
electrical contacts and Experiment:
copper coins
Soldier Lead and Tin Soldering, joining To separate soil and water using filtration
electrical contacts
because of its low melting
points and high thermal Procedure:
conductivity
Duralum Aluminum, Making aircraft, utensils, Fold a filter paper to fit well into a filter funnel. Place
in copper and and windows frames the funnel in an empty 250 cm3 beaker.
Magnesium because of its light weight
and corrosion resistant. Put one spatula end full of soil into 50cm3 of water.
Steel Iron, Carbon, Railway lines, car bodies Stir. Put the soil/water mixture into the filter funnel.
Manganese and girders and utensils Observations
other metals
Nichrom Nichrome and Provide resistance in Clean water is collected below the filter funnel. Soil
e Chromium electric heaters and ovens remains above the filter paper.
German Copper, Zinc Making coins
Silver and Nickel Explanation
A filter paper is porous which act like a fine sieve with
Methods of separating mixtures very small holes. The holes allow smaller water
Mixtures can be separated from applying the particles to pass through but do not allow bigger soil
following methods: particles.

(a) DECANTATION The liquid which passes through is called Filtrate. The
Sediments can be separated from a liquid by solid which do not pass through is called Residue.
pouring out the liquid. This process is called
decantation.
Experiment
Put some sand in a beaker. Add about 200cm3 of
water. Allow sand to settle. Pour off water carefully
into another beaker.
Observation
Sand settles at the bottom as sediments. Less clean
water is poured out.
Explanation
Sand does not dissolve in water. Sand is denser than
water and thus settles at the bottom as sediment. When In industries, filtration is used in engine filters to clean
poured out, the less dense water flows out. up air.
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 13 of 45

✓ On adding water Common soil dissolves in

water. Soil particles do not dissolve in
water.
✓ On filtration Colourless liquid collected as
filtrate below the filter funnel/paper.
Brown residue collected above the filter
funnel/paper.
✓ On evaporation Colourless crystals
collected after evaporation
Explanation
Solid mixture of sand and common salt take the colors
of the two. On adding water, common salt dissolves to
form a solution. Soil does not because it is insoluble in
(c) EVAPORATION water and thus forms a suspension.
Evaporation is a method of separating a On filtration, a residue of insoluble soil does not pass
solute/solid from its solution. through the filter paper. It is collected as residue.
This involves heating a solution (solvent and Common salt solution is collected as filtrate. On
solute) to vapourize the solvent out of the solution heating the filtrate, the solvent/water
mixture leaving pure solute/solid. evaporate/vaporize out of the evaporating dish leaving
common salt crystals.
If a mixture contain insoluble solid, they are
filtered out. Vapourization/evaporation can take place even
without heating. This is the principle/process of drying
Experiment:
wet clothes on the hanging line.
To separate a mixture of soil and salt (sodium
chloride).
Procedure:
➢ Put one spatula end full of soil on a filter paper.
➢ Put one spatula full of common salt/sodium
chloride into the same filter paper.
➢ Mix well using the spatula,.
➢ Place about 200cm3 of water into a beaker. Put
the contents of the filter paper into the water.
Stir thoroughly using a glass/stirring rod for
about one minute.
➢ Fold a filter paper into a filter funnel. Pour half (d) DISTILLATION
portion of the contents in the beaker into the
filter funnel. Distillation is an improved evaporation where both the
➢ Put the filtrate into an evaporating dish. Heat solute and the solvent in the solution are
on a water bath. separated/collected.
Observation Distillation therefore is the process of separating a
solution into constituent solid solute and the solvent. It
✓ On mixing Colourless crystals and brown involves heating the solution to evaporate/vaporize the
soil particles appear on the filter paper. solvent out. The solvent vapour is then condensed back
to a liquid.
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 14 of 45

Experiment: In the Liebig condenser, the cold water

condenses the liquid vapour into liquid. The
To obtain copper (II) sulphate crystals and water from
condensed liquid collects in the receiver as
copper (II) sulphate solution.
distillate.
Procedure: The solute of blue Copper (II) sulphate (VI)
crystals is left in the flask as residue.
Put one spatula end full of copper (II) sulphate During simple distillation, therefore, the
crystals into a 250cm3 beaker. solution is heated to vaporize /evaporate the
Place about 200cm3 of water into the beaker. solvent/one component which is condensed at
Stir thoroughly using a glass/stirring rod for a different part of the apparatus.
about one minute. The purpose of pieces of broken
Pour half portion of the contents in the beaker porcelain/porous pot/glass/sand/ is to:
into a round bottomed/flat/conical flask broken ❖ Prevent bumping of the solution during
porcelain/sand/glass into the flask. boiling.
Put a few pieces of b Stopper the flask. ❖ Ensure smooth and even boiling. Salty
sea water can be made pure through
simple distillation. Any mixture with a
Connect the flask to a Liebig condenser using large difference 40oC in boiling point
delivery tube. can be separated using simple
Place a 200cm3 clean empty beaker/conical distillation.
flask as a receiver at the end of the Liebig
condenser. Set up of apparatus
Circulate water in the Liebig condenser.
Heat the flask strongly on a tripod stand with
wire mesh/gauze until there is no more visible
boiling bubbles in the flask.
Observation
Copper (II) sulphate (VI) crystals dissolve in
water to form a blue solution.
On heating, colourless liquid is collected in the
receiver. (e) FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
Blue crystals are left in the flask. (If gently Fractional distillation is an improved simple
heated further, the blue crystals turn to white distillation used specifically to separate miscible
powder) mixtures with very close /near boiling points.
Explanation Fractional distillation involves:
On heating blue Copper (II) sulphate solution, ➢ Heating the mixture in a conical/round
the colourless liquid solvents bottomed /flat bottomed flask. The pure
evaporate/vaporize. substance with a lower boiling point and thus
The liquid vapour/gas passes through the more volatile evaporates/boils/vaporize
delivery tube to the Liebig condenser first.e.g. Pure ethanol has a boiling point of
The Liebig condenser has a cold water inlet 78oC.Pure water has a boiling point of 100oC
near the receiver and cold water out let. This at sea level/one atmosphere pressure. When a
ensures efficient cooling. miscible mixture of ethanol and water is
If the cold water outlet/inlet is reversed, the heated, ethanol vaporizes /boils/ evaporates
water circulation would be less efficient. The first because it is more volatile.
water in the receiver would be warm. ➢ The conical/round bottomed /flat bottomed
flask is connected to a long glass tube called
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 15 of 45

fractionating column. The purpose of the the thermometer reading rises to 100oC when
fractionating column is to offer areas of water is being separated. It is passed through
condensation for the less volatile pure mixture. the Liebig condenser with the cold water inlet
The fractionating column is packed with glass and outlet circulation. It is collected different
beads/broken glass/ porcelain/ shelves to receiver as the second/subsequent fraction.
increase the surface area of condensation of ➢ Each fraction collected should be confirmed
the less volatile pure mixture. from known physical/chemical
➢ When the vapors rise they condense on the properties/characteristic.
glass beads/broken glass /porcelain / shelves
Example Ethanol
which become hot. When the temperature of
the glass beads/broken glass/porcelain/shelves ➢ Ethanol is a colourless liquid that has a
is beyond the boiling point of the less volatile characteristic smell .When it is put in a watch
pure substance, the pure substance rise and glass then ignited, it catches fire and burn with
condensation take place on the glass a blue flame.
beads/broken glass/porcelain/shelves at a ➢ Water is a colourless liquid that has no
higher level on the fractionating column. The smell/odour .When it is put in a watch glass
less volatile pure substance trickles/drips back then ignited, it does not catch fire.
down the fractionating column or back into the ➢
conical/round bottomed /flat bottomed flask to
be heated again. e.g. If the temperature on Set up of apparatus
glass beads/broken glass/porcelain/shelves is
beyond 78oC, the more volatile pure ethanol
rise to condense on the glass beads/broken
glass /porcelain/shelves higher in the
fractionating column. Water condenses and
then drip/trickle to the glass beads/broken
glass /porcelain /shelves lower in the
fractionating column because it is less volatile.
➢ The fractionating column is connected to a
Liebig condenser. The Liebig condenser has a
cold water inlet and outlet circulation. The
more volatile mixture that reach the top of the
fractionating column is condenses by the
Liebig condenser into a receiver. It is collected
as the first fraction. Industrial application of Fractional
➢ At the top of the fractionating column, a distillation
thermometer is placed to note/monitor the On a large scale, fractional distillation is used:
temperature of the boiling mixtures. Pure
substances have constant/fixed boiling point. ▪ In fractional distillation of crude oil in an oil
When one mixture is completely separated, the refinery. Crude oil is a mixture of many
thermometer reading rises. E.g. the fractions. When heated in a furnace, the
thermometer reading remains at 78oC when different fractions separate out according to
ethanol is being separated. When no more their boiling point.
ethanol is being separated, the ▪ In fractional distillation of air. Air contain a
mercury/alcohol level in the thermometer mixture of three main useful gases which are
rises. condensed by cooling to very low temperature
➢ The second /subsequent fractions are collected (-200oC) to form a liquid.
in the receiver after noting a rise the
mercury/alcohol level in the thermometer. E.g.
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 16 of 45

• The liquid is then heated. Nitrogen is Run out the remaining upper layer into a fresh
o
the most volatile (-196 C) and thus beaker.
comes out as the first fraction. Place a portion of upper and lower layer into a
• Argon (at -186oC) is the second watch glass separately after separating each.
fraction. Ignite.
• Oxygen ( at -183oC) is the last fraction. Observation
The three gases are very useful
Water and paraffin are both colourless liquids. Two
industrial gases.
layers are formed on mixing.
Colourless odorless liquid collected first. It does
not catch fire.
A colourless liquid with characteristic smell
collected later/second. It catches fire and burn with
a yellow smoky flame.
Explanation
Water and paraffin are immiscible. Water is denser
than paraffin. When put in a separating funnel,
paraffin float on water. On opening the tap, water
runs out. A mixture of water and paraffin at the
junction of the two is discarded. It is not pure.
(f) SEPARATION OF IMMISCIBLES
(Using a separating funnel) Set up of apparatus

Two or more liquids that form layers on mixing are

immiscible.
Immiscible mixture arrange themselves according to
their densities i.e. The denser liquid sink to the bottom.
The less dense liquid floats on the denser one.
Immicible mixtures can be separated from each other
by using a separating funnel.
Experiment:
To separate an immiscible mixture of paraffin and
water.
Procedure (g) SUBLIMATION/DEPOSITION
Place about 100cm3 of water into a 250cm3 Some solids on heating do not melt to a liquid but
beaker. Add about 100cm3 of paraffin into the change directly to a gas. The process by which a solid
beaker. Stir. changes to a gas is called sublimation .
Transfer the mixture into a separating funnel.
Allow to settle for about one minute. Open the The gas cools back and changes directly to a solid. The
tap, run out the lower layer out slowly into a process by which a gas changes to a solid is called
clean beaker. Close the tap when the upper deposition. Sublimation and deposition therefore are
layer is very close to the tap. the same but opposite processes.
Run out the intermediate small amount of the
Some common substances that undergo sublimation/
mixture near the tap into a beaker. Discard it.
deposition include:
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 17 of 45

✓ Iodine as white sublimate on the cooler parts.

✓ Carbon(IV)oxide Common salt remains as residue.
✓ Camphor Chemical equation:
✓ Ammonium chloride Ammonium chloride solid ⇌ Ammonium
chloride gas NH4Cl(s) ⇌ NH4Cl(g)
✓ Iron(III)chloride
➢ On heating a mixture of Iodine and common
✓ Aluminum(III)chloride
salt, a purple fume of Iodine vapour is
✓ benzoic acid produced. The purple fumes solidify as dark
If a mixture has any of the above as a component, then grey sublimate on the cooler parts. Common
on heating it will change to a gas and be deposited salt remains as residue.
away from the source of heating. Chemical equation: Iodine solid ⇌ Iodine gas
I2 (s) ⇌ I2 (g)
Procedure

i. Place about one spatula full of ammonium (h) CHROMATOGRAPHY

chloride crystals into a clean dry China dish. Chromatography is a method of separating
Add equal amount of sodium chloride crystals. components of a solution mixture by passing it through
Swirl to mix. a medium where the different components move at
ii. Place the dish on a tripod stand, and heat. different rates.
iii. Place a funnel on top of the dish as shown.
The medium through which the solution mixture is
passed is called absorbent material. Paper
chromatography is a method of separating colored dyes
Set up of apparatus: by using paper as the absorbent material. Since dyes
are insoluble/do not dissolve in water, ethanol and
propanone are used as suitable solvents for dissolving
the dye.
Practically, a simple paper chromatography involve
placing a dye/material on the absorbent material,
adding slowly a suitable soluble solvent on the
dye/material using a dropper, the solvent spread out on
the absorbent material carrying the soluble dye away
from the origin.
The spot on which the dye is initially/originally placed
is called baseline.
The farthest point the solvent spread is called solvent
Observation front.
With ammonium chloride/common salt The farthest a dye can be spread by the solvent depend
mixture -White fumes produced. White on:
sublimate deposited Colourless residue left
With Iodine/common salt mixture -Purple ✓ Density of the dye-the denser the dye, the less
fumes produced. Dark grey sublimate it spread from the basely ne by the solvent.
deposited Colourless residue left ✓ Stickiness of the dye-some dyes sticks on the
absorbent material more than other thus do not
Explanation spread far from baseline.
➢ On heating a mixture of ammonium chloride Experiment:
and common salt, a white fume of ammonium
chloride is produced. The white fumes solidify To investigate the colors in ink
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 18 of 45

Procedure A pure dye will produce the same chromatogram/spot

if the same eluting solvent is used on the same
Method 1
absorbent material.
i. Place a filter paper on an empty beaker.
Comparing the distance moved by a pure dye with a
ii. Put a drop of black/blue ink in the centre of the
mixture, the coloured dyes in a mixture can be deduced
filter paper. Wait for about one minute for the
as below:
ink drop to spread.
iii. Using a clean teat pipette/dropper add one Example 1 The chromatogram of pure dyes A, B ,C
drop of ethanol/propanone. and a dye mixture D is shown below Determine the
iv. Wait for about one minute for the ink drop to pure dyes present in D. On the diagram show:
spread further.
v. Add about twenty other drops of ethanol
waiting for about one minute before each
addition. Allow the filter paper to dry.
Experiment: To investigate the colors in ink
Procedure
Method 2
✓ Cut an 8 centimeter thin strip of a filter paper.
✓ At about 3cm on the strip, place a drop of ink.
Place the filter paper in a 10cm length boiling i. the solvent front
tube containing 5cm3 of ethanol. Ensure the cut ii. Baseline
strip of the filter paper just dips into the ethanol
towards the ink mark. iii. the most soluble pure dye
✓ Cover the boiling tube. (i) SOLVENT EXTRACTION
✓ Wait for about twenty minutes. Solvent extraction is a method of separating oil
✓ Remove the boiling tube and allow the filter from nuts/seeds. Most nuts contain oil.
paper to dry. First the nuts are crushed to reduce their size
and increase the surface area. A suitable
volatile solvent is added. The mixture is
filtered.
The filtrate solvent is then allowed to
crystallize leaving the oil/fat. If a filter paper is
rubbed/smeared with the oil/fat, it becomes
translucent. This is the test for the presence of
oil/fat.
Experiment: To extract oil from Macadamia nut seeds
Explanation Procedure
When a drop of ink is placed on an absorbent material i. Crush Macadamia nut seeds form the hard
it sticks. outer cover.
ii. Place the inner soft seed into a mortar.
On adding an eluting solvent, it dissolves the dye
iii. Crush (add a little sand to assist in crushing).
spread out with it.
Add a little propanone and continue crushing.
The denser and sticky pure dye move least. The least Continue crushing and adding a little
dense/sticky pure dye move farthest. propanone until there is more liquid mixture
than the solid.
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 19 of 45

iv. Decant/filter. Put the filtrate into an Large blue crystals formed. When hydrated copper (II)
evaporating dish. sulphate crystals are placed in water, they dissolve to
v. Vapourize the solvent using solar energy form copper (II) sulphate solution.
/sunlight.
After some days water slowly evaporate leaving large
vi. Smear/rub a portion of the residue left after
crystals of copper (II) sulphate.
evaporation on a clean dry filter paper.
If the mixture is heated to dryness, small crystals are
Observation /Explanation
formed.
Propanone dissolve fat/oil in the macadamia nuts.
Propanone is more volatile (lower boiling point) than CHAPTER TWO: MATTER
oil/fat. DEFINITION
➢ Anything that has MASS and it occupies
In sunlight/solar energy, propanone
SPACES
evaporate/vaporize leaving oil/fat(has a higher boiling
➢ The Air we breathe, the water we drink and the
point). Soil are all forms of matter.
Any seed like corn, wheat, rice, soya bean may be used ➢ Matter exists in three states: S-L-G Naturally,
instead of macadamia seed. there are basically three states of matter.
➢ Solid -e.g. soil, sand, copper metal, bucket,
When oil/fat is rubbed/ smeared on an opaque paper, it ice.
becomes translucent. ➢ Liquid- e.g. water, Petrol, ethanol/alcohol,
Mercury (liquid metal).
(j) CRYSTALLIZATION ➢ Gas- e.g. Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Water
Crystallization is the process of using solubility of a vapour.
solute/solid to obtain the solute/solid crystals from a
saturated solution by cooling or heating the solution. KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER
➢ The theory states that: Matter is made up of tiny
A crystal is the smallest regular shaped particle of a particles which are in continuous state of
solute. Every solute has unique shape of its crystals. motion.
Some solutions form crystals when heated. This is ➢ The theory suggest that these particles have
because less solute dissolves at higher temperature. energy. This energy causes them to move.
Some other solutions form crystals when cooled. This ➢ The word KINETIC means MOVING. This
is because less solute dissolves at lower temperature. theory forms the basis of the theoretical model
Experiment; ➢ of matter. (How matter is structured)
To crystallize copper (II) sulphate (VI) solution STATES OF MATTER
Procedure:
Place about one spatula full of hydrated copper
sulphate (VI) crystals into 200cm3 of distilled water in
a beaker. Stir.
Continue adding a little more of the hydrated copper
sulphate (VI) crystals and stirring until no more
dissolve.
Decant/filter. Cover the filtrate with a filter paper.
At this our level, we shall only consider, the three state
Pierce and make small holes on the filter paper cover.
of matter.
Preserve the experiment for about seven days.
Observation/Explanation
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 20 of 45

LIQUID STATE
➢ A liquid is made of particles which have some
degree of freedom
➢ The particles are not as close as they are in the
solid state
➢ They can move from one position to another
within the liquid.
➢ This explains why liquids:
SOLID STATE  Has No definite/fixed shape
 Takes the shape of the container where it is
put/placed.
➢ However, liquids, has fixed/definite volume.
➢ Occupies definite
spaces
➢ When liquid is heated
the particles move more
rapidly as the forces of
➢ They can only vibrate within fixed positions attractions are further
➢ They do not move from one point to another weakened.
because they have forces that hold them in
these positions. The weakening continues
➢ It has definite/fixed shape, until the particles gain
➢ It has fixed/definite volume enough energy to
➢ Occupies definite space, It has a very high overcome the forces
density between them.
HEATING A SOLID; At this point, the liquid boils as particles break free and
When a solid is heated the kinetic energy of the enter the Gaseous phase/state.
particles increases and they can begin to vibrate more The constant temperature at which a pure liquid boils
vigorously. is called the BOILLING POINT and it is fixed for a
At a certain temperature which is fixed for particular particular substance. E.g. Alcohol boils at 78°C, Water
substance, the forces holding the particles are at100 °C.
weakened enough to allow the particles to change The temperature at which a liquid boil depends on the
positions as a result the solid changes (melts) into a external atmospheric pressure hence change to Water
liquid. This temperature is known as MELTING vapor.
POINT
GASEOUS STATE
Eventually, at the melting point, the attractive forces
are too weak to hold the particles in the structure ➢ A gas is made up of particles free from each
together in an ordered way and so the solid melts. other. E.g. Oxygen, Nitrogen,Water vapour.
CO2
The particles become free to move around and lose
their ordered arrangement. ➢ Particles are far apart and free to move
randomly in all directions. This is why a gas
Energy is needed to overcome the attractive forces and does not have:
give the particles increased kinetic energy of vibration.
On heating further, the particles gain more kinetic  definite/fixed shape
energy and move faster.
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 21 of 45

 fixed/definite volume, but occupies every the boiling point and requires continuous
space within the container addition of heat
✓ Change of state from Solid to Liquid and Liquid
➢ It takes the shape of the container it is put.
to Gas can be reversed by cooling.
When a Gas is cooled the particles ✓ On cooling, the gas condenses into liquid and
lose kinetic energy and hence slow finally the liquid freezes into solid. These
down. As they slow down they changes are shown in the flow diagrams below
easily attract their neighbouring
particles and move close to form a
DIFFUSION AND KINETIC ENERGY
Diffusion is the movement of gas or liquid particles
liquid.
from a region of high concentration to a region of low
This process is called concentration
CONDENSATION or
The natural rapid and random movement of the
LIQUEFICATION. Condensation
particles means that gases readily ‘spread’ or diffuse.
occurs at the same temperature as
evaporation ✓ Diffusion is fastest in gases where there is more
space for them to move.
✓ The rate of diffusion increases with increase in
CHANGE OS STATES OF MATTER
temperature as the particles gain kinetic energy
and move faster.

Diffusion of Ammonia and Hydrogen

Chloride
The following experiment is set up.
✓ One filter soaked in a solution of ammonia
solution and the other soaked in a solution of
concentrated hydrochloric acid are placed on
the end of along glass tubing as shown.

When a Gas is cooled the particles lose kinetic energy

slowly they attain liquid state.
On further cooling of the liquid, the kinetic energy of  When colorless NH3 and HCl fumes meet,
the particles continues to decrease, and the particles dense white smoke (fumes) of ammonium
take up a fixed positions as the liquid solidifies. This chloride are observed.
process is called FREEZING. Freezing takes place at  NH3 (aq) + HCl (aq) → NH4Cl (s) Ammonia
the same temperature as Melting is diffused more rapidly than the hydrogen
chloride because the gas traveled a longer
NOTE distance in the same amount of time.
 Gases with greater R.M.M have higher
✓ In evaporation and boiling, the particles with densities than gases which have small
the highest kinetic energy can ‘escape’ from the molecules e.g. hydrogen chloride are heavier
attractive forces of the other liquid particles. than ammonia molecules.
✓ The particles lose any order and become  If the concentration of hydrochloric acid and
completely free to form a gas or vapour. that of ammonia were increased in a separate
✓ Boiling is rapid evaporation anywhere in the experiment, the rate of diffusion would be
bulk liquid and at a fixed temperature called faster
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 22 of 45

Time 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(Min)
Temperature -2 0 0 40 80 90 95 95 96
(oC)
• Plot a graph of time against Temperature
(y-axes)
Explain the shape of your graph
Melting/freezing/fusion/solidification and boiling
/vaporization /evaporation are the two physical
Large heavy molecules move more slowly than small,
processes.
light molecules.
Melting /freezing point of pure substances is fixed
Therefore, dense gases diffuse more slowly than gases
/constant.
of low density. The rate of diffusion depends on the
molecular mass/density of gas. Rate of diffusion is The boiling point of pure substance depends on
inversely proportional to mass of a gas. external atmospheric pressure.
RATE OF DIFFUSION; Melting/fusion is the physical change of a solid to
liquid.
✓ Increases with temperature
Freezing is the physical change of a liquid to solid.
✓ Decreases with increasing R.M.M or R.A.M
Melting/freezing/fusion/solidification is therefore two
✓ Increases with concentration opposite but same reversible physical processes i.e.
A(s) ⇌ A(l)
Graham’s Law of Diffusion
Boiling/vaporization/evaporation is the physical
Graham’s law of diffusion relates the rate of diffusion
change of a liquid to gas.
of a gas to its density. It states that the rate of diffusion
of a gas at constant temperature and pressure is Condensation/ liquidification is the physical change of
inversely proportional to the square root of its density. gas to liquid.

Physical/Temporary and Chemical changes Boiling/vaporization/evaporation and condensation/

A physical/temporary change is one which no new liquidification are therefore two opposite but same
substance is formed and is reversible back to original. reversible physical processes

A chemical/permanent change is one which a new i.e. B(l) ⇌ B(g)

substance is formed and is irreversible back to original. Examples of Physical and Chemical Processes
The following experiments illustrates physical and i. Melting/liquidification/fusion involves heating a
chemical changes solid to weaken the strong bonds holding the solid
(a) Heating ice particles together.
• Place about 10g of pure ice in a beaker. Solids are made up of very strong bonds holding the
• Determine its temperature. particles very close to each other (Kinetic Theory of
• Record it at time “0.0” in the table below. matter ).
• Heat the ice on a strong Bunsen flame and
determine its temperature after every On heating these particles gain energy/heat from the
60seconds/1minute to complete the table surrounding heat source to form a liquid with weaker
below: bonds holding the particles close together but with
some degree of freedom.
Freezing/fusion/solidification involves cooling a
liquid to reform /rejoin the very strong bonds to hold
the particles very close to each other as solid and thus
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 23 of 45

lose their degree of freedom (Kinetic Theory of Structure of the Atom

matter).
Freezing /fusion / solidification is an exothermic (-
ΔH) process that require particles holding the liquid
together to lose energy to the surrounding.
Boiling/vaporization/evaporation involves heating a
liquid to completely break/free the bonds holding the
liquid particles together.
Gaseous particles have high degree of freedom
(Kinetic Theory of matter). Boiling /vaporization /
evaporation is an endothermic (+ ΔH) process that
require/absorb energy from the surrounding.
Condensation/liquidification is reverse process of
boiling/vaporization/evaporation. It involves
Note:
gaseous particles losing energy to the surrounding to
form a liquid. The atom can still however be split into smaller
particles termed the sub-atomic particles.
CHAPTER THREE
The sub-atomic particles. - Are generally three:
ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS Protons; Neutrons; Electrons.
The ATOM Protons
Refers to the smallest particle of an element that can
take part in a chemical reaction; Are the positively charged sub-atomic particles; Are
found in the nucleus and thus form part of the
It has an average diameter of 10-8 cm with a nucleus of nucleons;
about 10-13 cm;
The number of protons in the nucleus is equal to the
Parts of an Atom number of electrons in the energy levels;
The atom is made of two main parts: We call the number of protons the Proton Number or
sometimes is called Atomic Number. It is often
1. The nucleus
represented by capital letter Z
2. The energy levels;
They contribute in the Mass Number of an atom
The nucleus
Neutrons
Is the positively charged part of an atom;
Are neutrally charged sub-atomic particles found in the
The nucleus contains two subatomic particles;
nucleus of the atom;
neutrons and protons;
The positive charge is due to presence of protons; They are thought to probably prevent the positively
The nuclei of all atoms contain neutrons except the charged protons from getting too close to each other;
hydrogen atom;
The protons and the neutrons are together referred to They contribute in the Mass Number of an atom
as the nucleons; Electrons

The energy levels Are negatively charged sub-atomic particles found in

the energy levels;
They contain the electrons; -Electrons are so small and
move so fast that their path cannot be traced directly; The number of electrons in the energy levels is equal
Thus the energy level simple represents the region to the number of protons in the nucleus; This makes the
where the electrons are most likely to be found; atom to be electrically neutral;
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 24 of 45

Atomic Number and Mass Number ➢ Elements are classified as Solids, Liquids and
Atomic number Gaseous @ room Temperature. There are
many gaseous elements but there are only two
Refers to the number of protons in the nucleus of an liquids one, mercury and bromine.
atom;
➢ Elements are also classified as Metals and Non-
Examples Sodium has 11 protons in the nucleus and metals. All the metals except mercury are
thus said to have atomic number 11; Solids
Chlorine has 17 protons in the nucleus and thus said to ➢ The smallest particles of an element that make
have atomic number 17; matter is called an ATOM
Mass number; ➢ We shall consider much on the first 20
Refers to the sum of the number of protons and elements on the Periodic table
neutrons in an atom of an element;
Examples: Sodium has 12 neutrons and 11 protons
hence a mass number of 23;
Chlorine has 18 neutrons and 17 protons hence a mass
number of 35.
Notation of Atomic Number and Mass Number
Both atomic number and mass number of an element
can be written along with the symbol of an element;
Mass number; Is conventionally represented as a
superscript to the left of the symbol; The Periodic table has over 100 elements (118). Which
Examples: Sodium; 23Na; Magnesium 24Mg; are divided in four blocks (S-block, P-block, D-block
and F-block). We shall go in details later during the
Atomic number; Is conventionally represented as a course of Chemistry.
subscript to the left of the symbol;
The periodic table for the first 20 elements is as follows
Examples: Sodium; 11Na; Magnesium 12Mg; Thus the
elements can be conventionally represented as:
Sodium 2311Na Magnesium 2412Mg

GENERAL NUCLIDE NOTATION

ELEMENTS
➢ We recall that Matter is made from Chemical
elements, which often join to form compounds.
Atomic Properties of the First 20 Elements.
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 25 of 45

Element Symbol Number of Number of Number of Atomic Mass

electrons Protons Neutrons Number Number

Hydrogen H 1 1 0 1 1
Helium He 2 2 2 2 4
Lithium Li 3 3 4 3 5
Beryllium Be 4 4 5 4 9
Boron B 5 5 6 5 11
Carbon C 6 6 6 6 12
Nitrogen N 7 7 7 7 14
Oxygen O 8 8 8 8 16
Fluorine F 9 9 10 9 19
Neon Ne 10 10 10 10 20
Sodium Na 11 11 12 11 23
Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 12 24
Aluminium Al 13 13 14 13 27
Silicon Si 14 14 14 14 28
Phosphorus P 15 15 16 15 31
Sulphur S 16 16 16 16 32
Chlorine Cl 17 17 18 17 35
Argon Ar 18 18 22 18 40
Potassium K 19 19 20 19 39
Calcium Ca 20 20 20 20 40

Calculating the number of Protons, electrons and ❖ Mass Number = No of Protons + No of

neutrons from Mass number and Atomic Number Neutrons
✓ In any element the number of electrons = to the EXERCISE
number of protons. In this way the atom will
❖ An element X has 14 protons and 14 neutrons.
remain stable.
Find the:
✓ The number of protons available in an element
 Number of electrons element X has?
gives the Atomic Number. E.g. Carbon has 6
protons and its Atomic number is 6.  atomic number and mass number of the
element X?
✓ The sum of the protons and neutrons of an  Name the element X?
element always gives Mass Number. E.g.
Carbon has 6 neutrons and its Mass number ❖ An element has a Mass number of 79. it has 39
will be: Number of Protons (6) + Number of electrons. Find the number of neutrons and
Neutrons (6) = 12. protons of this element?

❖ An element with 13 electrons and 14 neutrons ❖ Argon has 22 neutrons and 18 electrons. Find
will have a Mass number of 27 its atomic number and mass number?
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 26 of 45

Isotopes
Are atoms of the same element with same atomic
number but different mass number due to different
number of neutrons. Examples are as follows.

Electronic configuration/ arrangements of the first 20 elements

Electron Arrangement.
Refers to the distribution of electrons in the energy levels of an atom.
Example: electron arrangement for the first 20 elements.

Dot and Cross Diagrams However, all electrons are the same regardless of
Is a diagrammatic representation of the electron whether they are represented as dots or crosses.
arrangements in an atom in which the energy levels Examples: (Refer to the number of electrons, protons
are represented by concentric lines while electrons are and neutrons in the tables above)
represented by dots or crosses.
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 27 of 45

Noble gases have duplet /octet. All other atoms try to

be like noble gases through chemical reactions and
forming molecules.
Only electrons in the outer energy level take part in
formation of a chemical bond.

General Ideas and Types

➢ General Principle: Atoms interact with atoms
in such a way as to achieve the best SET of
electronic configurations for all the atoms
involved
➢ Chemical “Bond” - The attractive force that
holds the atoms of a substance together
➢ Ionic “bonding” = Electrostatic attraction or
Chlorine Argon
Exchanging electrons as a strategy to get more
- stable configurations
- ➢ Covalent (molecular) bonding = Sharing
electrons as a strategy to get more stable
configurations
➢ Metallic bonding: Pooling electrons in
orbitals as a strategy to get more stable
configurations
Sulphur Calcium o common metals: Fe, Cu, Sn, Pb
(elements); bronze (an alloy of two
metals)
- - There are three main types of chemical bonds formed
by atoms:

C (i) Covalent bond

(ii) ionic/electrovalent bond
(iii) Metallic bond

CHAPTER FOUR: CHEMICAL BONDING

Chemical Bonding
A chemical bond is formed when atoms of the same
or different elements share, gain, donate or delocalize
their outer energy level electrons to combine during
chemical reactions in order to be stable.
Atoms have equal number of negatively charged
electrons in the energy levels and positively charged
protons in the nucleus.
Atoms are chemically stable if they have filled outer
energy level. An energy level is full if it has duplet
(2) or octet (8) state in outer energy level.
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 28 of 45

Principles of Bond Formation

➢ Only the valence electrons of atoms are
available for chemical bonding Na: 2:8:1 + Cl: 2:8:7
➢ Valence electrons = electrons in outermost Na will lose one electron to become 2:8 and that lost
(valence) shell of an atom electron in Na will be taken or received by Cl to
➢ Certain arrangements of electrons are more
complete its configuration. 2:8:8
stable than others
➢ He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe do NOT form compounds In Na there is remainder of 10 electrons while Protons
➢ Chemical bonds are formed because the are still intact 11; hence the overall charge of +1
energy is lowered upon bond formation therefore Na become positively charged Na+ and is not
➢ The number of favorable factors outweighs the stable.
number of unfavorable ones!
In Cl the Protons are the same 17 but the electrons have
Rationale for Ionic “Bonding” increased to 18 hence the overall charge is -1. This
➢ Atoms of elements exchange electrons such as implies that the Cl becomes negative charged Cl- and
to produce ions: it is not stable as well.
1. that have electronic configurations of the nearest
noble gas if at all possible or that have other stable
electronic configurations l “duet” for He, “octet”
for other noble gases
2. that produce salts with strong ion-ion attractions
(lattice forces)
3. There is a limit to the number of electrons that can
be donated or accepted (+3 or - 3)

Electron Dot Structures

Electron dot structure help to determine the number of Consider Calcium and Oxygen
electrons that can be lost or gained to reach a stable
octet (duet) Ca: 2:8:8:2 + O: 2:8:6
Calcium will lose its Two outer electrons to become
2:8:8 and the lost electrons in Ca will be taken or
received by Oxygen to complete its configuration.
2:8:8
✓ What would Li, Be do? In Ca there is remainder of 18 electrons while Protons
✓ Would B lose 3 of its 5 electrons? are still 20; hence the overall charge of +2 therefore Ca
✓ Would Al be more or less reluctant to lose 3 become positively charged Ca2+ and it is not stable.
electrons?
✓ What would F do readily, O less readily and N In Oxygen the Protons are the same 8 but the electrons
even less readily? have increased to 10 hence the overall charge is -2.
✓ What is C’s dilemma? This implies that the Oxygen becomes negative
charged O2- and it is not stable as well.
Formation of Ions
Consider Sodium and Chlorine

- -
+
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 29 of 45

 The larger the charges, the greater the

attraction, the higher the melting point
Structures of Ionic Compounds (usually)
Crystalline state
 Usually hard and brittle
o Network of cations and anions with overall  Ionic compounds dissociate into cations
zero charge and anions when melted.
o Arrangement of cations and anions depends on  They are electrical conductors when
size and charge of ion melted.
o Different types of macroscopic crystals as a  Ionic compounds dissociate into cations
consequence and anions- IF they can dissolve in water.
o Size of network can vary (small and large o Aqueous solutions with dissolved
crystals) ions (electrolytes) are electrical
conductors
Dispersed state
o If an ionic compound cannot dissolve
o Requires “dispersing agent” in water,, the crystal lattice forces
o Solvent (usually water); heat must be strong
o Solutions = Requires that water can pull apart o Ionic compounds with larger charges
crystal- LATER tend not to dissolve in water = LATER
o Molten salts = Have to be above melting point
of salt
Formulas of Binary Ionic Compounds Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is formed when atoms of the same or
 Binary Ionic Compounds different element share some or all the outer energy
level electrons to combine during chemical reactions
o Two different ions, one metal, one nonmetal
in order to attain duplet or octet.
o Metal ion + (cation)
o Nonmetal ion  - (anion) A shared pair of electrons is attracted by the nucleus
o Total + = Total – (protons) of the two atoms sharing.
 Formulas of Binary Ionics Covalent bonds are mainly formed by non-metals to
form molecules.
o Metal ion first, nonmetal follows
o Subscripts indicate number of each ion used A molecule is a group of atoms of the same or different
to get balance of charge elements held together by a covalent bond.

 Types of Binary Ionic Compounds The number of atoms making a molecule is called
atomicity. Noble gases are monatomic because they
o Fixed charged metals - Metals from columns are stable and thus do not bond with each other or other
1, 2, 3 & 13 (considering all the 18 groups) atoms.
o Variable charged metals - All other metals
o Charges on monatomic nonmetals ions are Most other gases are diatomic. The more the number
CONSTANT of electrons shared, the stronger the covalent bond.

Properties of Ionic Compounds A pair of electrons that do not take part in the formation
of a covalent bond is called a Lone pair of electrons.
 Ionic compounds have very high melting
points. Mathematically, the number of electrons to be shared
 They are always solids at room by an atom is equal to the number of electrons
temperature. Attractions between cations remaining for the atom to be stable/attain duplet/octet
and anions are very strong . /have maximum electrons in outer energy level.
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 30 of 45

Rationale for Covalent Bonding ✓ For other nonmetals, the nearest noble gas has
Atoms of electron rich elements share electrons a completed outer valence shell of 8 electrons
or (orbitals-spdf) such as to produce: ✓ these elements will form enough bonds such
o Electronic configurations of the nearest that afterwards the total number of electrons is
noble gas (in most cases) 8 = OCTET RULE
o molecular compounds with strong ✓ total number of electrons can be any
bonds (in all cases) combination of shared and unshared electrons
An electron rich element is one that has half or ✓ Sharing does not have to be equal or symmetric
more of its outer valence shell filled ✓ Breaking the octet rule occurs * we won’t do
o all nonmetals & hydrogen
Types of Covalent Bonds
“Sharing” of electrons can be:
Single Bonds • A:B (A-B) - one pair of electrons
o Equal - each atom contributes the same
shared by 2 atoms.
number of electrons
o Unequal - atoms contribute different • Overlap of two orbitals (one from each atom)
numbers of electrons
o “Parasitic” (co-ordinate covalent) - Double Bonds • A :: B (A=B) - two pairs of electrons
one atom contributes all the electrons in shared by 2 atoms
a bond • Overlap of 4 orbitals (two from each atom)

VSEPR (not for this level) Triple Bonds - A :::B ( A = B) - three pairs of
electrons shared by 2 atoms
Atomic vs molecular orbitals
• Overlap of 6 orbitals (three from each atom)
➢ Atoms of each element are born with atomic
orbitals Dative bond. The dative bond is formed between
o Just fine if you are born perfect and positive ions and a compound having a Lone pair of
stay single!!! electrons.
➢ Orbitals need to adjust when orbitals of one
atom interact with orbitals of another atom Lone pair of electrons has non-bonding electrons.
o Hybridization (making friends, These electrons do not take part in chemical reactions.
marriage) The dative bond is also called co- ordinate bond.
➢ Formation of molecular orbitals- Still only 2 The bond formed between hydrogen ions H+ and
electrons per orbital ammonia NH3 to form ammonium NH4+ is a good
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)- example of this type of bond.
(Not for this level) LEWIS STRUCTURES
 Orbitals used in bonding as well as Lewis Structure - A picture indicating the way in which
“leftover” orbitals stay as far away from the valence electrons are distributed in a molecule
each other as possible in order to avoid
electron repulsions
 Need to know geometry and angles in order
to know how to spread-out orbitals
✓ Electrons in bonds are represented by lines
✓ No dots are placed between atoms!
The Octet and Duet Rules
✓ Nonbonding electrons are represented by pairs
✓ For H the nearest noble gas is Helium of dots
✓ H in covalent compounds will have a single ✓ Each atom is given its preferred number of
bond sharing 2 electrons = DUET RULE bonds, if possible
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 31 of 45

✓ Preferred number of bonds = Number of The more delocalized electrons the stronger the
unpaired dots in the dot structure of the free metallic bond.
atom = valence
➢ You know that the outer electrons of metal
✓ If the preferred number of bonds is less or
atoms can easily move away from the atoms
greater than the preferred number, this
because they are far away from the nucleus.
difference has to be made up by neighboring
atoms ➢ In metaling bond, these electrons can move
freely around between the atoms. This means
that the metal is made up of rows of positive
ions surrounded by a “SEA” of moving
electrons.
➢ This Sea of negative electrons attracts the
positive ions strongly together.
WHAT HAPPENS?
✓ In a gas state the electrons of a metal are
localized. Meaning: they are only to be found
inside electron shells. Thus, they are not free to
move.
✓ As metal cools to form a solid metal atom take
up fixed positions and the valence electrons are
delocalized. Meaning: they are set free from
the energy levels. On being delocalized they
become more stable, reach a lower energy level
and experience stronger forces of attraction.
✓ The metallic bond results from electrostatic
forces of attraction between the fixed metal
ions and the negative delocalized electrons.
✓ We say the fixed metal ions are like stationary
islands embedded in a sea of electrons.
METALLIC BONDING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
It is the electrical attraction between positive fixed
ions and negative delocalized electrons in a metal. The 1. They are good conductors of heat and electricity
metallic bond forms as gaseous metal cools to form a because the metallic bonding has free electrons.
2. They have high melting and boiling points because
solid.
the metallic bond is very strong.
Metal atoms are held strongly together by bonds that 3.They have high Densities
are called metaling bonds. Metal atoms are arranged 4. They are shiny e.g. silver, gold.
in rows in metal crystals like ions in ionic crystals. 5. They are sonorous. Therefore, they are used in
making bells.
A metallic bond is formed when metallic atoms 6. They have high tensile strength because the metallic
delocalize their outer electrons in order to be stable. bond is flexible.
(The atom gives away electrons) 7. They are ductile.
8. They are malleable.
Metals delocalize their outer electrons to form
positively charged cation. The electrostatic attraction
force between the metallic cation and the negatively SPECIAL METALS - Mercury is a liquid at room
charged electrons constitutes the metallic bond. temperature. - Iron is magnetic. * Alkali metals are
soft and have no sonorous property.
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 32 of 45

NOTES

Valency is the combining power of an ion.  The

size of the charge on an ion is a measure of its
valency  The sum of the charges of the ions in the
ionic compound must be equal to zero. E.g. in
magnesium chloride, Mg+2Cl2 - = +2+ (-1x2) = +2-
2 = 0  Ionic compounds are neutral. Charges of the
cation and anion cancel each other.  A correct
formula of an ionic compound can be verified by
adding up the separate charges of the ions to see if
they sum up to zero.
THE MOLE CONCEPT
Chemists often need to know how much of a substance
has been formed or used up during a chemical reaction.
CHAPTER 5: THE MOLE CONCEPT This is a particularly important in the chemical
industry, where the substances being reacted
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (RAM) (reactants) and the substances being produced
It is the average mass of the isotopes of an element (products) are worth thousands of pounds.
compared to 1 /12 of the mass of Carbon-12 atom.
To solve this problem Chemists need a way of counting
atoms, ions or molecules. Atoms, ions or molecules are
very tiny particles and it is impossible to measure a
dozen or even a hundred of them.

• Average mass of isotopes and RAM are exactly the Instead, Chemists weigh out a very large number of
same in value. particles. This is 6x1023 atoms, ions or molecules and
is called Avogadro’s constant after the famous Italian
However, RAM has no SI units. It is a ratio. The amu scientist Amedeo Avogadro (1776-1856).
above and below cancel each other out.
DEFINITIONS:
• RAM can have values which are not whole numbers
✓ The word Mole is the amount of substance,
e.g. RAM of Chlorine is 35.5. It is found from the
which contains 6.023x1023 elementary
average of the different atoms making up the element
particles.
in nature.
✓ The elementary particles are Atom, Ions Or
• To make things simple the RAM value of an atom of Molecules as stated.
an element is given to the nearest whole number. ✓ The mole is abbreviated as mol. This is the
weighing unit of very smallest particles. A
How can we calculate relative formula mass R. F. M. mole is just like any other unit for measurement
Of a given compound? we use in science.
✓ A MOLE is the amount of substance that
RELATIVE FORMULA MASS/ MOLECULA
contains as many elementary entities (atoms,
MASS
molecules or other particles) as there are
Remember in lower section, you learnt how you can
atoms in exactly 0.012kg or 12g of the
write chemical formula, if not, then, don’t be stressed
Carbon-12 Isotope.
we shall do here . Therefore, we can use that basic
knowledge to calculate RFM by adding up the Relative CALCULATIONS OF MOLES.
Atomic masses of each atom in a given formula. We have already seen that we can compare the masses
of all the other atoms with the mass of carbon atoms.
This is the basis of the relative atomic mass scale.
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 33 of 45

Chemists have found by experiments that if you take Mass of Na2CO3 = 0.1x 106glmol
the relative atomic mass of an element in grams, it
= 10.6g
always contains 6x1023 or one mole of its atoms. This
means that: 0.1 Mole of Na2CO3 has a mass of 10.6g.
1 mole of substance = 6.023 x 1023
particles.

EXAMPLE

EXERCISE
1. Calculate the number of atoms in 80g of sodium
hydroxide (NaOH). (RAM: Na = 23 O = 16 H = 1)
Solution.
Molar mass (RFM) of NaOH = Na +O + H
= 23 + 16 + 1 = 40glmol
No of moles = (Mass of NaoH) / (Molar mass)
EXAMPLE 2
Mass of NaoH= 80g
Calculate the mass of 0.1 mole of sodium carbonate
(Na2 CO3) (RAM= Na= 23 C =12 O=16) Then, No of moles = (80glmol) / (40glmol) = 2 moles.
Solution. But 1 mole = 6.1023 atoms
Molar mass (RFM) of Na2CO3 = 2xNa +C + 3xO 1 mole = more
= 2x23+12+3x16 By cross multiplication.

=46+ 12+ 48 = 106g/mol X x 1mole = 2moles x 6.0 x1023

Number of moles = 0.1 mole X = 12x 1023 atoms = 1.2 x1024 atoms

But: Moles = Mass of Na2CO3 80g contains 1.2x1024 atoms

RFM (molar mass)

0.1 = Mass of Na2CO3
106glmol.
By cross multiplication:
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 34 of 45

REVISION TEST 2 The volume occupied by one mole of gas at standard

temperature, atmospheric pressure and room
1. Define the following terms.
temperature is called Molar gas volume.
a. Relative atomic mass
The volume occupied by one of any gas must contains
b. Moles. 6 x 1023 molecules.

2. Work out the number of moles in 80g of Magnesium Therefore, it follows that equal volume of all gases
chloride (MgCl2). RAM: Mg=24, Cl=35.5 2. measured at the temperature and pressure must contain
the same number of molecules.
3. Calculate the number of atoms in 20g of Calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)2). RAM: Ca=40, O=16, H=1. This idea was first put forward by Amedeo Avogadro
and is called Avogadro’s Law.
Mole and gases.
Many substances exist as gases. If we want to find the
number of moles of a Gas we can do this by measuring
the volume rather than the mass.
Chemists have shown by experiments that one mole of
Under standard temperature and pressure, it will be
any gas occupies a volume of approximately 24dm3 at
room temperature (25oC or 298K) and one atmospheric
pressure.

MOLAR VOLUME
DEFINITION: It is the volume which 1 mole of a gas EXAMPLE 1.
occupies at standard temperature and pressure and it is
22.4dm3 . How many moles of hydrogen gas (H2) are in 24cm3 at
room temperature?
By standard temperature we mean 0oC. Standard
pressure is 1 atm. Solution.

There is also Molar volume of a gas at room 1mole = 24dm3

temperature and pressure and it is 24dm3. Change volume from cm3 to dm3 by diving with
Room/Normal temperature and pressure is 25oC and 1 1000
atm. (The One used under typical Zimbabwean
conditions is 28dm3) Volume = (24𝑐𝑚3) /1000𝑐𝑚3 x 1dm3 = 0.024 dm3

At standard temperature (0oC or 273K) and one By simple proportion

atmospheric pressure, one mole of gas occupies
1 mole = 24 dm3
22.4dm3.
X mole = 0,024 dm3
In general,
24dm3X = 0.024𝑑𝑚3 𝑥 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
1 mole =24dm3, at room temperature (rtp).
24𝑑𝑚3 24𝑑 dm3
X = 0.001 mole
(1 mole = 28dm3 (rtp) under ZIM- conditions)

24cm3 occupies 0.001mol of hydrogen gas

1 mole=22.4dm3, at standard temperature (std)
ANOTHER METHOD.
Therefore, it is relatively easy to convert volumes of
gases into moles of gases into volumes using above No. of moles = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠
relationships.
24𝑑𝑚3
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 35 of 45

Volume = 24/ 1000 x 1dm3 = 0.024dm3

No. of moles= (0.024) / (24)
0.001 moles of H2

REVISION TEST 3
1. Define Molar gas Volume.
2. Work out the mass of 100dm3 of nitrogen gas at
standard temperature.
3. Calculate relative molecular mass of a gas 50cm3 of
the gas volume which has a mass of 0.9g. (At
25oC, 1 mole occupies 24dm3 .)
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 36 of 45

4. How many moles of Oxygen gas (H2) are in 24cm3 MOLARITY is defined as the number of moles of
at room temperature? solutes dissolved in 1dm3 of a solution.
5. Calculate the volume occupied by 12g of oxygen Also defined as the concentration of a solution expressed
(O2) gas at 25 oC. in number of moles per unit volume.

Concertation of a solution. SI Units:

You might agree that when drinking Mazoe or squash Number of moles is measured in moles.
you put half of the squash in the cup and the other half
Volume is measured in litres or dm3 . 1 mole per 1 litre
is filled with pure water. This is done to reduce its
gives a 1 MOLAR SOLUTION or 1M solution.
concentration to the level that you can drink.
WAYS OF EXPRESSING MOLARITY
This is similar when you add too much sugar in the cup
of tea, you reduce its concentration by adding water. (i) Number of moles per unit volume
(ii) Grams per unit volume
From this basic knowledge, Concentration is defined (iii) As a percentage
as the amount of solutes dissolved in a specific volume
of the solvent. Mathematically;

Recall that: the substance that is dissolved is called

solutes while the substance that dissolve another
substance is called solvents.
The salt and water are good examples of solutes and
solvent respectively. Therefore, the mixture of solutes
and solvents is called solution. Chemists often need to
know the concentration of a solution.

How is it measured?
➢ Sometimes it is measured in grams per cubic
decimeter (g/dm3) but
➢ More often Concentration is measured in EXAMPLE
moles per cubic decimeter (mol/dm3). Calculate the molarity of a solution made by dissolving
When one mole of a substance is dissolved in water 8g of sodium chloride (NaCl) in 200cm3 of water.
and the solution is made up to 1 dm3 (1000cm3), a 1 (RAM: Na= 23 a= 35.5)
molar (1M) solution is produced called Molar Solution
solution.
Molar mass (RFM) of NaCl = 1xNa+1xCl
Chemists do not always need to make up such large
volumes of solution. = 1x23+K35.5 = 58.5glmol

Ways of expressing concentrations. Mass given of Na= 8g.

In chemistry science, concentration of the solution is Then; No. of moles = Mass of Nacl
expressed in different ways as follows: •
Molar mass
As percentage by mass or volume.
As mass per volume e.g. gldm3. 8g = 0.14mol
As molarity. 58.5𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Molarity. Change volume to dm3 by diving by 1000cm3
As we already stated that molarity is one way of
expressing concentration. Then; volume = 200𝑐𝑚3 /1000𝑐𝑚3 X 1dm3
== 0.2dm3
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 37 of 45

But:
Molarity = No of moles of NaCl /Volume (dm3)
= 0.14𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒/ 0.2𝑑𝑚3 = 0.7mol/dm3
The molarity of 8g of NaCl is 200cm3 water is
0.7mol/dm3
However;
1 mole/dm3 = 1M
Then, 0.7mol/dm3 = 0.7M
EXAMPLE 2 So, Concentration = Molarity x RFM

A300mg of aspirin was completely dissolved in 10ml Concentration is mass of solute particles dissolved in a
of water. The molecular formula of drug is C9H8O4. given volume of a solution.
Calculate its concentration. 1 litre = 1dm3 = 1000cm3 =1000ml. 1 litre of water has
Solution: a mass of 1kg.

Molar mass of C9H8O4 = 9xC=8xH+4xO C1V1 = C2V2. Here C is concentration and V is

volume.
= 9x12+8x1x4x16
………………………………………
= 108+ 8+64
= 180glmol
Concentration in percentages.
Some Acid have their concertation in percentage e.g.
Change mass from mg to g. 98% sulphuric acid, 32% of HCl.
= 300mg /1000mg X 1g = 0.3g Therefore, molarity of these percentages can be found
by treating the % as mass per 100mℓ of water. 98% of
No of moles =(Mass of C9H8O4)
sulphuric acid means that 98g of sulphuric acids have
Molar mass dissolved in 100mℓ of water.
= 0.3g =0.0016mol EXAMPLE 1
180glmol Calculate the molarity of 32% hydrochloric acid (HCl).
(RAM: H=1, Cl=35.5).
Change volume to ℓ
Solution
Then =10mℓ/1000mℓ X 1dm3 =0.01dm3
32% means 32g in 100ml of water,
Concentration = 0.0016mol
therefore 32g of HCl has dissolved in 100ml of water.
0.01dm3
Molar mass (RFM) of HCl = 1xH+1xCl
The concentration of 300mg of Aspirin in 10ml is
0.16ℓ mole/dm3 = 1x1+1x35.5
= 36.5glmol
No of moles = Mass of HCl = 32g = 0.88moles
Molar mass of HCl 36.6g/mol
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 38 of 45

Then; Molarity = No of moles CHAPTER 6: STOICHIOMETRY

Volume (ℓ)
Definition
Volume = 100mℓ x 1ℓ = 0.1ℓ
Stoichiometry is the branch of chemistry that is based
1000mℓ
on the law of conservation of mass which states that
Molarity = 0.88moles = 8.8mol/dm3 “the total mass of the reactants equals the total mass
of the products”, leading to the insight that the
0.1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 relations among quantities of reactants and products
The concertation is 8.8M typically form a ratio of positive integers.

EXAMPLE 2 ▪ This means that if the amounts of the separate

reactants are known, then the amount of the
Calculate the molarity of 5% ethanoic Acid product can be calculated.
(CH3COOH). (RAM: C=12, H= 1, O=16) ▪ Conversely, if one reactant has a known quantity
and the quantity of the products can be empirically
determined, then the amount of the other reactants
can also be calculated.
▪ Stoichiometry measures these quantitative
relationships, and is used to determine the amount
of products and reactants that are produced or
needed in a given reaction.
Describing the quantitative relationships among
substances as they participate in chemical reactions is
known as reaction stoichiometry.
This theory is widely used in drug companies, school
and clinical laboratories and by chemical engineers to
calculate quantities like Mass, Moles and Volume
given the reactants and percentage yields.
Stoichiometry also predicts how elements and
components are diluted in standard solution. In this
unit, we are going to calculate different quantities and
concentration of solutions based on the outlined
objectives.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS &CHEMICAL

EQUATION
Consider a kid who is burning a papers at home and a
lot of Ashes are seen at the end. The paper that is burnt is
called reactant and the ash produced from it is generally
called product. This is a kind of chemical changes. When
burnt, the substances usually combine chemically with
oxygen in the air.
The word chemical reaction means the re-arrangement of
atoms to form new substances. To understand this
definition, let us consider chemical reaction in the
experiment below.
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 39 of 45

The product formed is not equal to the reactant. Therefore,

they may have different physical and chemical properties.
Conclusion. From the discussion, when the chemicals
react, new substances are produced or formed.
Chemical quation.

Observation. Recall; the chemical reaction of Sodium chloride plus lead

nitrate to produce lead chloride and sodium nitrate is
White precipitates are observed in the tube. presented by both word and chemical symbol respectively:
Discussion. Sodium chloride + Lead nitrate Lead chloride + Sodium
nitrate.
▪ When the sodium chloride (NaCl) and lead
nitrate Pb(NO3)2 are mixed, they react to form The same equation can be written using the chemical
lead chloride (PbCl2) and sodium nitrate symbol as:
(NaCO3) with the white precipitates. Pb (NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaCl (aq) PbCl2(s) + 2NaNO3 aq
▪ In this case, Sodium chloride and lead nitrate
are reactants while lead chloride and sodium This presentation of chemical reaction is called chemical
equation.
nitrate are products of the reaction.
▪ This is summarised as: Therefore, the word CHEMICAL EQUATION, is
defined as the symbolic form of chemical reaction in
Sodium chloride + Lead nitrate => Lead chloride + which formulas are used to indicate reactants and
Sodium nitrate. products.

Using chemical symbol. Writing Balanced Chemical Equations

In Stoichiometry sciences, it is very important to work with
Pb (NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaCl (aq) PbCl2s + 2NaNO3 aq well-balanced chemical equation in order to get good results
of what we are working.
For the reaction to take place, the reactants dissociate
and produce ions as follows; Therefore, chemical equation should be written based on the
following rules:
Pb+2 NO-3 + Na+ Cl-
1. Make sure that reaction should take place based on
Therefore, the oppositely charged ions are attracted in the experiential fact.
solution as shown below, 2. Write the correct formula for reactants and
Pb2+ NO-3 + Na+ Cl- products.
3. Balance the number of atoms on both side of
Then, they produce new substance as they are re- arranged equation using coefficient (number written in front
to be stable. of any formulae). - Start with small number when
balancing equation.
In this case, they exchange the valence
4. Write the physical state of each reactant and
products; solid (s), liquid (l), gas (g) and aqueous
(aq).
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 40 of 45

2Mg(s) + O2(g) => 2MgO(s)

This shows that 2 moles of magnesium react with 1 mole of
oxygen to give 2 moles of magnesium oxide.
Using the ideas of moles and masses we can use this
information to calculate the quantities of different
chemicals involved.

2Mg(s) + O2(g) => 2MgO(s)

2moles 1mole => 2moles
2x24 1x (16x2) => 2x(24+16)
48g 32g => 80g

❖ You will notice that the total mass of reactants is

equal to the total mass of products.
❖ This is true for any chemical reaction and it is
known as the Law of conservation of mass.
❖ This law was understood by the Greeks but was first
clearly formulated by Antoine Lavoisier in 1774.
Chemists can use this idea to calculate masses of
products formed and reactants used in chemical
processes before they are carried out.
The calculations becomes easier after balancing chemical
equation as stated.
Do the following Exercise
Suppose there are 12g of Mg used up work out the mass of MgO
produced
USE PROPORTION!
Let MgO be = z
Then 48/12 = 80/z.
48z = 12 x 80
z = 𝟏(𝟐𝒙𝟖𝟎) /𝟒𝟖 = 20g
z = 20g
Therefore, the Mass of MgO = 20g

Reacting Masses and Volume Here is another consideration:

❖ When we write a balanced chemical equation, we Consider Propane burning in air to produce carbon
look at the numbers of moles of reactants and dioxide and water.
products involved in the chemical reaction.
❖ If we consider the reaction between magnesium and Work out a balanced chemical equation
oxygen.
C3H8 + 5O2 => 4H2O + 3CO2
Magnesium + Oxygen => Magnesium oxide.
The balanced chemical equation means
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 41 of 45

a. 1 mole of propane gas requires 5 moles of oxygen gas IV. What volume of hydrogen evolved at
to produce 3 moles of carbon dioxide gas and 4 moles standard temperature?
of water molecules From the balanced
b. 44g of propane gas require 160g of oxygen gas to 1 mole of Ca produces 1 mole of H2
burn completely and produce 132g of carbon dioxide
gas and 72g of water molecules. 1 mole of Ca produces 1 mole of H2
0.25mole of Ca will produce x
c. 44g of propane produce 72g of water molecules
By simple proportion
Now use proportions to work out
1 mole = 0.25mol
(i) Moles of oxygen gas needed to burn 66g of
propane. 1 mole= X
(ii) Mass of water molecules produced when 66g of X = 0.25mol.
propane is used
1 mole of H2 of St.p occupies 22.4dm3
Then 0.25 mole of H2 will occupies Xdm3
By simple proportion
EXAMPLE
x mole = 22.4dm3
10g of Calcium react with dilute Sulphuric acid which is
excess to produce Calcium sulphate and hydrogen gas. 1 mole 1 mole

I. Write down balanced equation. X = 5.6dm3

Ca(s) + H2SO4(aq) => CaSO4(aq) + H2 (g) The volume of hydrogen will be 5.6dm3

II. Work out number of moles of calcium metal V. What is the mass of calcium sulphate
used up in the reaction. formed?

No. of moles in l0g of Ca = M𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚(𝐶a) 1 mole of Ca produce 1 mole of CaSo4

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 0.25 mole of ca forms X moles of CaSo4

Molar mass of calcium = 10g = 0.25moles By simple proportion

40𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 1 mole = 0.25mol

III. How many moles of sulphuric acid are 1 mole= X

needed in the reactions? X = 0.25mol.
From equation 1 Molar mass of CaSO4 = 10+32+41(16)
1 mole of Ca reacts with 1 mole of H2SO4 = 136glmole
Then Mass of CaSO4 = 136glmol X 0.25mol
0.25mole of calcium (Ca) will react with x mole of (H2S04) = 34g.
1 mole = 0.25mol The mass of calcium sulphate formed will be 34g.
1 mole= X
REVISION TEST
X = 0.25mol. 15g of magnesium react with dilute sulphuric Acid
(H2SO4) which is excess to produce Magnesium
Therefore, 0.25mole of H2SO4 will needed.
sulphate and hydrogen gas.
i).Write down balanced equation.
ii).Work out number of moles of calcium metal used
up in the reaction.
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 42 of 45

iii).How many moles of sulphuric acid are needed in Find the empirical formula of the compound that has
the reactions? the following percentage composition by mass of
iv).What volume of hydrogen evolved at standard element C=40%, H = 6.67% and O = 53.33%. (RAM:
temperature? C = 12, H= 1 O =16)
v).What is the mass of calcium sulphate formed?
Solution
By using the table.
EMPIRICAL FORMULA
Definition: It is the simplest formula that shows the lowest
ratio of the atoms that make up a compound.
The word empirical formula means the formula showing
the simplest ratio of atoms present while Molecular
formula is the formula showing the actual number of
atoms of each element present in one molecule.

✓ Empirical formula only tells us the type of atoms

present in a compound, but it does not tell us the
exact number of atoms available in the compound. EXAMPLE 3
✓ Therefore, only the molecular formula tells exact A certain compound contains 74.19% sodium (Na) and
number of atoms present in the compound. the rest is oxygen (O). If the relative molecular mass
(RMM) is 124. Work out its molecular formula.
 Glucose molecule C6H12O6 has the empirical formula
CH2O Solution
 Ethanoic acid CH3COOH can be rewritten C2H4O2. Its Using the table:
empirical formula is CH2O.
 Butene is C4H8. Its empirical formula is CH2.
When working out empirical formula given grams of
elements making up a compound; then

✓ Work out the number of moles.

✓ Work out the lowest mole ratio.
EXAMPLE 1 Using the table;
The empirical formula is Na2O.
Molecular formula = No. of empirical formula X Empirical
Formula
No. of empirical formula = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙
Mass of empirical formula = 2 x (Na) +1 x (O)
= (2 x 23) + (1 x16)
= 62
Mass of compound given is 124g
EXAMPLE 2 No. of empirical formula = 124𝑔 =2
62𝑔
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 43 of 45

Molecular formula = 2 (Empirical formula) STOICHIOMETRY QUESTIONS AND

= 2 (Na2O)
POSSIBLE ANSWERS
1. Define;
= Na4O2
i. Empirical formula (1 mark)
Molecular formula is Na4O2
ANSWER: The empirical formula is the lowest ratio
of atoms that make up a compound
REVISION TEST
1. Define the following: ii. Mole (1 mark) =
i. Empirical formula
ii. Molecular formula ANSWER: The mole is the amount of a substance
2. A certain compound contains 20% of Carbon, 5% of
Hydrogen and the rest is Oxygen. If the relative molecular that contain avogadro’s number of particles
mass is 180. Work out its molecular formula.
2. When 2.4g of Magnesium ribbon is burnt in
3. Calculate the empirical formula of the compound excess oxygen, a white powder weighing 4g
containing 24g of Carbon, 6g of Hydrogen and 16 g of
Oxygen (RAM: C=12, H=1, O=16) was formed. Determine the empirical formula.
(5 marks)

ANSWER: Magnesium + oxygen produces

magnesium oxide

Therefore, mass of oxygen used is 4 – 2.4 = 1.6g

Therefore, the Empirical formula is MgO

3. 21g of compound A contains 8.4g of carbon,

1.4g of hydrogen and 11.2g of oxygen. What is
the simplest formula A can have? (C=12, H=1,
O = 16) (3 marks)
ANSWER:
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 44 of 45

4. Work out: ANSWER: At RTP, one mole of gas occupies

i. The mass of 0.6moles of calcium 24dm3 Therefore;
carbonate (2 marks)
24dm3 of hydrogen gas was
ANSWER:
produced
6. (i) Which element is more reactive between
Sodium (Na) and Magnesium (Mg)? (1 mark)
(ii) Give a reason for your answer the question
above (2 marks)
ii. The number of moles contained in 3.2g 7. A hydrocarbon contains 85.7% carbon and
of oxygen molecule (2 marks) 14.3% hydrogen by mass. Write the molecular
ANSWER: formula of the hydrocarbon if its relative
formula mass is 56. (7 marks)
8. Solusilium is a newly discovered metal element
by form 4 learners at Solusi Private Secondary.
After taking a series of tests, they found that the
element is very soft and reacts vigorously with
water giving out a gas that produces a pop
5. Sodium (Na) reacts with water (H2O) to
sound to a glowing splint. Its solution turns red
produce sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and
litmus paper to blue
hydrogen gas (H2) according to the following
a. Suggest the family of this element (1 mark)
chemical equation: Na(s) + H2O(l )
b. i. Would this element be found along the
=>NaOH(aq)+ H2 (g)
banks of river? (1 mark)
a. Balance the equation. (3marks)
ii. Suggest a reason for your answer to
ANSWER:2Na(s) + 2H2O(l ) → 2NaOH(aq)+ H2(g) question above? (1 mark)

b. If 46g of sodium metal reacts completely c. Suggest how you can keep Solusilium in the

with 18g of water, what mass of sodium laboratory (1 mark)

hydroxide is produced? (2marks) d. Give the name of the gas that was produce
from the reaction (1 mark)
ANSWER: From the equation above; 36g of water
9. Calculate the concentration in moles per litre of
produces 80g of sodium hydroxide If 36g = 80g
40% Sodium hydroxide solution (40% NaOH).
Then, 18g = 18 ×80 = 40g RAM, Na = 23, O = 16 and H = 1. (3 marks)
36
c. What volume of hydrogen gas is produced in the 10. Calculate the volume of 8M of KNO3 stock
reaction 1 (a) above assuming the reaction takes solution to be diluted to 400ml so that the final
place at room temperature and pressure? (2 marks) concentration is 0.2M (3 marks)
 BR JOSEPH PETER K. Page 45 of 45

11. What is the molarity of the solution if 0.65 a. Name the standard solution in the titration.
moles of Lithium Chloride is dissolved in (1 mark) b. Give a reason for your answer (1
200cm3 of water? (3 marks) mark) c. Workout the concentration of HCl (3
12. Titanium is a strong light weight corrosion marks)
resistant metal that is used in rockets, aircraft, 16. Describe an experiment that could be done to
Jet engines and Bicycle frames. It is prepared find the concentration of HCl using 0.1M of
by the reaction of Titanium (IV) Chloride with NaOH by titration. (10 marks).
molten magnesium between 950 oC and 1150 17. A 300 mg tablet of a drug was completely
o
C. TiCl4(g) + 2Mg(l) →Ti(s) + 2MgCl2(l) in a dissolved in 10ml of water. The molecular
certain industrial operation 3.54 ×107 g of formula of the drug is C9H8O4 a. Calculate the
TiCl4 was reacted with 1.13× 107g of Mg. number of moles in the tablet (RAM: C 12, H
(RAM ; Ti= 47.9 , Cl= 35.5, Mg =24.3) = 1 and O = 16) b. Calculate the molarity of the
a. Calculate the theoretical yield of Ti solution. (2 marks)
in gas. (4 marks) 18. A bottle containing potassium chloride
b. Calculate the percentage yield of solution of unknown concentration was found
7.91×106 g of Ti that was actually obtained. (3 in the chemistry laboratory. Describe an
marks) experiment that could be done to find the
13. When 2.34g of Aluminium reacted with excess concentration of potassium chloride solution
copper (II) sulphate solution 3.89g of copper using evaporation method(10 marks)
were formed according to the equation 2Al(s)
+ 3CuSO4 (g) Al2(SO4)3 + 3Cu(s) Calculate
the percentage yield of copper in the reaction
(Al = 27, Cu = 63.5) (4 marks)
14. a. In an experiment, 136g of gaseous ammonia
(NH3) reacted with excess oxygen (O2) to
produce nitric acid (HNO3) and water (H2O) i.
Write a balanced equation for the reaction (2
marks) ii. How much nitric acid (HNO3) could
be produced from this reaction? (RAM: N = 14,
H = 1, O = 16) (3 marks) b. Workout the
number of nitrogen atoms in 8 molecules of
urea CO(NH2)7 (2 marks
15. In a titration, 25cm3 of hydrochloric acid (HCl
) of an unknown concentration was titrated
against 20cm3 of 2M sodium hydroxide ( 2M
NaOH ) to which phenolphthalein was added.