Electricity

Everything is made of atoms

To understand electricity, some basic information about atoms is helpful. Atoms are the building blocks of the universe.
Everything in the universe is made of atoms—every star, every tree, and every animal. The human body is made of
atoms. Air and water are made of atoms, too. Atoms are so small that millions of them would fit on the head of a pin.

Atoms are made of even smaller particles

The center of an atom is called the nucleus. The nucleus is made up of particles
called protons and neutrons. Electrons spin around the nucleus in shells.
Atoms are mostly empty space.

If the naked eye could see an atom, it would look a little like a tiny cluster of
balls surrounded by giant invisible bubbles (or shells). The electrons would be
on the surface of the bubbles, constantly spinning and moving to stay as far
away from each other as possible. Electrons are held in their shells by an
electrical force.
The protons and electrons of an atom are attracted to each other. They both carry an electrical charge. Protons
have a positive charge (+) and electrons have a negative charge (-). The positive charge of the protons is equal to
the negative charge of the electrons, so we can say the atom is electrically neutral.

What do we mean with that?

Opposite charges attract each other. An atom is in balance when it has an equal number of protons and electrons.
The neutrons carry no charge and their number can vary.
The number of protons in an atom determines the kind of atom, or element, it is. An element is a substance
consisting of one type of atom.
Electricity is the movement of electrons between atoms

Electrons usually remain a constant distance from the atom's nucleus in precise(exact or accurate) shells. The
shell closest to the nucleus can hold two electrons. The next shell can hold up to eight. The outer shells can
hold even more. Some atoms with many protons can have as many as seven shells with electrons in them.

The electrons in the shells closest to the nucleus have a strong

force of attraction to the protons. Sometimes, the electrons in an
atom's outermost shells do not have a strong force of attraction
to the protons. These electrons can be pushed out of their orbits.
Applying a force can make them shift from one atom to another.
These shifting electrons are electricity.
 Static electricity exists in nature

Lightning is a form of electricity. Lightning is electrons moving from one

cloud to another or electrons jumping from a cloud to the ground. Have
you ever felt a shock when you touched an object after walking across a
carpet? A stream of electrons jumped to you from that object. This is
called static electricity.

Have you ever made your hair stand straight up by rubbing a

balloon on it? If so, you rubbed some electrons off the balloon.
The electrons moved into your hair from the balloon. The electrons
tried to get far away from each other by moving to the ends of
your hair. They pushed against or repelled each other and made
your hair move. Just as opposite charges attract each other, like
charges repel each other.
Conductors and insulators
Conductors allow electricity to flow through them easily. Metals are good examples of electrical conductors. For
example, the copper in the wires that connect a television to the plug socket is an electrical conductor.
Insulators prevent the flow of electricity. Plastics are good examples of insulators. In the image, the insulator
(plastic) surrounds the conductor (copper wire). The insulating plastic stops you getting an electric shock from the
wires that carry the electricity.

Note that: Conductors allow an electric charge to pass through them, but insulators do not. Objects can be
positively charged, negatively charged or neutral. Static electricity can be useful but dangerous.
Electrostatics
Objects can be positively charged, negatively charged or neutral.
A substance that gains electrons becomes negatively charged, while a substance that loses electrons becomes positively
charged. Atoms or molecules that become charged are called ions.

When a charged object comes near to another object the two

objects will either attract or repel each other:
•if the charges are the same - they repel
•if the charges are opposite - they attract
•if one is charged and the other is not - they may attract
depending on the nature of the substances
Like charges repel, and unlike charges attract.
Any area in which an electric charge experiences a force is
called an electric field.
It is the friction between the rod and the duster that results in the transfer of electrons. The positively charged rod can
then be used to pick up small pieces of paper or bend the flow of a stream of water coming from a tap.
The same principle applies when you rub a balloon on a woolen jumper and stick it to the wall.
Static electricity
You can get an electrostatic shock if you are electrically 'charged' and you touch something that is earthed, or
if you're earthed and you touch something that is charged.

For example, when you walk on a vinyl floor or a nylon

carpet you 'charge up' because of friction. You can earth
yourself, and so get an electrostatic shock by touching a
metal door handle, water pipe, or even another person.
In this slideshow the man picks up electrons as he walks
over the carpet:
Problems with static
Here are some examples of problems associated with static:
•it is a nuisance when dust and dirt are attracted to insulators such as TV screens and computer monitors.
•it is a nuisance when clothes made from synthetic materials cling to each other and to the body, especially just
after they've been in a tumble dryer
Anti-static sprays, liquids and cloths prevent the build-up of charge by allowing it to conduct away.
Dangers of static
Static electricity can build up in clouds. This can cause a huge spark to form between the ground and the
cloud. This causes lightning – a flow of charge through the atmosphere.
Here are some examples of dangers associated with static electricity:
•It is dangerous when there are flammable gases or a high concentration of oxygen. A spark could ignite the
gases and cause an explosion.
•It is dangerous when you touch something with a large electric charge on it. The charge will flow through your
body causing an electric shock. This could cause burns or even stop your heart. A person could die from an
electric shock.
Refuelling aircrafts and tankers also poses a particular danger. If the fuel passing along the hose to the vehicle
was allowed to build up a static charge, a resulting spark might ignite the fuel. The hoses are earthed to stop
this occurring.
Uses of static electricity
Static electricity can also be useful. Here are some
examples from industry and everyday life.
Electrostatic precipitators
Many power stations burn fossil fuels such as coal and
oil. Smoke is produced when these fuels burn.
Smoke comprises tiny solid particles, such as unreacted
carbon, which can damage buildings and cause breathing
difficulties. To avoid this, the smoke is removed from
waste gases before they pass out of the chimneys.
The electrostatic precipitator is the device used for this
job.
The flow chart outlines how an electrostatic precipitator
works.

1.Smoke particles pick up a negative charge.

2.Smoke particles are attracted to the collecting plates.
3.Collecting plates are knocked to remove the smoke
particles.
Electric charge
Some particles carry an electric charge. In electric wires these particles are electrons. We get an electric current when
these charged particles move from place to place.
Electric current
An electric current is a flow of charge, and in a wire this will be a flow of electrons. We need two things for an
electric current to flow:
1. something to transfer energy to the electrons, such as a battery or power pack.
2. a complete path for the electrons to flow through (an electric circuit)
Electric circuits
The simplest complete circuit is a piece of wire from one end of a battery to the other. An electric current can flow in the
wire from one end of the battery to the other, but nothing useful happens. The wire just gets very hot and the battery
loses stored internal energy – it ‘goes flat’ and stops working.
To do something useful with the electric current, you need to put an electrical component into the circuit (such as a lamp),
that can use the current in a useful way.

The lamp will only light up if there is a complete circuit with a battery
You usually add a switch to the circuit. This lets you break the circuit and stop the electric current when you want to.
Electric current and potential difference
Electric circuits can be series or parallel. An ammeter measures current and a voltmeter measures a potential
difference. Some materials have low resistance and are conductors; others are insulators.

Circuit symbols
We use circuit symbols to draw diagrams of electrical circuits, with straight lines to show the wires. The diagram shows
some common circuit symbols.

Some common circuit symbols

Cells and batteries
The symbol for a battery is made by joining two more symbols for a cell together.

Make sure you know the difference between these two symbols

Think of what we usually call a single battery, like the type you put in a torch. In physics, each of these is actually
called a cell. It is only when you have two or more of these cells connected together that you call it a battery. Do
not confuse electrical cells with the cells in living organisms.
Circuit diagrams
The idea of a circuit diagram is to use circuit symbols instead of drawing each component in the circuit. Always try
to make the wires straight lines. Do not be tempted to make them wiggly because the whole point is to make it
easier to see what is connected to what.
Here you can see how the symbols for a cell and a lamp look in a circuit diagram:

If you have to draw a circuit diagram:

draw the circuit symbols first, then
draw all the wires
If you have to draw wires to join circuit symbols that have
been drawn for you already, use a ruler and do not let the
wires cross each other.

You could make the circuit by laying out the cell and
lamp on the table as shown in the circuit diagram,
then joining them using wires
Electric circuits can be series or parallel. An ammeter measures current and a voltmeter measures a potential
difference. Some materials have low resistance and are conductors; others are insulators.
You can measure current and potential difference in circuits. They are different things and so are measured in
different ways.
Current
Current is a measure of how much electric charge flows through a circuit. The more charge that flows, the bigger
the current.
Current is measured in amperes. The symbol for ampere is A. For example, 20 A is a bigger current than 5 A. The
word ‘ampere’ is often abbreviated to ‘amp’, so people talk about how many amps flow.
Measuring current
A device called an ammeter is used to measure current. Some types of ammeter have a pointer on a dial, but
most have a digital display. To measure the current flowing through a component in a circuit, you must connect
the ammeter in series with it.

When two components are connected in

series, you can follow the path through
both components without lifting your
finger or going back over the path you
have already taken.

A circuit with an ammeter connected in two different

places, both in series with the cell and lamp
Potential difference
Potential difference is a measure of the difference in energy between two parts of a circuit. The bigger the difference in
energy, the bigger the potential difference.
Potential difference is measured in volts. The symbol for volts is V. For example, 230 V is a bigger potential difference than
12 V. Instead of talking about potential difference, people often talk about voltage, so you may hear or see ‘voltage’ instead
of ‘potential difference’.
Measuring potential difference
Potential difference is measured using a device called a voltmeter. Just like ammeters, some types have a pointer on a dial,
but most have a digital display. However, unlike an ammeter, you must connect the voltmeter in parallel to measure the
potential difference across a component in a circuit.
When two components are connected in parallel, you cannot follow the circuit through both components from one side to
the other without lifting your finger or going back over the path you have already taken.
Cells
You can measure the potential difference across a cell or battery. If the two or more cells point in the same direction, the
more cells, the bigger the potential difference.
Series circuits

In a television series, you get several episodes, one after the other. A series circuit
is similar. You get several components one after the other.
If you follow the circuit diagram from one side of the cell to the other, you should
pass through all the different components, one after the other, without any
branches.
Two lamps in series

In a series circuit, if one lamp is removed or broken

the other goes out
Series circuits are useful if you want a warning that
one of the components in the circuit has failed. They
also use less wiring than parallel circuits.

In a series circuit, if a lamp breaks or a component is

disconnected, the circuit is broken and all the components
stop working.
Current in series circuits
The current is the same everywhere in a series circuit. It
does not matter where you put the ammeter, it will give
you the same reading.

Adding more cells

The current in a series circuit depends upon the number
of cells. If you make the cells face in the same direction,
the more cells you add, the greater the current.
All three ammeters read 0.5 A in this series circuit.

The current in this series circuit increases as more cells are added
Current is not used up

If you put more lamps into a series circuit, the lamps will be dimmer than before because less current will flow
through them.
You might think that the current gets less as it flows through one component after another, but it is not like
this. The current is not used up by the components in a circuit.
This means that the current is the same everywhere
in a series circuit, even if it has lots of lamps or other
components.

The current flowing through each lamp is less when there are
more lamps, but it is still the same everywhere in this series
circuit.
Parallel circuits
In parallel circuits different components are connected on different branches of the wire. If you follow the circuit
diagram from one side of the cell to the other, you can only pass through all the different components if you follow
all the branches.
In a parallel circuit, if a lamp breaks or a component
is disconnected from one parallel wire, the
components on different branches keep working.
And, unlike a series circuit, the lamps stay bright if
you add more lamps in parallel.

A circuit with a battery and two lamps connected in

parallel.
Parallel circuits are useful if you want components to
continue to work, even if one component has failed. This
is why our homes are wired up with parallel circuits.
Current is shared

When two components are connected in parallel, the current is shared between the components. The
current is shared when it reaches the branches, then adds again where the branches meet.

In the diagram, 6 A flows through the cell. The circuit has three
branches, each with an identical lamp, so 2 A flows through each
one.
If the lamps were not identical, their resistances would be different
and the current flowing through each lamp would not be the same.
The greater the resistance of a lamp, the smaller the current that
flows through it. The current would still be shared between them,
and it would still add where the branches meet.

Current flowing through three identical

lamps in parallel.
Current in series circuits

The current in a series circuit is the same at all places in the circuit.

From the diagram above, what is the reading at:

1) Position 1: more than 0.1A, 0.1A or less than 0.1A?
2) Position 2: more than 0.1A, 0.1A or less than 0.1A?
3) Position 3: more than 0.1A, 0.1A or less than 0.1A?
Resistance
The wires and the other components in a circuit reduces the flow of charge through them. This is called resistance.
The unit of resistance is the ohm, and it has the symbol Ω (an uppercase Greek letter omega). For example, a 2 Ω
component has a greater resistance than a 1 Ω component, and will reduce the flow of charge through it more
effectively.

Adding components
The resistance increases when you add more
components in series. For example, the resistance of two
lamps is greater than the resistance of one lamp, so less
current will flow through them.

If you plot a graph of current against potential difference The more lamps, the greater the resistance and
for a wire, you get a straight line. the lower the current

The gradient of the line is equal to the resistance of the wire

Electromagnets
When an electric current flows in a wire, it creates a magnetic field around the wire. This effect can be used to make
an electromagnet. A simple electromagnet comprises a length of wire turned into a coil and connected to a battery or
power supply.

you can make an electromagnet stronger by doing these

things:
•wrapping the coil around a piece of iron (such as an iron
nail)
•adding more turns to the coil
•increasing the current flowing through the coil
There is a limit to how much current can be passed safely
through the wire because the resistance of the wire
causes heating.
Electromagnets have some advantages over permanent
magnets. For example:
•they can be turned on and off
•the strength of the magnetic field can be varied
These properties make electromagnets useful for picking
up scrap iron and steel in scrapyards

The magnetic field of an electromagnet

The magnetic field around an electromagnet is just the
same as the one around a bar magnet. It can, however,
be reversed by reversing the current (turning the battery
around). An electromagnet being used in a scrapyard
Sir Humphry Davy, he was (born December 17,
1778, Penzance, Cornwall, England—died May 29, 1829, Geneva,
Switzerland), English chemist who discovered several chemical
elements (including sodium and potassium) and compounds, invented the
miner’s safety lamp, and became one of the greatest exponents of
the scientific method.

Sir Humphry Davy

Joseph Swan, he was (born October 31,

1828, Sunderland, Durham, England—died May 27, 1914,
Warlingham, Surrey), English physicist and chemist who
produced an early electric lightbulb and invented the dry
photographic plate, an important improvement
in photography and a step in the development of modern
photographic film.
https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/Joseph-Swan/277976
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sir-Humphry-Davy-Baronet Joseph Swan
Thomas Edison was called a “wizard” because of his many important
inventions. He created more than 1,000 devices on his own or with others. His
best-known inventions include the phonograph (record player), the lightbulb,
and the motion-picture projector.
Thomas Alva Edison was born on February 11, 1847, in Milan, Ohio. He
experienced hearing loss at an early age. He was an imaginative and curious
child. He did poorly in school, though, perhaps because he could not hear his
teacher. His mother then educated him at home.
When Thomas was a teenager he became a telegraph operator. Telegraphy
was one of the nation’s most important communication systems at the time.
Thomas was good at sending and taking messages in Morse code. He loved
tinkering with telegraphic instruments, and he developed several
improvements for them. By early 1869 he had quit his telegraphy job to
become a full-time inventor.
Edison worked hard with scientists and other partners to finish projects. He
built research laboratories at Menlo Park and West Orange, New Jersey.
Finally Edison created companies that produced and sold the successful
inventions.
Although most of his life was devoted to his work, Edison’s family was also https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Th
important to him. He married twice and had six children. Edison died on omas-Alva-Edison/353084
October 18, 1931. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Th
omas-Edison