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Single-Case Research
Design and Analysis
New directions for psychology and education
Edited by
Thomas R. Kratochwill
and Joel R. Levin
Routledge
Taylor &. Francis Group
LO N DO N AN D NEW YORK
First published in 1992
by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
This edition first published in 2015 by Routledge
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© 1992 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc
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SINGLE-CASE
RESEARCH DESIGN
AND ANALYSIS
New Directions for
Psychology and Education
Edited by
THOMAS R. KRATOCHWILL
JOEL R. LEVIN
University o f Wisconsin— Madison
^ ^ LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS
1992 Hillsdale, New Jersey Hove and London
Copyright © 1992 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part o f this book may be reproduced in
any form, by photostat, microform, retrieval system, or any other
means, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers
365 Broadway
Hillsdale, New Jersey 07642
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Single-case research design and analysis : new directions for
psychology and education / edited by Thomas R. Kratochwill, Joel R.
Levin,
p. cm.
ISBN 0-8058-0515-X
1. Single subject research. I. Kratochwill, Thomas R.
II. Levin, Joel R.
BF76.6.S56S56 1992
150'.72— dc20 92-9493
CIP
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Contents
Preface vii
1. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis:
An Overview 1
Thomas R. Kratochwill
2. The Visual Analysis of Data, and Current Research into the
Stimuli Controlling It 15
Barry S. Parsonson and Donald M. Baer
3. Philosophical and Statistical Foundations of Time-Series
Experiments 41
Richard McCleary and Wayne N. Welsh
4. The Intensive Examination of Social Interaction 93
Bruce E. Wampoid
5. Nonparametric Tests for Single-Case Experiments 133
Eugene S. Edgington
6. Statistical Analysis in Single-Case Research: Issues,
Procedures, and Recommendations, with Applications to
Multiple Behaviors 159
Patricia L Busk and Leonard A. Marascuilo
v
VI Contents
7. Meta-analysis for Single-Case Research
Patricia L Busk and Ronald C. Serlin
8. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis:
Comments and Concerns
Joel R. Levin
Author Index 225
Subject Index 231
Preface
With the proliferation of single-case research in basic and applied areas of the
social sciences, writers have continued to develop applicable data-analysis strat-
egies. In the Preface to Single-Subject Research: Strategies for Evaluating
Change (Kratochwill, 1978), it was noted that at the time there was growing
interest in and controversy over the analysis of single-subject data. This picture
has not changed much over the past 14 years. There is still interest; there is still
controversy; and there are those who use statistical tests (advocates), those who
do not (neutrals), and those who recommend against use of any inferential
statistical test (opponents). Although it is not possible to specify exact number in
each of these categories, the balance has probably not shifted very much since
1978.
So, the reader might ask why have we edited a book devoted to single-case
data analysis? First, there is need to take stock of where we are in the develop-
ment of data analysis procedures for single-case research. Increased research on
various aspects of single-case data analysis is of compelling interest for the
scholar of research methodology.
Second, as will become apparent to individuals who read this text, there are
misapplications of various statistical procedures, including both some old errors
of application and some new problems that heretofore have remained unexam-
ined. These errors of application need to be made explicit and considered within
the context of new theoretical and empirical information.
Third, there are new developments in the analysis of data from single-case or
small n experiments. These developments extend beyond some of the conven-
tional single-case designs that have their origins in the experimental analysis of
behavior, and therefore are worthy of close examination even by traditional
vii
viii PREFACE
skeptics of inferential statistical applications. As two examples, strategies for
analyzing social interaction patterns and group-based interventions follow di-
rectly from the earlier formulations of single-case designs and analyses.
In this text we hope that the reader will select a data-analysis strategy that best
reflects his or her methodological approach, statistical sophistication, and philo-
sophical beliefs. To this end, we present a wide variety of topics and perspec-
tives. These include: visual (graphical) analysis, nonparametric tests, time-series
experiments, applications of statistical procedures for multiple behaviors, ap-
plications of meta analysis in single-case research, and a discussion of issues
related to the application and misapplication of selected techniques.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are very pleased to have such an outstanding group of contributors to this
book. We thank the authors for sharing their knowledge. We especially express
our thanks to our wives, Carol Ann Kratochwill and Mary Levin, for their
appreciation of the time commitment needed to complete this project. Finally, we
thank Larry Erlbaum and the staff at LEA for their support of this project.
REFERENCES
Kratochwill, T. R. (Ed). (1978). Single subject research: Strategiesfor evaluating change. New
York: Academic Press.
Dedicated to the loving memory of our mothers,
Marian and Sonia
Page Intentionally Left Blank
л I Single-Case Research Design
I and Analysis: An Overview
Thomas R. Kratochwill
University of Wisconsin-Madison
There is little doubt that single-case designs play a major role in applied and
clinical research in psychology, education, and related fields. The rapid pro-
liferation of writings on single-case design is remarkable over the past 15 years,
and especially since the author of this chapter edited a volume devoted to single-
subject research and strategies for evaluating change (Kratochwill, 1978). At that
time there was only a handful of professional books devoted to this methodology
and related issues. At this writing, the picture has changed dramatically, with a
considerable number of professional works on both design and data analysis in
the literature. Table 1.1 provides a listing of major textbooks in the area of single-
case research design and analysis. It can be observed that although work in this
area has a solid foundation prior to 1980, many major works have appeared since
that time.
An interesting phenomenon in reviewing these works is that authors have
discussed single-case methodology as a specialized research application in a
variety of fields. For example, beyond the more traditional discussion of the
methodology within applied behavior analysis (e.g., Bailey, 1977; Johnson &
Pennypacker, 1980), there are presentations in clinical psychology (e.g., Barlow
& Hersen, 1985), social work (e.g., Fischer, 1978), special education (e.g.,
Tawney & Gast, 1984), and communicative disorders (e.g., McReynolds &
Keams, 1983). That is, whereas single-case research design once appeared to
have origins within quasi-experimental investigations in the tradition of Camp-
bell and Stanley (1963) and applied behavior analysis with origins in the experi-
mental analysis ofbehavior (Sidman, 1960), this picture has rapidly changed and
the contributions are apparent across a variety of professional fields.
This widening influence of single-case methodology as a primary contribution
1
KRATOCHWILL
TABLE 1.1
MajorTextbooks in the Area of Single-Case Research Design and/or Analysis
Date Author Textbook Title
1960 Sidman, M. Tactics ofscientific research New York: Basic Books.
1969 Davidson, P. 0., & N = 1: Experimentalstudiesofsinglecases
Costello, C. G. (Eds.) New York: Van Nostrand/Reinhold.
1973 Jayaratne, S., & Levy, R. L. Empirical clinical practice. Irvington, NY: Columbia
University Press.
1975 Glass, G. V., Wilson, V. L., Design and analysis of time-series experiments.
& Gottman, J. M. Boulder, CO: Colorado Associated University Press.
1975 Bailey, J. S. A handbook ofresearch methods in applied behavior
analysis. Gainesville, FL University of Florida.
1978 Fischer, J. Efficient casework practice: An eclectic approach.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
1978 Kratochwill, T. R. (Ed.) Single subject research: Strategies for evaluating
change. New York: Academic Press.
1979 Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. Quasi-experimentation: Design and analysis issues
(Eds.) for field settings. Chicago: Rand McNally.
1979 Robinson, P. W., & Experimental psychology: A small-n approach.
Foster, D. F. New York: Harper & Row.
1980 McCleary, R., & Hay, R. A., Jr. Applied time-series analysis for the social sciences.
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
1980 Johnson, J. M., & Strategies and tactics ofhuman behavioral research.
Pennypacker, H. S. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
1980 McDowall, D., McCleary, R., Interrupted time-series analysis. Beverly Hills,
Meidfinger, E. E., & CA: Sage.
Hay, R. A., Jr.
1981 Gottman, J. M. Time-series analysis: A comprehensive introduction
forsocialscientists. Cambridge, England:Cambridge
University Press.
1981 Wodarski, J. S. The role ofresearch in clinicalpractice: A practical
approach forhuman services. Baltimore: University
Park Press.
1982 Kazdin, A. E. Single-case research designs: Methods for clinical
andappliedsettings. NewYork: Oxford University
Press.
1982 Kazdin, A. E., & Tuma, A. H. Single-case research designs. San Francisco,
(Eds.) Jossey-Bass.
1983 McReynolds, L. V., & Single-subject experimental designs in
Kearns, K. P., communicative disorders. Baltimore: University Park
Press.
1984 Barlow, D. H., Hayes, S. C., & The scientist practitioner: Research and accoutability
Nelson, R. O. in clinical and educational settings. New York:
Pergamon.
1. AN OVERVIEW 3
1984 Tawney, J. W., & Gast, D. L. Single subject research in special education.
Columbus, OH: Merrill.
1984 Yin, R. K. Casestudyresearch: Designandmethods. Beverly
Hills, CA: Sage.
1985 Barlow, D. H., & Hersen, M. Single case experimental designs: Strategies for
stydying behavior change (2nd ed.). New York:
Pergamon.
1985 Behling, J. H., & Merves, E. S. The practice of clinical research: The singie-case
methods. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
1986 Bromley, D. B. The case-study method in psychology and related
disciplines. New York: Wiley.
1986 Cryer, J D. Time series analysis. Boston, MA: Duxbury Press.
1986 Poling, A., & Fuqua, R. W. Research methods in applied behavior analysis:
(Eds.) issues and advances. New York: Plenum Press.
1986 Valsinger, J. (Ed.) The individual subject and scientific psychology. New
York: Plenum Press.
Source: Adapted from Kratochwill and Williams (1988). Personal perspectives on pitfalls and hassles in
the conduct of single subject research. Joumal oftheAssociation ofPersons with Severe Handicaps, 13,
147-154. Reproduced by permission.
to scientific information in these fields is interesting. But more importantly, the
application of this methodology has allowed a number of refinements of applica-
tion to specific and unique problems that may not have occurred without such
diverse application across a variety of scholarly fields. Indeed, several specific
advances may be pinpointed. First of all, specific advances have occurred in
reconceptualizing the contributions of traditional “case-study” methodology.
Traditional case-study methodology has typically been relegated to a rather low
level of scientific knowledge. In fact, most case-studies involve demonstrations
that do not allow an investigator to rule out conventional threats to internal
validity and, therefore such studies do not quality as “true experiments” (Camp-
bell & Stanley, 1963).
Several writers have presented the contributions that case-studies make and
have presented the features that allow one to draw valid inferences from case-
study and single-case design (Kazdin, 1981, 1982; Kazdin, Kratochwill, &
VandenBos, 1986; Kratochwill, 1985; Kratochwill, Mott, & Dodson, 1984). In
this regard, two important points are necessary to reconsider the role of case-
studies in contributing valid information to scientific information. First, this
methodology can be distinguished along a series of types that provide contribu-
tions to research knowledge. Table 1.2 presents three major types of case-study
investigations that can be distinguished in applied and clinical research.
