Research and Innovation

🧠 Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) & Neuralink

-​ BCI: Enables direct communication between brain & external devices; bypasses
neuromuscular system.
-​ Applications:
-​ Neurodegenerative disorders (e.g., Parkinson’s, epilepsy)
-​ Thought-controlled prosthetics/wheelchairs
-​ Communication for paralyzed individuals
-​ Enhancing AR/VR experiences
-​ Neuralink: 3rd human implanted; aims for 20–30 in 2025
-​ Brainoware vs BCI:
-​ Brainoware: Uses brain organoids + microelectrodes → Organoid Neural
Network (ONN)

https://youtube.com/shorts/bTS3eHS_DA4?feature=shared

🧬 Indian Biotechnology Sector

-​ Sector Growth:
-​ $10B (2014) → $130B (2024) → Target: $300B by 2030
-​ Global Rank:
 -​ 39th in Global Innovation Index 2024
-​ 12th in biomanufacturing
-​ Key 2024 Innovations:
-​ World’s first HPV vaccine

-​ Indigenous antibiotic Nafithromycin

-​ India’s first gene therapy (Hemophilia)

 -​ Schemes: BioE3, NRF, Bio-RIDE (Target: 9000 startups)
-​ J&K Biotech Potential:
-​ High-altitude crops, medicinal plants, floriculture

🌸 Aroma Mission
-​ Focus: Cultivation of lavender, lemongrass, etc.
-​ Nodal Agency: CSIR-CIMAP, Lucknow
-​ Output:
-​ 2000 tonnes oils/year
-​ Revenue: ₹300 crore/year
-​ Impact:
-​ 60 lakh rural jobs
-​ ₹60k–70k/ha annual income

🧪 ICMR – First in the World Challenge for Innovation

-​ Objective: Encourage high-risk, high-reward research in health technologies
(vaccines, drugs, diagnostics).
-​ Focus: Revolutionary ideas > incremental improvements.
-​ Phase 1 Clinical Trials Network: Targeting diseases like Zika virus & multiple
myeloma to boost India’s role in clinical innovation.

🧬 DNA Profiling in Justice System

-​ Definition: Identification by analyzing DNA sequence variations, especially Short
Tandem Repeats (STRs).
-​ Sources: Blood, saliva, semen, touch DNA.
-​ Limitations: Sample degradation, contamination, cost, and legal insistence on
corroborative evidence.
-​ Note:
-​ DNA Fingerprinting: Uses VNTRs.
-​ DNA Profiling: Uses STRs (modern, preferred method).
👨‍👩‍👧‍👦 Tribal Marriage Customs
-​ Levirate Marriage: Man marries brother’s widow (e.g., Santhal, Munda).
-​ Sororate Marriage: Man marries wife’s sister after wife’s death. (Jija-Sali Sorrow)

🧫 Bacteria to Solve Math Problems

-​ Institution: Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Kolkata.
-​ Bactoneurons: Genetically modified E. coli simulate neural networks.
-​ Function: Solve binary-input math problems using fluorescent outputs.
-​ Potential: Applications in synthetic biology & advanced computing.

🧬 Synthetic Genome
-​ What: Artificially created genome (e.g., E. coli, 4 million base pairs).
-​ 2024 Milestone: Largest synthetic genome yet.
-​ Applications:
-​ Pharmaceuticals, chemical production, virus resistance in microbes.
-​ Biosafety: Genetic firewall to prevent gene escape.
-​ Challenges: High cost, slow growth, complex genome integration.
🇮🇳 One Day One Genome Initiative
-​ By: Department of Biotechnology (DBT) & BRIC(Biotechnology Research and
Innovation Council).
-​ Goal: Daily release of annotated Indian bacterial genome.
-​ Focus Areas:
-​ Environment: Waste/pollution control.
-​ Agriculture: Yield improvement.
-​ Health: Antimicrobial discovery.
-​ Method:
-​ DNA Extraction → Fragmentation → Sequencing → Assembly

🧬 Genome Sequencing Basics

-​ Definition: Determining DNA/RNA base order.
-​ Methods:
-​ Clone-by-Clone: For large genomes.
-​ Whole Genome Shotgun: For small genomes.
-​ Applications:
-​ Disease gene mapping.
-​ Pharmacogenomics.
-​ Crop improvement.
-​ Conservation biology.

🌿 Microorganisms’ Roles
-​ Environment: Biogeochemical cycles (e.g., Clostridium, methanogens).
-​ Agriculture: Nitrogen fixation (Rhizobium).
-​ Health: Digestion and immunity (Lactobacillus).

🧬 RNA Editing
-​ Definition: Post-transcriptional mRNA modification.
-​ Types: Addition, deletion, substitution.
-​ Enzyme: ADAR (Adenosine Deaminase Acting on RNA).
-​ Applications:
-​ AATD (via WVE-006).
-​ Potential in Huntington’s, obesity, Parkinson’s.

-​ Challenges: Temporary effects, delivery issues.

-​ RNA Basics:
-​ Bases: A, U, C, G.
 -​ Types: mRNA, rRNA, tRNA, regulatory RNA.
-​ Functions: Protein synthesis, immune response, gene regulation.

🧬 Stem Cell Transplants (HSCT)

-​ Study Findings (2024):
-​ Low mutation rates in HSCT recipients (2.6%) and donors (2%) annually.
-​ Indicates stable clonal expansion and healthy regenerative capacity.
-​ Clonal Hematopoiesis:
-​ Present in all donors, but not widespread—raises concern for long-term
cancer risks.
-​ Hematopoietic Stem Cells (HSCs):
-​ Found in bone marrow & peripheral blood.
-​ Develop into RBCs, WBCs, platelets.
-​ HSCT Usage:
-​ Used to treat blood cancers, restores bone marrow function using donor
HSCs.

🧬 CRISPR Technology
-​ Definition:
-​ Gene-editing tool mimicking bacterial defense.
-​ Uses Cas9 protein and guide RNA to cut & replace faulty DNA.
-​ Significance:
-​ Treats genetic diseases like sickle cell anemia, cancers, diabetes, HIV.
-​ Non-heritable edits in somatic cells.
-​ Ethical Concerns:
-​ Risk of misuse (e.g., designer babies - 2018 Chinese case).
-​ Potential off-target mutations; controversial in germline editing.

🧬 Gene Editing Tools

-​ CRISPR-Cas9:
-​ Most common; precise “cut and repair” mechanism.
-​ Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFNs):
-​ Use DNA-binding + DNA-cutting domains.
-​ Other Tools:
-​ TALENs and newer gene-editing systems.

🧫 Beyond Morality & Hayflick Limit

-​ Third State of Cells:
-​ Cells functional post-mortem (e.g., Xenobots, Anthrobots).
-​ May aid organ preservation & neuron repair.
-​ Cell Longevity Post-Death:
-​ WBCs: 60–86 hours
-​ Skeletal muscle (mice): up to 14 days
 -​ Fibroblasts (sheep/goat): cultured for a month
-​ Hayflick Limit:
-​ Human somatic cells divide ~40–60 times.
-​ Telomere shortening → senescence → max human lifespan ~125 years.
-​ Species Comparison:
-​ Galapagos turtles: ~110 divisions (~200-year lifespan)
-​ Mice: ~15 divisions
-​ More divisions possible, greater is the lifespan.
-​ Telomerase:
-​ Enzyme that maintains telomeres; active in cancer cells.

🧪 Recombinant Proteins & MSG Innovation

-​ Breakthrough (IISc Bengaluru):
-​ Use of Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) to produce recombinant proteins.
-​ Traditional Method Risks:
-​ Uses methanol (to activate AOX promoter): flammable, toxic, produces
hydrogen peroxide (damages proteins).
-​ MSG Method Benefits:
-​ Activates PEPCK promoter safely.
-​ Non-flammable, eco-friendly, suitable for:
-​ Vaccine antigens
-​ Insulin
-​ Monoclonal antibodies
-​ Baby food, nutraceuticals
🦠 Obelisks
-​ Why in News:
-​ Discovered by Stanford University scientists using Next-Generation
Sequencing (NGS).

-​ Represent a new RNA-based life form between viruses and viroids.

-​ Key Features:
-​ Composed of diverse RNA molecules, ~1,000 nucleotides long.
-​ Symmetrical, rod-like structures (like obelisks).
-​ Found in human gut and oral microbiome.
-​ No genetic similarity to known biological agents.
-​ Possible link to Streptococcus sanguinis.
-​ Research Significance:
-​ Raises questions on replication, transmission, pathogenicity, and
evolution.
-​ Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS):
-​ Technique for simultaneously sequencing many small DNA/RNA fragments.
-​ Used for genome-wide or targeted sequencing.

🩸 Menstrual Blood Stem Cells (MenSCs)

-​ Why in News:
-​ Renewed interest in regenerative potential of MenSCs.
-​ Key Features:
-​ Derived from endometrial lining.
-​ Multipotent: Can differentiate into fat, bone, smooth muscle, neurons,
liver, heart, skin cells. (Eg- MenSC and Stem Cells)
-​ Non-invasive collection via menstrual cup.

-​ Applications:
-​ Gynaecological Disorders:
-​ Endometriosis, infertility.
-​ Endometriosis: endometrial tissue grows outside uterus → pain,
infertility.
-​ Associated with Fusobacterium bacteria (found in 64% patients vs.
7% healthy women).
-​ Linked to gut dysbiosis.
-​ Other Medical Uses:
-​ Regenerates insulin-producing cells in diabetic mice.
-​ Aids in wound healing.
-​ Safe for human transplantation (no side effects).
-​ Challenges:
-​ Under-researched: Only 0.25% of mesenchymal stem cell studies focus on
MenSCs.
-​ Bone marrow stem cells dominate (~47.7%).
-​ Cultural taboos and funding bias hinder progress.
-​ Scalability for clinical use remains an issue.
🧬 Basics of Stem Cells
-​ Definition:
-​ Undifferentiated cells capable of self-renewal and differentiation into
specialized cells.
-​ Types of Stem Cells:
-​ Totipotent: Can form all embryonic & adult cell types.
-​ Pluripotent: Can form any adult cell type.
-​ Multipotent: Limited to specific lineages.
-​ Current Medical Use:
-​ Hematopoietic stem cells for treating blood cancers, anaemia.

Diseases

🔬 Haemophilia
-​ Disorder: Inherited blood disorder with reduced clotting factor.
-​ Types:
-​ Haemophilia A: Deficiency of Factor VIII (most common).
-​ Haemophilia B: Deficiency of Factor IX.
-​ Inheritance: X-linked recessive; affects males more. Females are carriers
(heterozygous).
-​ Treatment:
-​ Replacement therapy: Factor VIII/IX infusion.
-​ Gene Therapy:
-​ Adenovirus vector: Episomal, short-term gene expression, not for
children.
-​ Lentivirus vector: Integrates into genome, long-term expression,
safer.
-​ India: Highest detected cases (~19,000), estimated 40,000–1,00,000 cases (2nd
highest globally).
-​ Founder of WHF: Frank Schnabel.

🩸 Thalassemia
-​ Definition: Inherited disorder reducing hemoglobin production.
-​ Types:
-​ Alpha: Defective α-globin genes.
-​ Beta: Defective β-globin genes.
-​ Symptoms: Anemia, jaundice, facial bone irregularities.
-​ Chelators: Used to manage iron overload (e.g., Desferal).
-​ Global Impact: Affects ~280 million globally.
-​ Initiatives:
-​ Thalassemia Bal Sewa Yojana Phase 2: HSCT support.
-​ Treatment:
-​ Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation (HSCT).
-​ Iron chelation therapy.
🧠 Cerebral Palsy (CP)
-​ Disorder: Group of disorders affecting movement and posture.
-​ Cause: Abnormal brain development, mostly congenital (85–90%).
-​ Treatment: No cure; therapy focuses on symptom management.
-​ 2024 WCPD Theme: "Uniquely CP".
-​ Statutory Body: National Trust (1999) under Ministry of Social Justice &
Empowerment.

🧬 GQ-RCP Platform (HIV Detection)

-​ Developed by: JNCASR.
-​ Technology: G-Quadruplex (GQ) DNA structure used for high-specificity HIV DNA
detection.
-​ Process: Fluorometric test + reverse transcription + pH-mediated GQ formation.
-​ Significance: Reduces false positives in early HIV diagnosis.

🦠 HIV
-​ Virus: Attacks CD4 cells.
-​ Transmission: Blood, semen, vaginal fluid, breast milk.
-​ Outcome: Leads to AIDS if untreated.
-​ Therapy: Managed by Antiretroviral Therapy (ART).
-​ High-Risk Groups:
-​ Injecting drug users: 5.91%
-​ Female sex workers: 2.61%
-​ Women: 39% of all cases
-​ Children (<15 years): 3.5%
-​ High-Prevalence States:
-​ Northeast: Mizoram (2.7%), Nagaland (1.36%), Manipur (1.05%)
-​ South: AP (0.67%), Telangana (0.47%), Karnataka (0.46%)
-​ Government Initiatives:
-​ National AIDS Control Program (NACP): Phase I–V (1992–2026).
-​ HIV/AIDS Prevention and Control Act, 2017.
-​ Supported by: WHO, UNAIDS, World Bank, BMGF.

🧬 Sickle Cell Anemia (SCD)

-​ Cause: Genetic disorder → Sickle-shaped RBCs → Block blood flow.
-​ Symptoms: Anemia, pain episodes, delayed growth.
-​ Treatment:
-​ Blood transfusion, Hydroxyurea, Gene therapy (CRISPR, bone marrow
transplant).
-​ Challenges in India:
-​ High prevalence in tribal areas.
-​ Diagnostic/treatment gaps and high cost.
-​ CRISPR Therapy: Expensive ($2–3 million).
-​ Initiatives:
 1.​ National Sickle Cell Anaemia Elimination Mission (2023):
-​ Target: Eliminate SCD by 2047.
-​ Tools: HPLC diagnostics, prenatal testing, mobile apps.
-​ Progress: 3.37 crore screened; goal of 7 crore by 2025–26.
2.​ National Health Mission (2013): Includes hydroxyurea in EML.
3.​ National Guidelines for Stem Cell Research (2017):
-​ Allows bone marrow transplant.
-​ Gene editing only for in-vitro studies.
4.​ Gene Therapy Guidelines (2019): For CRISPR-based therapies.
5.​ Madhya Pradesh: State Haemoglobinopathy Mission.
-​ Awareness:
-​ World Sickle Cell Day: June 19.
-​ 2024 Theme: “Hope Through Progress: Advancing Sickle Cell Care Globally.”

Gluten
-​ Source: Wheat, barley, rye.
-​ Composition: Gliadin + Glutenin.
-​ Function: Gives elasticity to dough.
-​ Health Concern: Resists full digestion → may cause GI issues.
-​ Disease: Coeliac Disease (autoimmune, damages small intestine).
-​ Prevalence: ~2% of population.
-​ Treatment: Strict low-gluten diet.

Degenerative Disorders

Huntington’s Disease
-​ Type: Inherited neurodegenerative disorder.
-​ Gene Involved: HTT gene → abnormal huntingtin protein.
-​ Mutation Feature: Expanded polyglutamine tract.
-​ Inheritance: Autosomal dominant (50% chance).
-​ Symptoms: Early (forgetfulness, clumsiness), Later (mood change, involuntary
movements).
-​ Onset: Age 30–50.
-​ Treatment: No cure; symptomatic management.

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD)

-​ Type: Progressive muscle-wasting disorder.
-​ Cause: Mutation in DMD gene → lack of dystrophin.
-​ Inheritance: X-linked recessive.
 -​ Symptoms: Affects boys; early childhood onset, muscle weakness.

Parkinson’s Disease
-​ Nature: Progressive disorder affecting movement.
-​ Cause: Loss of dopamine-producing neurons.
-​ Symptoms:
-​ Motor: Tremors, rigidity, slowness.
-​ Non-Motor: Dementia, sleep issues, sensory issues.
-​ Prevalence:
-​ Increased in past 25 years.
-​ India = ~10% of global burden.
-​ Treatment: No cure. Drugs (Levodopa/Carbidopa), Surgery, Rehab.
-​ Awareness Day: 11th April (World Parkinson’s Day).

Alzheimer’s Disease
-​ Cause: Protein build-up (Amyloid-β plaques, Tau tangles).
-​ Common in: Age >65.
-​ Symptoms: Memory loss, speech/judgment issues.
-​ Genes: APP, PSEN1, PSEN2.
-​ Diagnosis: Cognitive tests, imaging (MRI, PET), biomarker tests.
-​ Treatment: No cure; symptom management.
-​ Type of Dementia: Accounts for 60–80% of cases.

Dementia
-​ Definition: Cognitive decline affecting daily life.
-​ Rank: 7th leading cause of death globally.

Precision Medicine & Biobanks

-​ Precision Medicine: Tailored healthcare using genes, lifestyle.
-​ Biobanks: Store DNA, tissues for research.
-​ Technologies:
-​ CRISPR: Gene editing.
-​ mRNA Tech: Used in COVID-19 vaccines.
India-Specific Initiatives:
-​ Market: To exceed $5 billion by 2030.
-​ Policy: BioE3 Policy promotes biomanufacturing.
-​ Milestones:
-​ Approval of CAR-T cell therapy.
-​ Dedicated CAR-T center launched.

Indian Biobanks:
-​ Genome India Programme: 10,000 genome sequences.
-​ Phenome India Project: Cardiometabolic disease research.
-​ PRaGeD Mission: Rare genetic disorders in children.

Challenge: Lacks strong regulatory framework on consent/privacy.

Cancer and Ultrasound Diagnosis

Cancer
-​ Nature: Uncontrolled cell growth.
-​ Types:
-​ Carcinoma: Skin/gland origin.
-​ Sarcoma: Bone, muscle.
-​ Leukemia: Blood-forming tissues.
-​ Lymphoma: Lymphocytes.
-​ Myeloma: Plasma cells.
-​ Melanoma: Pigment cells.
Ultrasound Innovation:
-​ New Technique: Uses high-energy ultrasound to release biomarkers into blood →
Liquid biopsy.
-​ Advantages: Non-invasive, early detection, cost-effective.
-​ Status: Experimental stage.

Mpox (Monkeypox)

About:
-​ Virus Type: DNA virus; Orthopoxvirus genus.
-​ Renamed: From Monkeypox to Mpox.
-​ Clades:
-​ Clade I: Severe; affects children.
-​ Clade II: Efficient human-human transmission.
-​ Clade 1b: Sexually transmitted.
-​ Clade Ia: Multiple transmission modes.

Transmission:
-​ Animal to human: Rodents, primates.
-​ Human to human: Physical contact, contaminated items.

Symptoms:
-​ Rash (macule → papule → vesicle → pustule).
-​ Fever, lymph swelling, fatigue.
-​ Duration: 2–4 weeks.

Severity Comparison:
-​ Milder than smallpox.
-​ More severe than chickenpox.

Prevention & Treatment:

-​ Vaccine: JYNNEOS® (for high-risk).
-​ Drug: Tecovirimat (under study).
-​ Measures: Isolation, hygiene.

Global Response:
-​ PHEIC: Declared by WHO (2022 & 2024).
-​ Outbreak: 2024—96% cases in DRC & neighboring countries.

Diagnostics:
-​ Alinity m MPXV Assay: WHO-approved.
 -​ India: 35 labs ready for testing.

🔬 GENETICS & DISEASES

🧬 X-Linked Genetic Diseases
-​ X Chromosome: ~800 genes; involved in many biological functions.
-​ Inheritance: Males (XY) more affected than females (XX).
-​ Examples:
-​ Red-green colorblindness (~8% males).
-​ Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (1 in 3,500–5,000 boys in India).
-​ Agammaglobulinemia (1 in 200,000 live births).

🧬 X-Chromosome Aneuploidies
-​ Definition: Abnormal number of X chromosomes.
-​ Examples:
-​ Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY) – Males with extra X.
-​ Turner Syndrome (X) – Females with only one X.

🧬 X-Chromosome Inactivation (XCI) Escape

-​ One X chromosome in females is inactivated for gene dosage balance.
 -​ Up to 25% of genes may "escape" inactivation → linked to autoimmune diseases &
cancers.
-​ Key RNAs:
-​ Xist: Inactivates one X.
-​ Tsix: Regulates Xist.

🧬 X Chromosome and Autoimmune Diseases

-​ Females more affected (e.g., lupus, rheumatoid arthritis).
-​ Altered Xist expression → gene reactivation → immune dysfunction.

🧬 X Chromosome and Alzheimer’s

-​ Gene USP11: Escapes XCI, overexpressed in females.
-​ Increases tau protein accumulation → Alzheimer's risk.

🧬 Y CHROMOSOME & LONG-READ SEQUENCING

📢 Why in News:
-​ First complete end-to-end Y chromosome sequence using Long-Read
Sequencing (Nature Journal, 2023).

🧬 Y Chromosome
-​ Key Gene: SRY (Sex-determining Region Y).
-​ Gene Count: ~27 genes, mostly non-coding ("junk DNA").
-​ Disappearance: Degenerating over 150 million years (~10 gene losses/million
years).

🔬 Long-Read Sequencing
-​ Reads: 10,000–100,000 base pairs.
-​ Better for repetitive, complex regions.
-​ Compared to:
-​ Sanger: 900 bp
-​ NGS: shorter, less effective in repetitive DNA

🦟 GM MOSQUITOES & MALARIA

📢 Why in News:
-​ Djibouti (May 2024): Pilot program with GM mosquitoes to combat Anopheles
stephensi malaria.

🧬 GM Mosquitoes
-​ Engineered with:
-​ Self-limiting gene: Female offspring die before maturity.
-​ Fluorescent marker: Field detection.
-​ Only males released; population of female vectors declines.
📌 Global Use:
-​ Brazil, India, Cayman Islands, Panama.
-​ Over 1 billion GM mosquitoes released since 2019.

⚠️ Concerns:
-​ Ecological impacts.
-​ Resistance to gene-editing (like Bt cotton).

🇮🇳 India’s Malaria Initiatives:

-​ National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme.
-​ National Malaria Control Programme.
-​ National Framework for Malaria Elimination (2016–2030).

🦟 MOSQUITO-BORNE DISEASES
Disease Mosquito Vector Key Points

Malaria Anopheles (female) Caused by Plasmodium;

India has elimination
framework (2016–2030).

Zika Aedes spp. Mild symptoms; sexual &

maternal-fetal
transmission possible.

Dengue Aedes aegypti Vaccine: Dengvaxia (20+

countries). India doesn't
approve it.

Chikungunya Aedes aegypti/albopictus Joint pain; no commercial

vaccine.

Yellow Fever Aedes spp. Vaccine: 17D Yellow Fever

Vaccine; WHO-approved.

🌍 GLOBAL REPORT ON NEGLECTED TROPICAL DISEASES (NTDs)

– 2024

📢 Why in News:
-​ WHO released Global NTD Report 2024 before the 77th World Health Assembly.

🔑 Key Highlights:
-​ 50 countries eliminated ≥1 NTD (target: 100 by 2030).
-​ Iraq: 50th country (2023).
-​ Bangladesh: Eliminated visceral leishmaniasis (Oct 2023).
-​ Noma added to NTD list (2023).
-​ 1.62 billion required interventions in 2022 (↓26% since 2010).
 -​ Vector-borne NTD deaths ↑ by 22% vs. 2016.

🇮🇳 India’s Progress:
-​ Eliminated: Dracunculiasis (Guinea worm), Yaws, Trachoma.
-​ Aimed to eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis by 2027.
-​ 40.56% population still needs NTD interventions (2022).

🧬 About NTDs:
-​ Affects poorest communities in tropical zones.
-​ Caused by: Viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites, toxins.
-​ "Neglected" due to:
-​ Complex life cycles
-​ Less global attention & funding

🌐 Global/Indian Initiatives:
-​ WHO Roadmap (2021–2030).
-​ London Declaration (2012).
-​ Mass Drug Administration (MDA).
-​ Vector Control: IRS (Indoor Residual Spraying).
-​ Wage Compensation Schemes: For Kala-azar patients.

Examples:

●​ Snakebite envenoming
●​ Scabies
●​ Yaws
●​ Trachoma
●​ Leishmaniasis
●​ Chagas disease

🦠 COVID-19 Vaccine & Side Effects – Prelims Notes

🔹 Thrombosis with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome (TTS)
-​ Also Known As: VITT / VIPIT
-​ Cause: Immune reaction to adenoviral vector (used in vaccines like Covishield).
-​ Symptoms: Chest pain, breathlessness, limb pain, unusual bruising, headaches,
numbness.
-​ Medical Terms:
-​ Thrombosis: Blood clots
-​ Thrombocytopenia: Low platelet count

🔹 Risk of TTS
-​ Incidence:
-​ 1–2 per 100,000 (higher in women ~30 yrs)
-​ 0.61 per million (India)
-​ Risk vs Benefit: Risk much lower than road accident mortality; Covishield offers
80–90% protection.
🔹 Other Rare Side Effects (Observed Globally)
-​ Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS) – Immune disorder affecting nerves
-​ Myocarditis / Pericarditis – Heart inflammation
-​ CVST (Cerebral Venous Sinus Thrombosis) – Brain clot

🧬 Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS)

-​ Autoimmune disorder affecting peripheral nerves → may cause paralysis.
-​ Trigger: Often post-infection (viral/bacterial), sometimes post-vaccine.
-​ Observation: Risk of GBS higher after infection than vaccination.
-​ Note: Peru declared national emergency due to GBS surge.

💉 COVID-19 Vaccines – Types

Vaccine Type Examples

Viral Vector Covishield (AstraZeneca), Johnson &

Johnson, Ebola vaccine

mRNA Vaccine Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna

Inactivated (Killed) Covaxin, Polio (shot), Rabies, Hep A

Live Attenuated MMR, BCG, Rotavirus, Oral Polio, Nasal flu

vaccine

Protein Subunit Hep B, HPV, Hib, Pneumococcal, Acellular

pertussis, Meningococcal C

🛡️ Vaccine Efficacy & Longevity

-​ Long-Lasting Protection (>20 years): Only 5 vaccines
-​ Lifelong Immunity: Only 3 vaccines
-​ Key Immune Components:
-​ Memory B cells: Trigger rapid antibody response
-​ Long-lived plasma cells (LLPCs): Survive in bone marrow → lifelong
immunity
-​ Examples:
-​ Long-lasting: Measles, Rubella
-​ Shorter-lived: Tetanus, Diphtheria, mRNA COVID vaccines (do not generate
LLPCs)

Factors Affecting Vaccine Efficacy:

1.​ Vaccine Factors:
-​ Live viral > killed/subunit
-​ 6+ months gap between doses increases efficacy
2.​ Pathogen Factors:
-​ Mucosal infections (COVID-19, flu) → frequent reinfections
 -​ Genetic mutation rate → SARS-CoV-2 needs updates
3.​ Host Factors: Age, gender, obesity reduce duration of immunity

🇮🇳 India-Specific: COVID-19 Vaccine Policy

-​ Vaccination Coverage: 1.75 billion doses (~80% of population)
-​ Regulatory Concerns:
-​ Covaxin approved for Phase 3 before Phase 2 completion
-​ Covishield emergency caution for low platelet count
-​ Corbevax authorized for 12–14 age group
-​ WHO Note: TTS acknowledged as rare for Covishield/Vaxzevria
-​ No TTS cases reported for Covaxin
-​ Risk lower in South/Southeast Asians vs Europeans

🧬 CAR-T Cell Therapy – India

-​ Name: NexCAR19
-​ Developed by: IIT Bombay, Tata Memorial Centre, ImmunoACT
-​ Approval: CDSCO (Oct 2023) – India’s 1st indigenous CAR-T therapy
-​ Cost: ₹25 lakh (vs ₹3–8 crore globally)
-​ Application: Advanced-stage B-cell cancers (e.g., leukemia, lymphoma)
-​ Success Rate: 73% (Lancet Haematology)
-​ Side Effects: CRS, cytopenia, ICANS – all manageable
🧬 Gene Therapy – Basics
-​ Definition: Modify genetic material to treat diseases.
-​ Types:
-​ Gene Replacement – Add normal gene
-​ Gene Editing – CRISPR, correct mutations
-​ Gene Addition – Enhance function
-​ Gene Silencing – Block harmful gene
-​ Vectors:
-​ Viral: Adenoviruses, AAVs, Lentiviruses
-​ Non-viral: Plasmid DNA
🇮🇳 Government Vaccination Initiatives
-​ Universal Immunization Programme (UIP): Free vaccines for key diseases.
-​ Mission Indradhanush: Improve vaccination in underserved areas.
-​ eVIN: Digital tracking of vaccine supply.
-​ National Health Mission: Strengthens health infra including vaccination.

🐍 Snakebite Envenoming in India

🧪 Recent Breakthrough
-​ Synthetic Antibody: Developed by IISc Bengaluru
-​ Target: Neutralizes 3FTx neurotoxin in Elapidae snakes
-​ Tested on: Taiwanese krait, monocled cobra, black mamba
-​ Efficacy: 15x more potent than conventional antivenom
-​ Elapidae Family: Includes cobra, king cobra, krait, black mamba

📊 Snakebite Crisis Stats

-​ 1.2 million deaths (2000–2019)
-​ 58,000 deaths/year in India (≈50% global)
-​ 99% of bites by Big Four snakes
-​ 300+ snake species in India; 60+ venomous (Majority are non venomous)

☠️ Types of Venom
-​ Hemotoxins, Neurotoxins, Cytotoxins

🧪 Antivenoms
-​ Polyvalent: Targets Big Four
-​ Recombinant Antivenoms: AI-designed, safer
-​ Region-specific Antivenoms: Tailored to local venom
-​ Portable Venom Detectors: For early detection
-​ India: Largest producer & consumer; Irula tribe vital in venom extraction
-​ Legal Aspect: Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (venom extraction requires permit)
🇮🇳 National Action Plan – Snakebite Envenoming (NAP-SE)
-​ Launched by: Ministry of Health under One Health approach
-​ Aims (by 2030):
-​ Halve deaths & disabilities
-​ Reduce morbidity & complications
-​ Strategic Actions:
-​ Anti-venom at all facilities
-​ Surveillance & emergency care strengthening
-​ Establish Regional Venom Centres
-​ Wildlife & livestock safety, community awareness
-​ Global Context:
-​ Aligned with WHO’s Snakebite Strategy & UN Sendai Framework
-​ WHO classifies snakebite as Neglected Tropical Disease

Important Policies
🧬 Biotechnology in India
BRIC-NABI (India’s First Biomanufacturing Institute)
-​ Full Form: BRIC–National Agri-Food Bio-Manufacturing Institute.
-​ Location: Mohali.
-​ Formed by merging: NABI + CIAB.

-​ Focus Areas: High-yield crops, biofertilizers, biopesticides, sustainable agri-biotech.

-​ BioNest Incubation Center: For agri-food startups (youth, women, farmers).
-​ Policy Alignment: BioE3 Policy.
BioE3 Policy (Biotech for Economy, Environment & Employment)
-​ Approved By: Union Cabinet (2024).
-​ Purpose: Promote high-performance biomanufacturing.
-​ Target Areas:
-​ Bio-based chemicals & enzymes
-​ Smart proteins (plant-based, cell-based, fungi, algae)
-​ Precision biotherapeutics
-​ Climate-resilient agriculture
-​ Carbon capture & utilization
-​ Marine & space biomanufacturing
-​ Goals:
-​ Net Zero economy
-​ Circular bioeconomy
-​ Skilling and Biofoundry Hubs
-​ Employment in Tier-II & III cities
-​ Aligned with LiFE Mission

3. Smart Proteins
-​ Definition: Proteins from non-traditional sources (e.g. algae, fungi, fermentation).
-​ Benefits:
-​ Low water/land use
-​ Less pollution & GHGs
-​ Food safety (no zoonotic risks)
-​ Compatible with Indian diets

4. Vigyan Dhara Scheme (In Govt Policies and Schemes)

-​ Launched by: DST (2024).
-​ Merged Schemes:
-​ S&T Institutional & HR Development
-​ R&D and Innovation
-​ Technology Development & Deployment
-​ Budget: ₹10,579 crore till 2025-26.
-​ Aims:
-​ Gender parity in STI
-​ Expanded R&D base
-​ Complement BioE3 policy
-​ Part of “Viksit Bharat 2047”

5. Bio-RIDE Scheme
-​ Full Form: Biotechnology Research Innovation & Entrepreneurship Development.
 -​ Approved By: Union Cabinet (2024).
-​ Goal: $300B bioeconomy by 2030.
-​ Components:
-​ R&D in synthetic biology, bioenergy, biopharma
-​ Startup support (funding + incubation)
-​ Biomanufacturing and Biofoundries
-​ Supports: LiFE Mission, circular bioeconomy

6. Global Bio-India 2024

-​ Organized by: BIRAC (under DBT)
-​ Focus: Biotech innovation & collaboration.
-​ Released: India Bio Economy Report (IBER) 2024.
-​ Bioeconomy Growth:
-​ $10B (2014) → $151B (2023) → Target: $300B (2030)
-​ 4.25% of India’s GDP (2023)
-​ Drivers: Vaccine demand, biopharma growth.

Current State of Indian Biotech

-​ India’s Rank: Top 12 global biotech destinations.
-​ Biotech Startups:
-​ 1,128 startups added (2021)
-​ 6,756 total by 2022; Target: 10,000 by 2025
-​ Biopharma Share: 49% (USD 39.4B)
-​ Vaccination Market: ₹252B by 2025
-​ Notable Vaccines: qHPV, ZyCoV-D, GEMCOVAC-OM
-​ Gene Therapy: For Hemophilia A (first trial)

R&D Achievements
-​ ADVIKA: Drought-resistant chickpea variety.
-​ Accel Breed Facility: Speed breeding (PAU, Ludhiana).
-​ Blood Bag Sheets: Developed by inStem for RBC protection.

Biotech Applications
-​ Red Biotech: Vaccines, gene therapy, personalized medicine.
-​ Green Biotech: GM crops (e.g., Golden Rice).
-​ White Biotech: Bioplastics, biofuels, circular economy.
-​ Bioremediation: Oil/plastic pollutant cleanup.
-​ Climate Change Mitigation: CO₂ capture, biofuels.

Hyderabad Biotech Case Study

-​ Nickname: "Vaccine Capital of the World"
-​ Investment: $700M
 -​ Infrastructure: Genome Valley, Pharma City
-​ Outputs:
-​ 1/3rd global vaccine production
-​ 35% of India’s pharma production
-​ 4.5L jobs created

🧬 Genome India Project (GIP)

-​ Launched: 2020 by Department of Biotechnology (DBT).
-​ Coordination: Centre for Brain Research, IISc Bangalore.
-​ Collaboration: 20 institutions.
-​ Aim: Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS) of 10,000 individuals to:
-​ Map India’s genetic diversity.
-​ Enable personalized medicine.
-​ Identify population-specific disease markers (e.g. MYBPC3 gene →
cardiac arrest in Indians).
-​ Significance:
-​ Represents 85 Indian population groups.
-​ Found 180 million genetic variants.
-​ Data stored at Indian Biological Data Centre (IBDC), Faridabad.
-​ Supports biotech growth: $10B (2014) → $130B (2024).
-​ Complements T2T CHM13 genome for global comparison.

📚 IndiGen Programme
-​ By: CSIR, 2019.
-​ Aim: Whole genome sequencing of diverse Indian ethnic groups.
-​ Output: 55.9 million variants from 1029 genomes.
-​ Goal: Personalized healthcare and population genomics.

🧪 Twigstats Genetic Tool

-​ Use: Ancestry tracing (500 BC–1000 AD, N & Central Europe).
-​ Techniques:
-​ SNPs (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms).
-​ Haplotypes (inherited DNA marker groups).
-​ Shared mutations → reconstruct family trees.
-​ Integration: Genetic + archaeological + historical data.
-​ Software: Compatible with R and C++.

🔬 Human Genome Project (HGP)

-​ Period: 1990–2003.
-​ Achievement: Sequenced 92% of human genome.
-​ Limitation: Missed 8% → heterochromatin (repetitive, non-coding DNA).
-​ Breakthrough: T2T Project (Telomere-to-Telomere) sequenced full genome
including:
-​ Telomeres, Centromeres, and highly repetitive regions.
 -​ Identified 2 million more variants.
-​ Genome named T2T-CHM13.

📈 Phenome India – PI-CheCK Project

-​ By: CSIR, launched 2023.
-​ Goal: Study genetic + lifestyle risk factors for cardio-metabolic diseases.
-​ Method: Longitudinal cohort study, ~10,000 participants.
-​ Outcome: India's first nationwide cohort health database.

🌾 DBT’s North Eastern Programme

-​ Objective: Promote biotech research & education in North-East.
-​ Since: 2010–11 (10% of DBT budget allocated).
-​ Initiatives:
-​ Biotech Hubs, BLiSS (Biotech Labs in Schools).
-​ DBT-NECAB: Agriculture-focused biotech.
-​ VRP: Visiting Research Professorship.
-​ Achievements:
-​ Patkai rice: Blight-resistant.
-​ PDDES App: Pig disease diagnosis.
-​ Lateral Flow Assay for brucellosis.

🌐 Other Indian Genomics Initiatives

-​ Biotech-PRIDE Guidelines: Sharing of biological data; forms Bio-Grid.
-​ Indian Biological Data Centre (IBDC): First national life sciences data repository.
-​ BioE3 Policy: Economy, Environment, Employment.
-​ National Biotechnology Development Strategy (2020–25).
-​ BIRAC: Biotech Industry Research Assistance Council.

🌍 Major Global Genomics Projects

-​ 1+MG Initiative (EU): For public health policy.
-​ Earth BioGenome Project: Catalog all eukaryotic species.
-​ Human Genome Project: 1st human genome mapping (2003).
🧬 Basic Concepts in Genomics
-​ Genome: All DNA in an organism (~3 billion base pairs in humans).
-​ Gene: DNA segment encoding protein/heredity.
-​ WGS: Sequencing entire genome (coding + non-coding DNA).
-​ Applications:
-​ Health: Personalized medicine.
-​ Agriculture: Improved crop varieties.
-​ Environment: Biodiversity conservation.

🧬 Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCEs)

-​ Finding: UCE in Tra2b gene controls sperm development via Tra2β protein
regulation.
-​ Significance:
-​ Conserved across 80 million years.
-​ Present from fish to humans.
-​ Essential in gene regulation.

🧬 Genetics & Endogamy in India

-​ Finding: Endogamy → higher rates of genetic diseases in Indian communities.
-​ Examples: Ankylosing spondylitis in Reddy community.
-​ Impact:
-​ Limits gene pool → genetic disorders.
-​ Social issues: Supports caste rigidity, honor killings.
-​ Contrast: Endogamy vs Exogamy (closed vs open genetic exchange).

🧬 South Asia's Population History Through Genomics

-​ Project: "Reconstruction of the population history of South Asia using ancient and
modern genomics" (GoI).
-​ Objective: Study migration, diseases, diet, living conditions, environmental
adaptation.
-​ Method: Ancient DNA (~300 skeletal remains, mainly teeth) vs. modern genomic
data.
-​ Agencies: Anthropological Survey of India (AnSI) + Birbal Sahni Institute of
Palaeosciences.
-​ Timeline: To be completed by Dec 2025.
-​ Key Sites:
-​ Indus Valley: Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Ropar, Lothal.
-​ Others: Burzahom (Neolithic, J&K), Nagarjunakonda (AP), Maski
(Karnataka).

🐄 Preservation of Indigenous Cattle Breeds

-​ Nodal Agency: National Institute of Animal Biotechnology (NIAB), Dept. of
Biotechnology.
 -​ Key Initiatives:
-​ Genetic Preservation via NGS & genotyping.
-​ Vaccines (e.g., for brucellosis) under BioE3 policy.
-​ Bovine lung cell-based 3D TB research model.
-​ Alternatives to antibiotics: Bacteriophages.
-​ Nutritional stress biomarkers.
-​ Outreach: MILAN program.

🔬 National Forensic Infra Enhancement (NFIES)

-​ Outlay: ₹2,254.43 crore (2024-29).
-​ Aim: Enhance forensic infra through NFSU labs in 28 States + UTs.
-​ Objectives:
-​ Trained personnel.
-​ Pendency reduction.
-​ Meet new laws (mandatory forensic probe for offences >7 yrs).
-​ Target: Conviction rate >90%.

NFSU:

-​ Only university dedicated to forensic sciences.

-​ Estd. 2009 (Gujarat), renamed 2020.
-​ Institution of national importance, under MHA.
-​ HQ: Gandhinagar, Gujarat.

Miscellaneous
🧪 Genetic Testing in Sports
-​ Used For: Performance enhancement (Paris Olympics context).
-​ Types: Cytogenetic, Biochemical, Molecular testing.
-​ Concerns:
-​ Inconclusive scientific evidence.
-​ Privacy & discrimination.
-​ Misuse by commercial test providers.

Way Forward:

-​ Ethical guidelines, independent research, holistic use with training + nutrition.

🔬 Biotechnology & Its Applications

1.​ Agriculture:
-​ GMOs (e.g., Bt crops, Golden Rice).
-​ RNAi pest-resistant plants.
-​ GM biopesticides (Bt toxin).

2.​ Medicine:
-​ Recombinant insulin (human-compatible).
 -​ Gene therapy (e.g., ADA deficiency).
-​ Diagnosis:
-​ PCR: DNA amplification.
-​ ELISA: Detects antigens/antibodies.
-​ CRISPR: Gene editing.
-​ Transgenic Animals:
-​ Research, pharma proteins (e.g., α1-antitrypsin).
-​ Vaccine & toxicity testing.

🌍 Biopharmaceutical Alliance (2024)

-​ Members: India, US, EU, Japan, South Korea.
-​ Context: Drug shortages during COVID-19.
-​ Goals:
-​ Secure drug supply chains.
-​ Promote vaccine diplomacy.
India’s Role:
-​ Vaccine Maitri: Exported 46M doses (Jan–Apr 2021) to 65 countries.
-​ Known as "Pharmacy of the World".

🐟 Mosquitofish (Gambusia spp.)

-​ Why in News: Used in Andhra, Odisha, Punjab for mosquito control.
-​ Concerns:
-​ Invasive alien species (disrupts native species, e.g., Microhyla tadpoles).
-​ WHO discouraged use since 1982.
-​ Listed invasive by National Biodiversity Authority (2018).
-​ Introduced: 1928 (British era).

Agriculture
🔬 Laboratory-Grown Meat
-​ Definition: Also called cultured/cultivated meat. Grown from animal cells without
slaughter.
-​ Production:
-​ Cell Extraction → Nutrient Medium → Cultivation into muscle tissue.
-​ Environmental Impact:
-​ 45% less energy, 99% less land, 96% fewer GHGs than beef.
 -​ Need for Regulation in India:
-​ Public health (zoonotic disease risk), ethical (no slaughter), ecological
sustainability.
-​ Market potential: 10–15% of traditional meat market.
-​ 15+ Indian startups active; FSSAI to introduce regulatory framework.
-​ Challenges:
-​ Energy-intensive (4–25x more than retail beef), protein gap, food habits,
affordability.
-​ India’s Meat Stats (2022-23):
-​ Largest livestock population.
-​ Major Producers: Buffalo(2nd)(13.6 MT), Goat (2nd), Poultry (5th).
-​ Exports (2023–24): $4.5B total; $3.7B buffalo meat.

🌾 Biofortification
-​ Definition: Nutrient enrichment of crops through breeding, agronomy, or biotech.
-​ ICAR Varieties (2024): 109 biofortified seeds across 61 crops (e.g., rice, wheat,
vegetables).
-​ CR Dhan 416 (rice): Salinity-tolerant, pest/disease resistant.
-​ Durum Wheat: High Zn (41.1 ppm), Fe (38.5 ppm), protein (12%).
 -​ Nutrient Focus: Iron, zinc, provitamin A, protein.
-​ Benefits:
-​ Disease resilience, low-cost (₹1 → ₹9 returns), no behavior change.
-​ Need:
-​ NFHS-5: 57% women, 67% children anemic.

🧂 Food Fortification
-​ Definition: Artificial addition of nutrients (Fe, Zn, Iodine, Vit A/D/B12) to staples.
-​ Example: Iodized salt prevents thyroid disorders.
-​ FSSAI Regulation (2016): Mandatory fortification of rice, wheat, milk, oil.
-​ Importance: Reduces anemia, stunting.

🧪 Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE)

-​ Definition: Yield per unit nitrogen absorbed.
-​ Need:
-​ Low NUE = ₹1 lakh crore loss/year in India.
-​ Only 20% N used; 80% lost to soil, water, air.
-​ Pollution:
-​ N₂O: 300× potent than CO₂; India = 11% of global N₂O emissions.
-​ Impacts: Climate change, smog, algal blooms, biodiversity loss.

🌿 Genetically Modified (GM) Crops

-​ Definition: DNA altered for desirable traits via genetic engineering.
-​ Regulation:
-​ Rules, 1989 under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
-​ Approval: Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) under
MoEF&CC.

✅ Benefits:
-​ Pest resistance (e.g., Bt Cotton).
-​ Climate resilience, higher yields.
-​ Nutritional enhancement (e.g., Golden Rice).
-​ Reduced pesticide, water use; medical and environmental uses.

⚠️ Challenges:
-​ Biosafety, biodiversity, regulatory delays.
-​ Seed monopolies, high costs, public distrust.
-​ Pest resistance, cultural resistance, health concerns.

🌱 GM Mustard (DMH-11)
-​ Developer: Indian scientists (ICAR).
-​ Genes: Barnase + Barstar from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens.
 -​ Traits: Herbicide-tolerant, high yield (28–37% more).
-​ Significance:
-​ Fills edible oil deficit (mustard = 40% of India’s edible oil).
-​ Resource efficient, stabilizes oil prices.

🏛️ GEAC (Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee)

-​ Function: Appraises GM organism/environmental impact.
-​ Under: MoEF&CC; Co-chaired with Dept. of Biotechnology.
-​ Composition: 24 members; monthly meetings.

🧬 GM Golden Rice & Bt Eggplant

-​ Golden Rice:
-​ Developed: Swiss Institute + IRRI (1990s).
-​ Contains: β-carotene (Vitamin A precursor), Fe, Zn.
-​ Goal: Fight Vitamin A deficiency.
-​ Bt Eggplant:
-​ Developed: Mahyco + UAS-Dharwad.
-​ Bt Protein kills pests; Approved in Bangladesh (2013), not in India.
-​ Recent:
-​ Philippines Court canceled cultivation citing safety concerns.

⚖️ GMO vs. Transgenic Organism

-​ GMO: Organism with modified DNA (same or foreign species).
-​ Transgenic: GMO with DNA from a different species.
-​ Note: All transgenics are GMOs, not vice versa.