CLASSS2 GEOGRAPHY AND

ENVIRONMENT NOTES

Prepared by Teacher. IRUMVA EMMANUEL

UNIT 1: MAP WORK INTERPRETATION
INTRODUCTION
 A map is the representation of any feature or landform on a sheet of paper when viewed from
above the ground or surface.
 Topographic maps: are maps that show both physical and human features found in an area.
Some of the features shown on a topographic map are:
1. Physical features include mountains, hills, plateaus, plains, valleys, lakes, rivers, seas,
oceans, different types of vegetation.
2. Human features or artificial features/Man-made features include Settlements, transport
systems (roads), crops, boreholes, dams, pipes.

1.1. LOCATION OF PLACES AND FEATURES ON MAPS

The geographic location in a map may be shown by using:
(i) Compass direction
(ii) Grid reference
(iii) Bearing

1.2. DIRECTION AND BEARING

A. DIRECTION
Direction is the description of a place in relation to another known point by use of a compass.

Figure 1. Compass showing 16 cardinal points

The main cardinal points of a compass are N—North, E—East, S—South and W—West.
How to find direction on a map
To find direction on a map, follow these steps:
- Identify the two points in question.
- Draw a line joining the two points.
- Draw a compass with the four cardinal points on the point where you are told ‘from’.
- Draw a horizontal line on that point showing east and west direction.
- Use the compass drawn to determine direction.
B. BEARING
Bearing is the direction measured as an angle and given in degrees.
Bearing is read in a clockwise direction from the north line as shown below.

Main steps in measuring bearing

 Identify the two places that are being related or referred to
 Mark the places with a pencil
 Drawing a straight line running from north to south and passing through the place from which
bearing is required.
 Join the two places with a thin pencil line
 Using a Protractor , measure the angle at the required place and in a clockwise direction from the
north.
 Read the angle on the protractor and state it in three figure form. Eg 005,090,123,2700
Example, Find the bearing and direction of Q from P

Points to note
• All places to the East of the North-South line have bearings of between 0º to 180º. Those to the
West of the same line have bearings of between 180º to 360º.
• The North has a bearing of 360º or 0º.
• Bearing is stated in three figures, such as 000º, 075º or 250º

1.3 USE OF GRID REFERENCES

A grid is a network of horizontal and vertical lines printed on the map.

 The vertical lines represent EASTINGS. They are called Eastings because they are usually
numbered eastwards.
  The horizontal lines represent NORTHINGS. They are called Northings because they are
usually numbered northwards.
Therefore, Grid references are a pair of Eastings and northings.

2 Types of Grid References

 Four figure grid reference
 Six figure grid reference

Example 1: Study the following grid lines below and find out the Four grid reference of Points.
A,B,C,D,E,F.

Answer: A= 4436, B=5634 ,C=5232 ,D=4828

E=4426 F=5622

Example 2: Find out the Six figure grid references of points

M=420420

N=527348

P=580400

Q=440280
NOTE:
 The value of the Easting (vertical gridline) is read first, followed by the value of the Northing
(horizontal Gridline).
 The values of the Eastings and northings are known as coordinates.
 The coordinates are expressed as a single continuous figure without decimal points or
commas, for example, 646504 and not 64, 65, 04.

1.5. THE SCALE OF A MAP

Definition of a Scale
A map scale refers to the relationship (or ratio) between distance on a map and the
corresponding distance on the actual ground.
The map scale tells you about the comparative size of features and distances displayed on the map.

TYPES OF SCALE
A. Statement scale: scale in words Eg: 1cm to 2cm read as one centimetre on the map represent two
kilometers on actual ground.

B. Representative/ fractional or Ratio scale: scale written in ratio Eg 1:200,000 or 1/200000

One centimetre on the map represents two hundred thousand centimetres on actual ground.

C. Linear Scale : this is a way of expressing the scale by using line divided into sections and each
section represent one centimeter on the map.
Linear scales is divided into two parts, namely (i) Primary division and (ii) secondary division.

1.6 MEASURING DISTANCES AND AREAS ON A MAP

A. DISTANCE
 Measuring distance of straight lines: The features with straight edges include runways,
sections of some roads, football grounds, rectangular water dams and others.
Distances of such features can be measured using:
• A pair of dividers
• A straight edge of a piece of paper
 • A ruler

 Measurement of curved distances: Features like roads, are not usually straight. The
distance they cover can be measured:
 Using a cotton thread (string)
 Straight edge paper.

B. MEASURING AREAS ON A MAP

1.Areas with regular shapes

The areas on a map with regular shapes such as square, rectangle, Triangle, Circle are calculated
using mathematical formulae.

2.Areas with irregular shapes

Most natural features such as lakes and forests have irregular shapes. To calculate their areas, we use
the grid square method.
To calculate the area of irregular shapes, the following steps are done:
– Count all the full squares inside the irregular body.
– Count all the half squares inside the irregular body and divide them by two.
– Add the total of the full squares and the half squares

AREA =Full squares+ (Halves)km2

2

For example, Here is the area of a forest. Determine the total area covered by a forest

F--------Full squares=8
H------- Half Squares=14

AREA=8+14/2
=8+7
=15Km2

1.5. DESCRIPTION OF RELIEF ON A MAP

Relief refers to the general physical appearance of the landscape.
The relief features that can be shown on a map include:
• Hills • Valleys • Mountains
• Plateaus • Plains
The various relief features that can be shown on a map are usually represented by use of:
a) Colours b) Contours
c) Trigonometric stations d) Spot heights

INDICATORS OF RELIEF FEATURES ON A MAP.

i) USE OF COLOURS: Relief can be represented on a map by use of colour. The following are
features and colours used to represent them.
• Mountains – Purple
• Hills and uplands – Brown
• Mountain tops - White

ii) USE OF CONTOURS

CONTOURS: are lines drawn on a map joining areas with the same altitude/height above sea level.
They show height and shape of relief features such as hills, valleys, slopes and ridges.
 Contour lines that are drawn close together represent a steep slope
 Contours that are widely spaced represent a gentle slope, plateaus and plains.
Contour interval/Vertical interval: The difference between one contour line and the next contour.
Contours are measured in metres(m).

For example: Calculate the contour interval of the following contour lines.

Contour interval=60-50=10metres
or 70-60,80-70,100-90.

iii)TRIGNOMETRIC STATIONS: A trigonometric station is a point represented on a map by a

triangle or circle with a dot at the centre.
 iv) SPORT HEIGHTS : A spot height is an exact altitude of a point on a map. The height of the
area is recorded next the spot height. Eg
.5007 .900

UNIT 2: TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHS

2.1. Definition of photographs
A photograph is an image of an object or a person taken with a camera and printed on a special
paper.

2.2 TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHS.

There are two main types of photographs namely:
 Ground photographs
 Aerial photographs

2.2.1. GROUND PHOTOGRAPHS

These are also referred to as terrestrial photographs. These are photographs that are taken by a
photographer when standing on the ground with a camera in front of an object.

There are three types of ground photographs namely:

1. Ground close up photographs
2. Ground horizontal photographs (Ground general view photographs)
3. Ground oblique photographs

1. Ground close up photographs

These are photographs taken when the camera focuses to one major item. Ground close up targets one
main feature e.g. a cow feeding, a goat, one plant etc.

2.Ground general view photographs

These are photographs taken when a camera is held horizontally to the item / object.

3.Ground oblique photographs

These are taken when the camera is tilted looking down from a higher ground such as a hill, tree, cliff
or any raised place.

2.2.2. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

These are photographs taken from space above the object being photographed.
There are two types of aerial photographs .
i. Aerial oblique photographs: these are photographs taken when the camera is focused at
an angle 45 degrees.

ii. Vertical aerial photographs: In such photographs, only the top part of the features or
objects can be seen.

2.3. PARTS OF A PHOTOGRAPH

Photographs have three main areas or part. These are:
1. Foreground: Is the area that is nearest to the camera. Objects in this area are always bigger and
clearer than those in background.
2. Middle ground: This is the part in the centre of the photograph. objects or features in this party
are visible but not as clear as those in the foreground.
3. Background: This is the part that is furthest from the camera, objects in the background are very
small and may be unclear to the observer.
The following diagram shows the THREE main parts can be done on a photograph.
BACKGROUND
MIDDLE GROUND
FOREGROUND

2.4 IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOGRAPHS

1) Photographs enhance the understanding of reality.
2) Photographs help geographers to record information from the field.
3) Aerial photographs are used for making maps.
4) Photographs are easy to take and store information.
5) Photographs are important sources of history and information.
6) They are easy to share because they are less bulky
7) Photographs show physical features and human activities taking place

UNIT 3: INTERPRETATION OF PHOTOGRAPHS AND VIDEO IMAGES

Introduction
The main difference between a photograph and a video image is that; A photograph is a still image of an object
while video image is a display of moving pictures that may be recorded over a period of time together with
sound.

3.1. Types and divisions of a photograph.

ii) Divisions of a photograph
Apart from the three divisions identified in Unit 2, Foreground , middle ground, background . three more
divisions can be made of a photograph as shown:

From the divisions above, the foreground, middle ground and background can therefore be further subdivided
into three parts each. This is to precisely state or locate position of objects in a photograph.

The following figure illustrates how this subdivision can be done

3.2. Identification of human and physical features on photographs and video images.
a) Some of human and economic activities that may be identified as taking place in a given
photograph.

 Mining and quarrying

 Tourism
 Fishing
 Forestry and lumbering
 Cattle keeping, dairy farming and animal husbandry
 Crop farming and agriculture
 Trade and commerce
 Transport and communication
 Manufacturing

b) Identification of relief features on a photograph

Relief features (landforms) include plains, plateau, hills, escarpments, ridges, lake basins, crater, rock
out crop like inselbergs, interlocking spurs, mountains, valleys, headlands alternating with bays,
coastal features such as cliffs and beaches, ect.

3.3. Relationships between different features (human and physical aspects).

a) Influence of Relief on settlement

 Steeply hilly relief tends to influence settlement negatively by discouraging effective
construction of houses on the steep slopes
 Flat relief tends to influence settlement positively by encouraging effective and easy
construction of houses.
 Valley relief tends to encourage flooding and water logging hence this discourages settlement.
Valleys are not normally settled because they tend to be swampy.

b) Relating relief and communication and transport

 Steep and hilly relief filled with ridges / sharp scarps tends to discourage easy construction of
road and railway network.
 It is very expensive to construct roads and railways lines on very steep slopes
 Flat relief tends to influence transport and communication positively hence encouraging it.
 Valley relief discourages transport and communication

c) Relating relief with other human activities

 Steep relief tends to be more useful for rock quarrying while it discourages grazing
 Some steep relief and mountains encourage tourism because of their impressive appearances
 Mining is more easily carried out in valley relief and flat land. (clay)
 Valleys can be used to grow particular crops that thrive in waterlogged areas such rice, yams.

3.4. DRAWING SKETCH DIAGRAMS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS

Before you draw a sketch of a photograph, you need to highlight the main features shown. It is also
good to point out their locations in the area covered by the photograph.
Procedure:
1. Draw a rectangular box to fit in the details or a squared box.
2. Using clear pencil lines, draw the main features in the frame, ensuring they remain proportional to
those in the original photo. Try to locate them in your frame as accurately as possible.
3. Using symbols and a key, label the features on the sketch.
4. Give your sketch a title

3.5 REDUCTION AND ENLARGEMENT OF PHOTOGRAPHS

a) Reduction of photographs
You can draw a sketch map of a photograph, in a rectangle or square smaller than the original
photograph, for example to half its size.
To do this:
i. Measure the dimensions of the photograph. If the length is 10cm and the width 5cm, divide
them by 2, to get 5cm by 2.5cm rectangular box.
ii. Identify the main features to be shown on your sketch. Maintain their accurate position as
much as possible.
iii. Give the key and title of the sketch.
 b) Enlargement of photographs
You fit the details shown on a photo on a larger frame than the actual size. The drawing will be
larger than the original photo.
For example, this can be one and a half times or twice the size of the original photo. Enlargement by
1.5 of the original size:
i. Measure the dimensions of the photograph. If the length is 10cm and the width 5cm,
multiply them by 1.5, to get 15cm by 7.5cm rectangular box.
ii. Identify the main features to be shown on your sketch. Maintain their accurate
position as much as possible.
iii. Give the key and title of the sketch

UNIT 4: TECTONIC PROCESSES

4.1. INTRODUCTION TO LANDFORM PROCESSES

The earth has natural physical features called ‘Landforms” or relief” such as hills , valleys plains,
plateaus, slopes, basins etc. Those landforms were formed by various process: internal and external
processes.
 The processes operating inside the earth are called internal land-forming processes or
endogenic, endogenetic while
 The process operating on the earth’s surface are called External land-forming processes or
Exogenic which include different forms of erosion, mass movements or landslides.
 The internal land-forming processes are caused by strong forces called ‘Tectonic forces”. The
term tectonic means any deformation of the rocks of the earth’s crust.
 Tectonic forces are forces that originate and operate in the interior of the earth caused by the
convection currents of the magma into the mantle.
 Convectional currents are disorganized movements of magma into the mantle due to high
temperature.

4.1.1. EARTH MOVEMENTS are movements which occur within the rocks of the earth’s crust due
to tectonic forces.
There are two types of earth movements.
  Horizontal or lateral earth movements
 Vertical earth movements.

a) Horizontal or lateral earth movements are movements operate along a horizontal plane
within the crustal rocks causing the earth’s rocks to stretch, shorten or shear.

b) Vertical earth movements/Epirogenic or epirogenetic are movements operate along the

radius of the earth (from the internal towards the surface or from the surface to the center).
Such forces cause the crustal rocks to either be pulled downwards or to be pushed upwards, or to
shear in vertical directions.
Horizontal and vertical tectonic movements cause the following processes to occur within the
earth:
 Folding
 Faulting
 Warping
 Vulcanicity
 Earthquakes

4.2. FOLDING
4.1.1 Definition and causes of folding
 Folding is the process through which the crustal rocks bend upwards or downwards due to
the compressional forces. Folding takes place on young rocks of sedimentary deposits.
 Folding results in features such as upfolds or anticlines and downfolds or synclines.
 A fold is a bend.
4.1.2. Parts of a fold
Diagram showing the parts of a Fold

- Synclines: sunken part of the fold (the valley shaped part).

- Anticlines: uplifted part of the bend (mountain/hill)
- Crest: upper most part of anticline
- Trough: lowest part of syncline
- The Axis: the line drowns vertically through the center of the anticline.
- Limb: rock layers on both sides of the fold axis.

4.1.3. TYPES OF FOLDS

The following are the different types of folds common in many region of the world:
a. Simple fold.
This is formed when weak compression forces with equal strength cause rocks to bend. It is also
called Symmetrical fold.
 Diagram showing simple fold

b. Asymmetric fold
It is formed when there is unequal compression force leading to bending of one side over the other
making steeper limb.

Diagram showing asymmetrical fold

c. Over fold
This is caused by very strong forces pushing again with a resistant force. An over fold is formed
when one limb is pushed over the other limb. This process occurs when the compressional forces
from one side are greater than from the other side.

d. An over thrust fold or the nappe.

When pressure is very great a fracture occurs in the fold and one limb is pushed forward over the
other limb forming an overthrust fold.

4.1.4. RESULTANT FEATURES OF FOLDING

The most common features resulting from folding are FOLD MOUNTAINS. The world’s highest
and most impressive mountains formed through the faulting. Eg: Atlas, Cape ranges, Alps,
Himalayas.
Other resultant features of folding include:
a. Rolling plains with gentle up and down folds.
b. Valley and ridge landscape
c. Inter mountains basins.
d. Inter-montane basin
4.1.5. EXAMPLES OF AREAS AFFECTED BY FOLDING
• The north western part of Africa: Atlas Mountains.
 • The Southern part of Africa: Drankesberg.
• The south western coast of Africa: Cape ranges.
• Folded hills in the Eastern province of Rwanda.
• Other fold mountains are found in Europe and Asia eg: Alps, Himalayas

4. 1.6 EFFECTS OF FOLDING

1. Fold mountains attracts rain fall
2. Folds mountain form a barrier to transport and communication
3. Fold Mountains are source of rivers (catchment areas)
4. Folded landscape provides unique scenery, which promotes tourism. E.g in Alps.
5. Gentle slopes/ rolling plains provide good soils, which support farming.
6. Folding exposes valuable minerals hence promotes mining.
7. Fold Mountains create waterfalls supporting generation of hydroelectric power.
8. It is a protective barrier against enemies on the opposite side.

4.2. FAULTING
1. Definition and causes of faulting
 Faulting is a process through which crustal rocks fracture or break due to tectonic forces.
 A fault is a break, crack or a fracture in the Earth crust produced by vertical and lateral
movements within the earth’s crust due to faulting.

2. Causes of faulting
 Tensional forces (forces pulling in opposing side)
 Compressional forces (forces pushing in the opposite direction (towards each other)

Diagram of Parts associated with fault

3. TYPES OF FAULTS
a. Normal faults
These are caused by tensional forces which pull the earth crust apart from a central
point. One block land slides downwards against other one.
Eg: There are very common in East African section of the great valley.

b. Reverse faults
These are also known as thrust faults and are caused by compressional forces which push a block of
land on one side of a fault upwards in relation to another and lead to the formation of reversed fault
lines. One block of rocks may override another to form a black mountain or a horst.
 c. Shear or Tear faults
These are faults formed when two opposing forces operate parallel to each other. They cause blocks
to slide past each other. Tear faults can also be called

4.FEATURES RESULTED FROM FAULTING

- Block mountains
- Tilt blocks
- Rift valleys or grabens
- Escarpments or fault scarps
- Rift valley lakes.
- Fault steps.
- Rift valley lakes
i.Block Mountains (fault blocks)
A block mountain is also known as a Horst. It is formed when the middle block of land bounded by
parallel faults is made to rise or is uplifted by the compressional forces. The best example of a block
mountain in East Africa is mount. Rwenzori.
ii. Tilt Blocks.
Tilt blocks are formed when one side of the middle block is uplifted higher than the other side. The
top of the middle block will not be flat but will be tilted.

iii. Fault scraps or Escarpments.

Escarpments are also known as fault scarps. They are steep cliff-like slopes. Escarpments are said
to have been formed during the formation of the rift valleys. Some escarpments are steep and may
extend several hundred kilometres.

iv. Fault steps

Fault steps are formed when a series of fairly parallel faults occur on a slope of an area. The blocks
between the faults are displaced vertically to different levels.
 v. Rift valley
Rift valley is an elongated depression with fault scraps on either side. It is generally characterized by
flat or nearly flat floor and steep sides. Several theories have been put forward to explain rift valley
formation.

5. AREAS OF FAULTING
The Great Rift valley
The world’s biggest and most famous rift valley is known as the Great Rift valley. It is referred to as east
African rift valley because most of it is found in eastern Africa from Ethiopia to Mozambique with its length
about 5600km.
It is divided into 2 branches:
 The Western branch/arm of Great Rift valley
 The Eastern branch/arm of Great Rift valley
6. IMPORTANCES/ SIGNIFICANCE OF FAULTING
A) Positive effects
1. Faulting favour mechanized agriculture.
2. These have fertile soil good for the growing of the crops,
3. They help in the modification of climate; the highlands have abundant and reliable rainfall.
4. They act as political boundaries between countries like Lake Kivu exist between Rwanda and
DRC
5. They attract tourists who bring in foreign exchange.
6. They lead to the formation of relief rainfall.
7. Provide employment.
8. They conserve wild life.
9. Some contain minerals (copper and cobalt exposition at Rwenzoli mountain )
10. Lake Magadi contains vast deposits of soda ash, which is one of the most important minerals in
Kenya.
11. Block Mountains are sources of rivers which provide water for domestic and industrial purposes.

B) Negative effects of faulting

1. Escarpments and mountains hinder transport development.
2. Discourage human settlements.
3. Steep slope accelerate soil erosion and landslides.
4. Waterfalls and rapids resulting from faulting hinder water transport.
5. Faulting cause aridity especially in leeward sides of Block Mountains.

4.3. WARPING
1. Definition
Warping is the gentle deformation of the crust over a considerable area.
The crust can be gently deformed downward direction; a process known as down warping. When the
crust is gently deformed upwards, this is known as up-warping.
 2. Landforms resulting from warping
 Lakes Series of uplands Hills
 Rivers Swamps Plateau Plains
3. Influence of warping on drainage
1.Formation of lake
2. Change of direction of river
3. Warping hills are source of steams

4.Areas of warping in AFRICA

1.Uganda and Eastern of Rwanda
2.In western of Kenya

4.4. VULCANICITY ANDS VOLCANICITY

1 .0 Definitions
1.1.Differentiate between Vulcanicity and Volcanicity?
 Vulcanicity is the process where by molten materials (magma) cools or solidifies inside or outside
of the crust.
 Volcanicity is the process where molten materials reach the surface of the earth. It is also known
as volcanic eruption.

1.2.Differenciate between Magma and Lava

 Magma : is composed of molten rock and is stored in the earth’s crust.
 Lava: is magma that reaches on the earth’s surface.
Note:
 Molten materials can come out of the ground through a single hole called a vent.
 Materials come out of the ground along the entire crack , also known as a fissure.
2. CAUSES OF VULCANICITY/VOLCANIC ERUPTION
 Tectonic plates move away from each other
 Tectonic move towards each other
 Tensional force

3.TYPES OF VOLCANIC FEATURES/ VULCANICITY

There are two types of volcanic features . These are:
a) Intrusive volcanic features : These are formed when magma solidifies underground
b) Extrusive volcanic features are the features that are formed by cooling and solidified on the
earth ‘s surface.

4. LANDFORMS RESULTING FROM VULCANICITY

A) INTRUSIVE FEATURES
1. Batholith: is a huge mass of solidified magma. It forms at deeper level than the dyke or sill.
2. Dykes: formed when magma solidifies into vertical cracks, cutting across rock layers.
3. Sills: formed when lava solidifies in between rock layers (bedding plane). It is usually
horizontally or inclined.
4. Laccolith: this is magma which solidifies in a shape similar to a mushroom.
5. Lapolith: This is sauce shaped magma, after erosion ,It can be exposed as a shallow basin.
 B) EXTRUSIVE VOLCANIC FEATURES :
1. Volcanic mountain/Volcanoes: It is a high volcanic hill with steep sides and a convex slope.
Example: Karisimbi volcano
2. Volcanic plug: this also called a volcanic neck or a spine .it is a remnant of a column of
magma that cooled and solidified inside the vent.
3. Crater: is a funnel –shaped depression that forms at the mount of the volcanic vent. Water
collects in some craters to form crater lakes.
4. Caldera: is an enlargement of a crater on top of at top of volcano.

5. Lava dammed lakes: These are formed when lava blocks channels. Water pools behind
leading to formation of lakes.
Examples: A good example of Lava dammed lakes of Rwanda are Lake Burera and Ruhondo
 6. A Hot spring is a place where hot water comes out from the ground from superheated rocks
overlying the magma chamber. It is also known as a thermal spring.
Example: Nyamyumba hot spring in Rubavu district
7. A Geyser: is a jet of hot water or stream which shoots with a degree of a violence from the
ground either continuously or intervals.

5. TYPES OF VOLCANOES
a) Active volcanoes: are volcanoes which are known to have erupted in recent time.eg Nyiragongo in
DRC
b) Dormant volcanoes: are volcanoes which are not known to have erupted recent time but show
signs of eruption
c) Extinct volcanoes : are volcanoes do not show any future eruption signs.
. Eg: Mt Elgon and Mt Kenya.
6. WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES
Major regions affected by volcanicity
 The Mediterranean region
 The pacific circle
 South east Asia
 East African regions
 The mid-Atlantic ridge
 South west Asia

7. EFFECTS OF VULCANICITY
a) Positive effects/Advantages of Vulcanicity
1. Volcanic mountains and lava plateau provide fertile volcanic soils which support agriculture.
2. Volcanic mountains influence climate, lead to formation of orographic or relief rainfall
3. There are forest reserves on the slopes of mountains.
4. Lava or magma is rich in minerals like diamond, gold, and silver
5. Hot springs or Geysers are potential source of geothermal power (electricity).
6. There is fishing in lava-damned lakes, which provides food and employment.
7. Igneous rocks are used for construction of roads, houses, bridges, etc
8. Good sites for quarrying. They are sources of stones used for construction.
9. creation of waterfalls which are good for hydro power generation.
10. They are tourist attractions.

B) Negative effects/ Disadvantages of Vulcanicity

1. Volcanic features especially mountains are communication barriers due to steepness.
2. It is very expensive and risky to construct roads and railways in the hilly areas
3. Volcanic eruption leads to loss of lives and property.
4. Heavy rainfall and steepness lead to soil erosion, mass wasting and landslides.
5. Intrusive features like sills and dykes form waterfalls and rapids which hinder
navigation of rivers.
6. Make agriculture practising difficult in high land.
7. The lee-ward sides of volcanic mountain create a rain shadow.

C) Effects of volcanicity on drainage

1. Formation of lava dammed lakes :Burera and Ruhondo in northern Rwanda,
2. It can be a source of river
3. Crater lake has been formed due to volcanicity. Eg:Bisoke

4.5. EARTHQUAKES
1. Definition of earthquakes
 An earthquake is a sudden and rapid shaking or trembling of the earth’s crust. In greek is
called SEISMOS
 The science used to study earth quake is the Seismology.
 To measure Earthquake we use the instrument called SEISMOGRAPH.
 Small Earth quake located at a given place is known as Tremor.
 Sometimes Earth quake can start inside seas and Oceans hence called Tsunami.
 Most of the earth quake starts at the depth of 700km in the mantle.

The diagram shows the origin of an earthquake

NOTE:
 Focus is the point inside the mantle where the Earth quake starts from or origin.
 Epicentre is the point immediately above the focus on the earth ‘s surface .
 Seismic waves/ Body waves :The shock waves from the focus are also called

2. CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES
Most of earthquakes are caused by tectonic forces. The causes can be categorized as natural or
human causes.
a) Natural causes
1. Tectonic movement (Movement of tectonic plates: The earthquakes that result from such
movements are called Tectonic earthquakes. Tectonic movement has been the major cause of
earthquakes in Japan.
2. Vulcanicity: Sudden violent magma movement within the earth’s crust . These are felt as
earthquakes on the earth’s surface.
3. Gravitative pressure: the crustal rocks overlying the hollows and voids left behind by
magma after it has escaped to the surface are under pressure from the force of gravity which is
pushing them inwards. causing the ground to shake.
4. Isostatic adjustment: It is the adjustment of the Earth due to increase of materials beneath it.
Addition of sediments on the sea floor lifts the affected area upwards leading to Earth Quakes
or vibration.
5. Energy released in the mantle: Excessive energy can be released from the mantle; this may
result into explosion which sends shock waves to the Earth’s surface.
6. Sudden movement of magma inside the mantle:. This movement of magma will make the
crust above to vibrate.

b) Human causes.
The human causes of Earth quakes include:
1. Test of nuclear test: When nuclear bombs are fired underground, they trigger off high
vibrations in the area of testing.
2. Movement of trains: A heavy train generates vibrations as it rolls on its rails.
 3. Use of explosives: Mechanical explosives used during quarrying and mining or construction
cause vibrations to the surrounding area.
4. Construction of large reservoirs: The weight of water in manmade lakes can reactivate,
dormant or inactive faults, triggering tremors.

3. MEASUREMENTS OF EARTHQUAKES
 Seismograph: is the instrument used to measure earthquake .
 The seismic impulses are received in a seismograph by an instrument attached to it called a
seismometer.
 Intensity: this refers to how hard or strong the earthquakes shake the ground. The scale used
for measuring intensity is called the Mercalli Scale.
 Magnitude: this refers to the amount of energy given or produced by an earthquake. The
scale used for measuring magnitude is called the Richter scale and ranges from 0 to 9.

4. WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES

The seismic zone refers to the area mostly affected by Earth quake.
These regions include the
 Rift-valley areas, tectonic boundaries and areas of volcanicity.
 The circum pacific belt: include Japan, Philippines, East Indies and the west coast
of North and South America.
 A belt across Southern Europe and Southern Asia: This region includes
Himalaya.
 Along all the Boundaries of tectonic plates: Andes region in South America, the
coast of Alaska, Northeast of China.

5. CONSEQUENCES OF EARTHQUAKES.
 Earth quake can lead to faulting, folding and vulcanicity.
 Earth quake leads to destruction of properties.
 Earth quake can lead to huge sea waves called Tsunami.
 Earth quake causes vertical and horizontal displacement.
 It causes landslides.
 It leads to loss of lives, trauma, and displacement of population.
 They restrict the development of towns
 Earthquakes cause violent motions of the earth’s surfaces.
UNIT 5: THE EXTERNAL LANDFORM PROCESSES
Introduction
The main external land forming processes are erosion, weathering and mass wasting. These processes shape
the way the landscape looks like.

5.1. SOIL EROSION

5.1.0. Definition of soil erosion
This refers to the removal of the topsoil by agents of erosion.
Soil erosion takes place in two steps:
• Breakdown of soil particles
• Transportation of the broken particles

5.1.1 Agents of soil erosion

Agents of erosion are the things that transport the top loose soil from one place to another.
The agents of erosion include:
a) Running water
b) Wind
c) Moving ice
d) Gravity
e) Animals
f) Humans

5.1.2. Types of soil erosion

a. Splash erosion: This is the removal of small particles of soil by rain drops. This is why t is so called
rain drop erosion.
b. Sheet erosion: This occurs in flat and gentle sloping areas where the uniform layer is removed either
by wind or running water.
c. Rill erosion: This is the removal of surface soils by water in small channels know as rills. It is
normally occurs on slopes with little or no vegetation cover.
d. Gully erosion: It occurs when small channels or rills are widened and deepened by the running water
hence forming gullies.

5.1.3: Causes of soil Erosion.

Soil erosion can be caused by natural factors as well as human factors.
i) Natural causes of soil erosion
a) Heavy rainfall: Excessive rainfall causes surface run-off. When this occurs on bare land, it causes soil
erosion.
b) Steep slopes: They increase the speed of flow of water on the surface. This increases the rate at which
erosion can occur.
c) Winds: Strong winds are capable of causing sheet erosion. This occurs in areas with little or no vegetation.
Vegetation acts as wind breakers, lack of which promotes erosion.
d) Drought: Vegetation dries up during long periods of sunshine and unreliable or no rainfall at all. Reduced
vegetation cover increases chances of erosion.
e) Increase in wild game population: When wild animals are many, they eat and trample on vegetation. This
may be to a point when the land is left almost bare. In the long run, this can cause erosion.

ii) Human causes of soil erosion

a) Deforestation is the process of cutting down much down trees by man. This reduces the protective
cover of the soil, hence soil erosion.
 b) Overgrazing/overstocking: is a practice in which animals are too many compared to the available
pastures. This exposes the top soil to wind and water.
c) Monoculture: This is the farming practice of growing a single crop on a piece of land. The crop
exhausts nutrients it needs from soil hence soil erosion.
d) Mining : This creates the gulleys and tunnels which can lead to soil erosion.
Other causes include: Overcropping,bush burning,Rapid population increase.

5.1.4.The effects of soil erosion

1. It leads to soil degeneration. This is the loss of soil fertility. It occurs when the fertile top soil is
carried away by agents of erosion.
2. Siltation in rivers and lakes
3. It leads to desertification
4. Landscape destruction: Soil erosion makes the land to look ugly
5. Soil erosion leads to flooding
6. Famine and droughts
7. Displacement of people.
8. Gulley erosion makes some roads impassable.
9. Deterioration of underground water supply.

5.1.5. Soil conservation methods and practices

1. Contour ploughing: growing crops along the contour lines. This checks the speed of running water.
2. Terracing: A series of wide steps are cut across hill slopes to reduce the surface run-off.
3. Strip cropping: is the practice of planting alternate strips of grass and crops across the slope and at
right angles to the natural direction of the slope.
4. Application of fertilizers: In general, artificial fertilizers replace the lost nutrients and improve the
quality of soil. This makes the soil less loose and reduces the likelihood of being eroded.
5. Crop rotation: is the growing of different crops on the same piece of land for successive years in a
sequence or a cycle.
6. Mulching: Mulch is a protective covering of the soil surface that is intended to minimize water loss
through evaporation and protects the soil against agents of erosion.
7. Planting cover crops: Their leaves spread on the top of the soil and protect it against the impact of
rain drops and the effects of winds eg pumpkins,
8. Afforestation and reforestation, Agroforestry programmes
i. Afforestation is the planting trees where trees have not been in existence
ii. Reforestation is planting of trees where others have been cut.
iii. Agroforestry: is planting crops with trees.
9. Controlled grazing
10. Fallowing
11. Population control

5.2. WEATHERING
A.Definition of weathering
 Weathering refers to the breaking down of rocks into small particles.

TYPES/FORMS OF WEATHERING
TYPES OF WEATHERING DEFINITION AGENT OF WEATHERING

1.PHYSICAL This is the breakdown of a Temperature

WEATHERING/MECHANICA rock into smaller particles
 L WEATHERING while mineral composition
remaining the same.
2.CHEMICAL WEATHERING Is the breaking down of the Water and atmospheric gases
rock and minerals
composition change.
3.BIOLOGICAL This type of weathering is People, plants and animals
WEATHERING due to the action of living
organisms on rocks.

b. Factors influencing weathering/ Causes of weathering

1. Climate: The main elements of climate that cause weathering are sunshine and rainfall.
• The amount of sunshine is responsible for expansion during the day and contraction during the
night.
• Rainfall provides water that dissolves minerals in rocks causing them to weather.
2. Relief/Slope: the rate of physical weathering is high on steep slopes while chemical weathering is
higher on gentle/flat slopes.
3. Living organisms: Living organisms include plants and animals. They both contribute to weathering
in a number of ways.
• Growing roots of trees widen and deepen into the ground and open up joints hence physical
weathering.
• Burrowing animals such as termites, rodents cause biological weathering due to the excavation
effect and acidic droppings.
• Dead organic organisms also produce humic acids after they decompose the rock.
4. Human activities: For example, digging, mining, blasting accelerate rate of weathering.
5. Time: the longer a rock is exposed to the agents of weathering the greater the rate of rock weathering.
6. Nature of the rocks: Soft rocks, for example, break down more easily than hard rocks. Similarly,
jointed rocks (rocks with cracks) break down faster than unjointed rocks( rocks without cracks).

C .Impact of weathering
 It leads to formation of minerals eg limestone
 It leads to soil formation
 It contributes to the development of tourism eg: underground caves
 It provides good ground for scientific research
 It provides habitat to wild animals
 It creates the flat topped hills
 Provide building and construction materials.

5.3. MASS WASTING

5.3.0.Definition of Mass wasting
 Mass wasting is the movement of weathered materials down slope under the influence of gravity.
 When such movements occurs after the materials have been lubricated by rainwater or water from
melting snow, it is referred to as Mass movement.
5.3.1. Types of mass wasting
 Soil creep This is a slow ,almost continuous movement of soil that is lubricated by water on a
gentle slope. Speed of movement is slow
 Earth flow: thisis movement of weathered soil over a slope after lubrication from moderate rain
fall speed of movement is low.
  SolifluctionThis is the movement of saturated soil, gravel and weathered rock materials down a
moderate slope. Solifluction occurs on mountain slopes and areas that experience cold climate.
speed of movement is rapid
 Mud flow :this is movement of soil over a slope after lubrication from heavy rain fall. Speed of
movement is rapid
 Land slide: this is a sudden movement of large quantities of loosened materials dawn a steep
mountain slope .speed of movement is rapid.
 Rock slide: This movement involves a mass of rock which slides down on a gentle slope.
 Rockfall: It involves individual rocks that fall or roll freely from a steep slope or a vertical slope
like a cliff.

NOTE: Mass wasting is classified into two major categories: and

 Slow movement includes soil creep, solifluction
 Rapid movement includes Mudflow,earthflow,landslide,Rockslide,Rockfall

5.3.2. Causes of mass wasting

 Nature and the weight of weathered materials: large rocks are likely to be overcome by gravity
more easily than fine weathered materials
 Amount of water: the more the saturated the material is,the more likely it is to move.
 Climate: The amount and nature of rainfall received in an area determines the kind of movement that
occurs. Areas which receive heavy rainfall experience landslides.
 The angle of the slope:The steeper the slope, the faster the movement. On gentle slopes, movement is
slower
 Vegetation : help to hold rock materials together thus reducing their movement on the surface
 Human activities such as cultivation,grazing animals, mining,road construction,moving of trains
accelerate the rate of mass wasting.
 Tectonic movements: Earthquake and Volcanic eruptions cause vibrations of the earth which often
trigger off widespread movements of materials such as landslides.

5.3.3 Effects of mass wasting to man

 Mass wasting leads to loss of lives
  Displacement of people
 Destruction of properties
 It blocks river channel
 They block roads
 Underground minerals can be exposed by mass wasting
 Soil may become infertile
 Mass wasting causes a temporary landslide dammed lake
 Mass wasting leads to flooding.

UNIT 6: RELIEF IN RWANDA

6.1. GENERAL PRESENTATION OF RWANDA
(Location, size, administrative subdivisions, and population)
a. Location
Rwanda is a small landlocked country located in the Great Lakes region of east and central Africa.
 Astronomical location (coordinates):
 Latitude: Rwanda is located between 1°04’S and 2°51’S of Equator,
 Longitude: Rwanda is located between 28°53’E and 30°53’E of Greenwich.
 Geographical location: Neighbouring countries of Rwanda are:
Burundi in the South
Tanzania in the East
Uganda in the North
DR Congo in the West

b. Size of Rwanda.
Rwanda’s total area is about 26,338 square kilometres. The country is smaller than the neighbouring
countries. It is the smallest country in Eastern and Central Africa.

c) Administrative sub-division of Rwanda

Rwanda is sub-divided into thirty districts. The districts are found in five provinces. The districts are further
sub-divided into sectors, cells and villages

d.Population of Rwanda
According to the general population and housing census carried out on August,2022 the total population of
Rwanda is 13,747,932people

6.2. RWANDA, A LANDLOCKED COUNTRY

1. Definition of a landlocked country
A landlocked country is a country which has no direct access to the sea/ocean.
 Activity: Using an Atlas, List down all landlocked countries in Africa.

2. Disadvantages of being landlocked

 It delays delivery goods either imported or exported
 Good’s transportation can be damaged
 Lack of access to fishing and oceanic food sources
 High transportation and transit costs
 Overdependencce on neighbouring transit costs
 Military limitations because of the lack of naval options
  It may become expensive especially through payments at border posts.
 Landlocked countries have higher costs of international cargo transportation as compared to coastal
countries.

3. Possible solutions of being landlocked

 Rwanda has made agreements on getting lower transport charges for goods through neighbour
countries.
 The United Nations has a law that protects landlocked countries from high taxation when accessing to
and from the sea.
 Rwanda is improving the quality of the roads
 Rwanda is improving energy supply and internet access to improve the flow of information.
 Rwanda depends on good political relations with transit countries.

6.3.THE MAJOR FORMS OR RELIEF OF RWANDA

The Rwandan relief is hilly and mountainous with low altitude of 900m(BUGARAMA PLAIN) and high
altitude of 4,507m at( KILISIMBI VOLCANO) above sea level.

Rwanda is divided into six topographical/physiographic regions, These include:

In general, the major relief regions in Rwanda are:
a) The Bugarama plain region
b) The central plateau region
c) The Eastern plains region
d) The Congo-Nile crest region
e) The slopes and Banks of Kivu Lake
f) The Volcanic region

i. The Bugarama plain (Below 900m above sea level):

The Bugarama plain (Below 900 m above sea level) This is a plain blocked by volcanic intrusions and crossed
by river Rusizi. In this plain, there is old Alluvial deposits of sedimentary rocks. This is the lowest region of
the country.

ii. The Eastern plains (1000-1500m above sea level)

It is also referred to as Eastern lowlands. It borders the central plateau and extends to Uganda and Tanzania
borders. It has low lying hills with gentle slopes. It is dominated by plains.
It is occupied by rivers Akagera, Nyabarongo, Muvumba, and widespread Savannah vegetation.

iii. The central plateau (1500-2000m above sea level)

Its altitude varies between 1500m to 2000m above sea level. The region is dominated by gently sloping hills.
These hills have flat tops and elongated U-shaped valleys. It covers a large area of the country (over 80km in
width). This relief region is occupied by many hills where the connotation of “Rwanda of Thousand hills”
came from. It is extended between Congo-Nile crest and Eastern Lowlands.

iv. The slopes and banks of Kivu Lake (1460-3000m)

The slopes and Banks of Lake Kivu The altitude varies from 1460m to 3000m. The slopes are steep and
highly eroded by rain water. Streams and rivers flow towards Lake Kivu.

V. The Congo-Nile Crest(2500m-3000m above sea level):

 It is a divide of Rwandan water into two drainage basins: the Congo basin to the West and river Nile basin to
the East. The altitude varies between 2500m and 3000m above the sea level. The highlands have pointed
hilltops and V-shaped valleys .

vi. Volcanic Region (3000-4507m above sea level) : This is also known as the Birunga region.
The region is dominated by mountains of volcanic origin.
The major volcanoes in Rwanda are:
a) Karisimbi (4507m) is the most complex and highest of all the volcanoes in Rwandas.
b) Muhabura (4127m) is the youngest of all the volcanoes in Rwanda. It has a crater lake of about 100m
in diameter.
c) Bushokoro/ Bisoke (3711m) is a complex volcanic cone with the biggest crater Lake.
d) Sabyinyo (3634m) is the oldest and the most extinct of all the volcanoes in Rwanda. It is found in the
border between Uganda, Rwanda and DR Congo. It has no crater lake.
e) Gahinga (3474m) is the smallest of all the volcanoes in the Birunga chain. It has no Crater Lake.

NB: The volcanoes extend in DR Congo by Mikeno, Nyiragongo, Nyamuragira and Murara. The last three
volcanoes in DRC are still active.
 Order of volcanoes from biggest to the smallest can be abbreviated as KAMUBUSAGA
 Order of volcanoes from Northwest is abbreviated as KABUSAGAMU.

Relief map of Rwanda

6.4. Advantages and disadvantages of relief features in Rwanda.

 A. Advantages

1) Volcanic mountains provide fertile soils for agriculture to nearby population.

2) Human settlement is clearly visible on gentle slopes
3) Communication masts are constructed on hilltops and summits
4) Gentle slope hills are favour for road and airport construction, settlement
5) High mountains attract of rainfall
6) Relief features in Rwanda attract of tourists eg: Birunga Region that has gorillas.

B. Disadvantages of relief features in Rwanda.

1) Reliefs are obstacle to transport means it expensive to construct them

2) It hinders mechanical agriculture (using machine.
3) High steep mountain discourages settlement.
4) The low temperatures experienced on some of the mountains make human habitation impossible.

ACTIVITY: Draw a sketch map of Rwanda and indicate the major forms of relief in Rwanda.

UNIT 7: WEATHERING AND ROCKS

7.1. Definition of weathering.
 Weathering is the process of breakdown or disintegration and decomposition of rocks into
small particles near the earth’s surface.
Agents of weathering include temperature changes, rainfall (water), animals and plants (vegetation).
7.2. TYPES OF WEATHERING
There are mainly three types of weathering:
 Physical weathering,
 Chemical weathering, and
 Biological weathering.

1. PHYSICAL WEATHERING
 Physical weathering refers to the breakdown or disintegration of rocks, without any change
in the chemical or mineral composition of the rock being weathered.
 NOTE: Rocks disintegrate into smaller particles but maintain their previous chemical
characteristics. Only the physical size and shape change.
 The main agent of Physical weathering is mostly influenced by temperature changes.

The main types of physical weathering are:

i.Exfoliation
(ii) Block disintegration
(iii) Granular disintegration
(iv) Pressure release
(v) Frost action
(vi) Rainwater action

Types of physical weathering Description

a)Exfoliation(onion weathering)  Is the peeling off of a rock surface due to
alternate expansion of the outer layer.
  Thermal expansion of rocks during the day
and contraction during the night.
 It is common in arid and semi-arid regions.
 It is common to homogenous rocks
 Exfoliation dome: is a resultant rock
remained after peeling off the outer layer.
b)Block disintegration It takes place in jointed rocks ,expansion and
contraction leads the rock to disintegrate.
c)Granular disintegration It occurs in heterogenous rocks( rocks with
different chemical composition)
d)Frost action This is the action of ice on rocks. It occurs due to
repeated freezing and thawing of ice that has
accumulated in cracks of rocks.
e)Pressure release (unloading) This occurs when the rock is exposed by the
removal of the overlying rock by denudation.
This cause the cracking of exposed rock.
f)Rain water action(slaking)  During the wet season, the particles of clay
within the rock absorb moisture, making
them swell.
 When the dry season sets in the particles
loses much of this water causing them to
shrink.

7.2.2. Chemical weathering

This type of weathering involves changes in the chemical composition of the minerals making up the rock. All
or some of the constituent’s minerals undergo chemical changes. Its processes include
A.Processes of chemical weathering
Chemical weathering occurs in the following ways:
a) Hydrolysis
b) Oxidation
c) Solution
d) Carbonation
e) Hydration

i)Solution
This involves only dissolving of soluble rock minerals by rain or running water, leaving the insoluble rock
dug up with holes called sinkholes. This is common in the limestone area.

ii) Carbonation : Is very evident in limestone and chalk rocks.

As rainwater falls, it dissolves small quantities of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, forming a mild acid
called carbonic acid.
H2O +CO2 H2CO3 (weak carbonic acid)
This reacts with calcium carbonate (the limestone) to form calcium bicarbonate which is soluble in water.
CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca (HCO3)2
(Calcium bicarbonate)/Soluble
iii) Hydrolysis
This is where the positive hydrogen (H+) and the negative hydroxide ions (OH-) react with rock minerals led
to breaking of rock.
iv) Hydration
Is the process in which certain minerals in a rock take up water causing them to swell or expand.

v) Oxidation : This is a process in which the minerals in the rock combine with oxygen to form new
minerals.
E.g: 4FeO + O2 2Fe2O3

7.2.3. BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING

This is the breakdown of rocks due to the action of biological organisms, namely plants, animals and people.
In biological weathering, the rocks are broken down through mechanical or chemical processes.

7.3. Factors influencing weathering

1.Climate:
• In dry regions dominate the physical weathering while wet climate favour chemical weathering.
• High temperature and cold temperature favour physical weathering while precipitation encourages
chemical weathering.
2. Relief: the rate of physical weathering is higher on steep slopes than in gentle or flat slopes. In contrast,
the rate of chemical decomposition is higher on gentle and flat slopes than steep slopes.
3. Living organisms
 When they burrow they facilitate decomposition of rocks
 The waste materials of animals like urines are acidic and facilitate chemical weathering.
 When animals die, they compose and mix with rocks hence facilitates decomposition.
4.Human activities like agriculture, mining, quarrying, road transport facilitate weathering.

5.Rock structure: Soft rocks, for example break down more easily than hard rocks.

7.4. Relationship between weathering and different rock types

Different rock types have different structures. It is these structures that determine the rate of weathering. The
structure can be explained in terms of:
i) Rock permeability
ii) Mineral composition
iii) Joints in the rock
iv) Rock pH
v) Colour of the rock
i.Rock permeability: This is the ability of a rock to absorb water.
 Permeabe rocks are weathered easily than impermeable rocks.
 Where permeable rocks alternate with impermeable rocks, weathering by solution method occurs
hence grikes and clints formed in Limestone areas.
ii.Mineral composition:
 Rocks with uniform minerals expand and contract at the same rate. This may result into exfoliation
due to the peeling off of the outer layers uniformly.
 Rocks with different minerals get weathered differently. The minerals may have different abilities to
absorb water or heat. This causes them to disintegrate at different rates.

iii.Rock joints: Jointed rocks allow water and plant roots as well as small animals to pass through them.
unlike unjointed rocks.

iv.Rock pH:
  Acidic rocks are more resistant to chemical weathering but undergo physical weathering. An example
is a rock made up of granite.
 Alkaline rocks on the other hand are easily weathered chemically but are resistant to physical
weathering. An example is basalt.

v.Colour of the rock: Dark coloured rocks absorb heat faster than those which are generally bright coloured.
This makes them to be easily weathered through block disintegration. For example, Augite and olivine

UNIT 8: SOILS IN RWANDA

8.0.Introduction:
 Soil is the top material on the surface of the earth in which most of plant roots grow.
8.1.Components of soils are:
1 .Organic matter(results from decaying of plants and animals)
2 .Inorganic matter (derived from break up of rocks)
3 .Soil air
4 .Soil water

8.2. Types of soils in Rwanda

1. High land soils/Inceptisoils: Are found on the slopes mountains in the north west of Rwanda. The congo-
Nile crest and tops covered by forests have the best example of this soil.
2. Kaolisoils
This is the dominant soil type in Rwanda with presence of raised Kaolinite. It is specifically common in
central part of Rwanda. It is reddish, thick and is composed of iron oxide. It becomes water logged during the
rainy season
.
3. Valley soils
These are soils which form in valley floors of hills and mountains most especially river valleys. It forms from
old alluvial deposits.

4.Volcanic soils
These are formed from vulcanicity and rich in humus. They are found in volcanic regions of Rwanda. These
soils are more fertile for agriculture.

8.3. SOIL EROSION AND SOIL IMPOVERISHMENT IN RWANDA

 Soil erosion is the physical removal of top soil by agents of erosion( refer to unit 5)
 In Rwanda, the areas affected by severe erosion are the steep slopes of northern and western soil
regions.

 Soil impoverishment: refers to how the soils reduce productivity due to soil erosion.
ACTIVITY: How does heavy rain cause soil impoverishment?

a) Causes of soil erosion in Rwanda(refer to unit 5)

 Rapid population growth
 The presence of numerous steep slopes
 Poor methods of farming
 Indiscriminate cutting trees ( deforestation)on slopes.
 Swamp reclamation which lowers the water table and makes sols susceptible to erosion.
 Uncontrolled grazing (overstocking) in almost dry areas such as Umutara.
 Human activities such as mining,quarrying.....
 Mono -cropping reduces nutrients
 Heavy rainfall.

b) Effects of soil erosion in Rwanda

• Loss of soil fertility
• There is decline in crop yields (productivity)
• Famine is always rampant among the local people where there has been severe erosion
• Migration of people
• Destruction of natural vegetation cover
• Loss of lives due to landslide
• Water pollution
c) Soil conservation methods in Rwanda
o Application of fertilizes on poor soils
o Crop rotation: this involves of growing different crops at different times on the same piece of
land.
o Terracing of land; are cutting the right angle to the slope
o Afforestation and reforestation in grazing and mountainous regions
o Reducing the number of animals grazing in an area according to the carrying capacity of land.
o Planting of cover crops in an area where winds are strong and where rainfall is unreliable.
o Practicing agro-forestry especially in Eastern parts of the country.
o Mulching: covering the soil with crops remains, grass.
o Planting of grass and use of sand/stones on bare ground.

UNIT 9: CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN RWANDA

9.0.Introduction:
 Climate refers to the average weather condition of a place, measured and recorded over a very
long period of time usually 30-35years.
9.1.CLIMATIC REGIONS AND SEASONS IN RWANDA
9.1.1 Major climatic regions of Rwanda
The main 4 Four Climatic zones of Rwanda
a) Eastern lowlands
b) Central plateau
c) The Bugarama plains
d) Congo-Nile crest and Birunga regions, Highlands of Gicumbi

(a) Eastern lowlands : is one of the hottest areas in Rwanda. It has a mean annual temperature that ranges
between 22 - 24°C. The precipitation received in this area ranges between 800-1000mm. The high
temperatures are mainly due to the absence of dense vegetation due to unreliable rainfall and dry winds.

(b) Central plateau This climatic region receives rainfall that ranges between 1000 and 1400mm. The mean
annual temperature is between 19°C and 20°C. This region receives steady and moderate rainfall which has
supported the human activities that take place within the area.

(c) The Bugarama Plains:This climatic region receives rainfall amounts that are below 900mm. However,
the region averagely has an annual rainfall of about 1079mm. In this region, the average annual temperature is
about 24°C.

(d) The Congo Nile crest and the volcanoes :The Congo Nile crest, the volcanoes and highland areas of
Gicumbi, are the coldest areas in Rwanda. The mean annual temperatures here range between 15°C and 18°C.
The rainfall received here is mainly orographic rainfall (1200 - 1600 mm). It is in this area where the highest
rainfall is received - 2200mm mostly around the volcanic areas.

9.1.2.Types of seasons in Rwanda

Rwanda has 4 seasons , there are two wet seasons and two dry seasons in a year.
 Short rain season (umuhindo): This season falls within the months of September and December.
 Short dry season (urugaryi) This season lasts from end of December to early February.The rainfall
decreases and then disappear.
 Long rain season(Itumba): This season lasts from February to the end of May. The rainfall is heavy
and can continue for several hours.
 Long dry season(Icyi/impeshyi) From June to early September, the country experiences the first dry
season in the year.

9.2.THE CONCEPT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

9.2.0.Definition of climate change
 Climatic change is a large-scale, long term shift in the weather patterns.
For instance, the average temperatures over a large area of land may generally increases

A. Indicators/Evidences of climate change may be in terms of:

(i) Temperature changes
(ii) Changing rainfall patterns
(iii) Changes in seasons

9.2.1. Causes of climate change in Rwanda

a) Pollution : this is the contamination of air, soil, water and the environment in general. Air pollution is
the most rampant type of pollution in Rwanda. The main air pollutant is carbon dioxide, which is
emitted from industries and motor vehicles exhaust fumes
b) Human misuse of the environment : There are many types of human activities that directly cause
changes in climate.
 Deforestation
 Industrialisation
 Urbanisation
 Construction of dams or reservoirs
  Overstocking
 Growing crops such as rice under irrigation

9.2.2. Effects of climate change in Rwanda

 Drought
 Reduced hydro-electric power generation due to reduced water levels in rivers
 loss of livestock to starvation due to lack of pastures.
 Reduced food production as a result of less rain and little water
 Landslides
 Floods
 Aridity and desertification

9.2.3. Climate change adaptation and mitigation in Rwanda

1) Growing drought resistant crops such as cassava, yams, bananas, millet and sorghum
2) Recycling water from industries and home to ensure maximum usage of available water
3) Irrigating farms with available water to increase crop productivity
4) Afforestation on steep slopes prone to landslide
5) terracing and contour ploughing
6) Building barrier walls on slopes that often experience landslides.
7) Avoiding disposal of wastes in water channels.
8) Discouraging deforestation that increases surface runoff, causing siltation and subsequent flooding.
9) Advocating for a reduction of livestock numbers to reduce chances of overgrazing
10) Improving in farming methods to avoid the effects of monoculture and other methods of farming
11) Sensitizing on the public on the need for smaller families in order to reduce the need for more housing
12) Subsidising alternative source of energy to substitute the use of the charcoal and firewood.

UNIT 10.VEGETATON IN RWANDA

10.0.Introduction
Definition of vegetation.
 Vegetation is a community of plants that covers the earth’s surface.
10.1 Types of natural vegetation in Rwanda
Natural vegetation is the plant life that grows in a place as a result of natural factors. These factors include the
amount of rainfall received, the nature of soils and temperatures among other natural factors.

Natural vegetation in Rwanda can be divided into four main categories. These are:
 Mountain forests
 Savanna woodlands
 Savanna grasslands
 Riverine vegetation and marshlands

i.Mountain forests
The mountain forests are found in the mountainous western part of the country. The largest areas of these
forests are the Nyungwe Forest National Park and the Volcanoes National Park. They are true rainforests
which have more than 200 species of trees, bamboos and a variety of flowering plants.

ii.Savanna woodlands The largest areas in Rwanda that are covered with woodland type of vegetation are the
plains in the southern parts of Rwanda and Bugesera District. The vegetation in the woodlands is characterised by
hardwood type of trees that are medium height and short scrubs that have many shoots from one stem.
iii.Savanna grasslands Savanna grasslands are found on the lower slopes including the hills in the central part of
the country. These zones have natural vegetation that consists of thick, tall highland grass with scattered trees.
Much of the grasslands are grazing areas for livestock while part of the areas is the Akagera National Park.

iv.Riverine vegetation and marshlands This type of vegetation is found in wetland areas such as Rugezi swamp
(Burera District) and along rivers, including Akagera, Nyabarongo, Rusizi and other smaller river valleys. The
vegetation consists of lowland forests and papyrus swamps. Parts of the wetlands are threatened by invasive
plants such as water hyacinth. These plants grow rapidly, covering the top surface of the water and replacing the
original vegetation.

10.2 Factors that influence vegetation distribution in Rwanda

There are four main categories of factors that influence vegetation in Rwanda. These are:
(i) Climatic factors
(ii) Topographical factors
(iii) Edaphic or soil related factors
(iv) Biological factors

(i) Climatic factors :The main climatic factors that influence vegetation in Rwanda are rainfall and
temperature.
(ii) Topographical factors: The very steep slopes on the mountains in Rwanda have scarce vegetation.
This is because they lack sufficient soil to support plant growth. However, the gentle slopes are
covered with forests. Flat areas and river valleys have thick swamp vegetation that is supported by the
water from the rivers.
(iii) Edaphic or soil related factors The slopes of the mountains and hills in Rwanda have deep fertile
soils that support thick forests. The soils in the swampy areas support plants that survive in
waterlogged soils. These include papyrus plants and water weeds.
(iv) Biological factors These factors include the effect of animal and human activities on the vegetation

10.3. Importance of different vegetation types.

1. Forests provide timber as rwa materialin manufacturing furnitures
2. Forests are source of rain formation
3. Trees are used as wood fuel eg: charcoal,firewood
4. Forests promote tourism
5. Forests are source of oxygen
6. Some wild animals live in woodlands
7. Savanna areas promote wild game conservation eg: Akagera National park
8. Grasslands promote pasture for livestock
9. Papyrus are used in Handcraft making
10. Forests are rich reservoirs of research materials
11. Forests are important in regulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
12. The presence of forests and forestry activities has led to the development of infrastructure, such as
roads, in the neighbouring areas.
13. Forestry as an industry provides employment to many people such as forest guards,
14. There is bee keeping and collecting of medicinal herbs in the woodlands

10.4. Impacts of man’s activities on Vegetation in Rwanda.

• High demand for land: people are forced to settle and farm in any available land including the steep
hill slopes
 • Original vegetation has been cleared to give room for farming and settlement.
• Former forests areas are currently farms and homesteads

What were the causes of the original vegetation deterioration in Rwanda?

 Deliberate or accidental fire
 Settlement extension
 Demand for wood, charcoal
 Deforestation for pasture
 Search of medicinal plants

10.5. Measures to conserve natural vegetation in Rwanda.

• Afforestation and reforestation programmes by Increasing the forest cover by planting trees
• The government increase the number of protected areas (forest reserves) and promote tree plantation
• Imposing strict laws that punish those found cutting trees illegally
• Agro-forestry programme encouraging farmers to plant trees within their farms.
• Educating the masses on the importance of forest conservation.
• Provision of alternative source of energy such as biogas
• Establishment policies institutions to monitor existing forests eg REMA (Rwanda Environment
Management Authority).
UNIT 11: DRAINAGE IN RWANDA
Introduction
 Drainage is the total network of waterbodies over the surface of the earth.
 Waterbodies: A waterbody is any significant accumulation of water on the earth’s surface.
Examples of waterbodies in Rwanda include: Rivers,Lakes,swamps. etc
11.1. MAJOR RIVERS, LAKES , SWAMPS IN RWANDA
A. RIVERS IN RWANDA
A river is a mass of water flowing in a defined channel.
 A river takes a definite direction from its source to the mouth.
 Rivers originate from highlands, forests and wetlands such as swamps.
 Small rivers are called streams.
 Rivers may be permanent or seasonal

11.1.1. Rivers flowing towards the Nile basin

1. River Nyabarongo: River Nyabarongo emerges from Nyungwe National Park with its source,
Mwogo River
2. Akagera: River Akagera begins from the juncture or confluence of river Nyabarongo and Akanyaru.

11.1.2. Rivers flowing towards the Congo basin

Rivers flowing into Lake Kivu: Kivu lake is nourished by many small rivers coming down from the western
side of the congo-nile watershed. The main affluent are:

1. Sebeya (its tributary Pfunda which have their source from Gishwati forest
2. Koko (its tributary Kore with their source in Rutsiro)
3. Kilimbi (its tributary Matovu from Nyungwe forest),
4. Karundura (from Mount Nyagasi in Nyungwe forest),
5. Kamiranzovu from Kamiranzovu swamp of Nyungwe national park.
River Rusizi is the only one outlet of Lake Kivu and it flows southwards to Lake Tanganyika and finally
through River Lukuga to river congo.

11.2. LAKES IN RWANDA

1.Definition of a lake
 A lake is mass of water that occupies a large depression on the ground.
Lakes are either natural or human-made.

2.Major Lakes in Rwanda

 Lake Kivu in the Western Province
 Lake Burera and Ruhondo in the Northern Province
 Lake Muhazi,Mugesera,Sake,Rweru,Cyohoha,Ihema, Nasho,Hago and others in the Eastern
province.
3.Formation of lakes in Rwanda.
Lakes are formed by a variety of processes which include:
a) Tectonic or earth movements
b) Vulcanicity
c) River deposition
d) Human activities
11.2.1. Lakes formed due to tectonic or earth movements
a)Lakes formed due to faulting
 These are also called graben lakes.
 They were formed when secondary faults deepened in the middle part of the rift valley. Later on, the
depressions were occupied by water hence forming lakes such as Lake Kivu.

b)Lakes formed due to down warping.

These lakes formed when the down warped areas of the Eastern Province formed small depressions that were
later on occupied by water to form depression lakes. They include Lakes Mugesera, Sake, Muhazi etc.

2.2.Lakes formed due to vulcanicity

a) Lava dammed lakes
The lava dammed lakes were formed when lava flowed and cut across the valleys blocking the rivers. Water
formed behind the barriers and created lakes, for example Lakes Burera and Ruhondo.

b) Crater or caldera lakes

Crater lakes are formed when the depression that is formed after magma in the vent subsides is occupied with
water. In Rwanda, there are crater lakes on the Muhabura and Karisimbi volcanic mountains.
A crater lake in Rwanda is found on Mt Bisoke.

2.3.Lakes formed due to river deposition

a) Lake due to alluvial deposits (back ponding of rivers)
These lakes were formed as a result of valley flooding and river reversal or back ponding. Examples include
Lakes Ihema, Nasho, Rweru, Rwanyakizinga, Hago among others. They are mostly found in the Eastern
Province

b)Oxbow-lakes
Ox-bow Lakes are formed when a meander loop of a river on a flood plain is cut off from the main river.
2.4.Human-made lakes.
These are lakes formed by humans in the process of valley damming, generation of hydroelectric power or
storing water for rice growing. The dam is built or a concrete wall is constructed across a valley and blocking
the flow of a river, forcing the water to back pond hence forming a man-made lake.
An example is Lake Kabgayi in the Southern Province.

11.3.SWAMPS IN RWANDA
A swamp is a low lying area that is seasonally or permanent covered by water.
It is also referred to as a marshl/wetland.
Major swamps in Rwanda
 Rugezi in Burera district
 Kamiranzovu swamp in Nyungwe forest
 Along River Akanyaru,Nyabarongo,Akagera.

11.4.Importance of water bodies in Rwanda

1. Water from rivers,lakes, swamps are used for domestic and industrial purposes.
2. Water from rivers ,lakes are used for irrigation
3. Generating Hydro-electric power energy
4. Water transport in some rivers,lakes
5. Promote fishing in some lakes,rivers
6. Waterbodies attract tourism hence foreign exchange
7. Development of recreational facilities like swimming
8. Lakes may favour the development of inland ports particularly in deep sheltered waters
9. They favour the development of crafts industry
10. They encourage mining industry like peat coal, clay and sand etc. due to deposition and methane gas
from Lake Kivu

11.5. Challenges to obtaining sustainable and clean water in Rwanda

 They lack also adequate infrastructure to harvest and store water.

 Climate change has contributed to degradation of water bodies with a decrease in amount and
quality of water.
 The conversion of wetlands to agriculture farms has increased rapidly due to scarcity of farmland.
 excessive use of fertilisers, chemicals, pesticides run into lakes and rivers.
 Pollution caused by domestic and wastes from industries
 Urbanisation have led to lowering water infiltration and increasing runoff.
11.6. Conservation and management methods of water bodies in Rwanda.
A.Water management refers to the effective planning and control of the processes and activities that are
likely to cause worsening of water resources.

 Increasing capture and storage of rainwater to ensure availability of water

 Organising focused awareness campaign that simplifies the need for sustainable use of water
resources.
 Involving water users including gender groups, administrator and non-governmental organizations in
water resources management.
 Enforcing laws against destruction of water resources

B.Water conservation
This is the protection and preservation of water resources from destruction or wastage. Water can be
conserved through:
 Recycling/ re-using of water.
 Treating or disinfecting community wells and boreholes during drought and floods events to
maintain water quality.
 Removing invasive plants
 Promoting community empowerment initiatives through high value economic activities such as
fishing, beekeeping
 Protecting water catchment areas.

UNIT 12: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION IN RWANDA

12.1 . Definition of environmental resources, environmental conservation, environmental
degradation.
 Environmental resources refer to what exist within the environment that can be exploited for use by
human being. (Soil, mineral water and vegetation)

 Environmental conservation refers to the protection and preservation of natural resources from
destruction,wastage and loss.

 Environmental degradation: refers to the processes that lead to damaging or destroying the
environment.

12.2 . Types of environmental resources in Rwanda.

Rwanda has many different types of resources. They are both living and non-living.
 Land, soil, minerals, air and water are non-living resources.
 Vegetation and animals are living resources.

12.3 . Ways of exploiting environmental resources.

1. Land: Have national forest reserves, wildlife conservation parks, protected water catchment areas,
national wetlands and areas of urban settlement.
2. Soil: farming (crops farming and livestock keeping), mining, settlement, industrial establishment.
3. Vegetation: Forests reserves, national parks, grass provide pasture, trees provide timber and other
building materials.
4. Wildlife: tourist attractions and enable the country to earn foreign exchange.
5. Water resources: provide water for human and animal use, used in agriculture activities, used as
industrial coolant, used as fishing grounds, generate HEP.
12.4. Causes and consequences (effects) of over-exploitation of environmental resources.
Resources Causes of over-exploitation Consequences of over-exploitation

Land High population which are small scale Soil infertility

farmers
Forests  High population Reduced areas under forest
 Demand for firewood
 Demand for building materials
Animals  Killing of animals  Disappearance of some animal
 Poaching species
 Reduce in numbers of animals
Fish  Use net which catch all the fish  Fish breeding process stops
both young and mature ones  It is dangerous to use such water for
 Poisoning as fishing method. bathing or cooking.

Wetlands Wetland has dried up or reclaimed due to Shortage of water

scarcity of land

12.5. Environmental conservation measures (ways of upgrading the environment).

A. Land conservation measures
(i) Using good farming practices
(ii) Proper planning of land use
(iii) Protection of water catchment areas
(iv) Planting trees in the farms (agro-forestry)
(v) Controlling of forest fires
B. Water conservation measures
(i) Avoiding to discharge waste materials into water bodies
(ii) Protecting the vegetation around the sources of rivers
(iii) Avoiding wastage of water
(iv) Controlling soil erosion
(v) Harvesting and conserving rain water
(vi) Building dams to hold storms water.

C. Conserving wildlife
(i) Avoid poaching
(ii) Planting forest

UNIT 13: POPULATION IN RWANDA

13.0. Introduction
Key terms in population study
 Population is the number of people living in an area at a given time.
 Population census: is the process of officially counting the country’s population.
Note: According to the population census of August 2022,The population of Rwanda is 13,246,394.
 Demography is the study of population

13.1.POPULATION DENSITY AND POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

13.1.1.POPULATION DENSITY
 Population density refers to the number of people living on a square kilometre.
It is calculated by the formula,

Example: An area of 100sq.km has a population of 21,000 people. Find the population density.

13.1.2.POPULATION DISTRIBUTION.
 Population distribution refers to how people are settled or spread out in the
country.

13.1.1.FACTORS INFLUENCING POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN RWANDA

The factors that influence population distribution in Rwanda are categorised into two. They
are physical factors and human factors.

Physical factors
(a) Climate . A place with a favourable climatic conditions attracts settlements and has a high
population. Dry climatic conditions are associated with lack of food and famine. Places
with such conditions are less attractive and tend to have low populations.

(b) Relief Areas with steep slopes tend to have low populations compared to Flat areas are
easier to build homes .

(c) Soils Areas with fertile soils are able to support agriculture. Such areas tend to attract
many people who settle in those areas. Areas with less fertile soils push away settlements.

(d) Vegetation The thick forests of Nyungwe, Akagera, and Gishwati scare some people from
settling around such areas. In most cases such areas are conservation reserves where
settlement is not allowed. On the other hand, savanna grassland areas tend to attract heavy
settlements.

Human factors
(a) Urbanisation This has contributed a lot to the distribution of population in Rwanda. Many
people through rural-urban migration settle in towns and cities or around them. This
completely leaves the rural areas depopulated.

(b) Government policy: In Rwanda, there is a government policy under the land reform
program where people are resettled in demarcated areas locally known imidugudu. Other areas
are left unsettled for agriculture and reserves such as National Parks.
(c) Transport and communication facilities attract settlements. This is usually due to the
economic benefits associated with them. On the other hand, remote areas with no transport
and communication infrastructure do not attract settlements.

13.2. POPULATION STRUCTURE IN RWANDA

 Population structure is the composition of the population in terms of age and gender ( sex
groupings).
 Population pyramid is a diagram drawn by plotting two bar graphs, one for males and another
for females side by side.
From the study of population structure of RWANDA,
0-17: Young dependents
18-64: Working population ( labour force)
65-above: Ageing population

This type of graph is called an age-sex pyramid

The following are some ;[-p;-p-;lp-- the conclusions that can be made from the pyramid above:
a. The pyramid is broad at the base and gradually becomes narrow towards the top. This means that
Rwanda populations has a large number of young people. (high birth rates)
 b. There are many children whose age is 0 to 4years. This is indicate that population that is growing
rapidly.
c. 0 to 20 years. These are mainly children and the school going age that depend on their parents and
guardians for all their needs. (high dependence ratio)
d. The old people who are over 70 years are few. From this age upwards,

13.3. POPULATION MOVEMENTS /MIGRATION IN RWANDA

 Population migration is the movement of people from one place to another.

1.Types of migration
a. Internal migration: when migration occurs within the same country.
Internal migration is in form of :
a. Rural to rural migration
b. Rural to urban migration
c. Urban to rural migration
d. Urban to urban migration

b. External migration: When migration is across the country’s borders, also termed as emigration.

2.Causes of migration in Rwanda

 Search of employment opportunities
 Political instability
 Population pressure
 Natural calamities
 Search for better health care
 Government policy
 Search for pasture and water

3.Effects of migrations
 Shortage of labour in rural areas
 High levels of employment
 Increased market for goods and services
 Development of slums
 Increase in crime rate such as prostitution ,pick-pocketing, robbery.
 Environmental degradation

13.4. POPULATION GROWTH

 Population growth: means increase in the number of people in an area over a given period of time.

a) Causes of high population growth in Rwanda

 Early marriages
 Culture and prestige
 Improved health care and standards of life
 High fertility rate.
 Low levels of education
 Migration into the country
b)Problems associated with population growth in Rwanda.
 Pressure on land
 Land fragmentation
 Declined soil fertility
 High expenditure by the government.
 c)Possible solutions to population growth in Rwanda
 1. family planning programs.
 2.Discouraging early marriages.
 3. Encouraging celibacy
 4. Advocating for small families.
 5.Discouraging prostitution

13.5.Impact of early sex,health risks,HIV/AIDS,STDS in Rwanda.

 Getting unplanned pregnancies
 Complications during pregnancy
 Incomplete education
 Unemployment
 Emotional traumas.
B.Possible prevention measures to the impact of early sex,health risks,HIV/AIDS
 Educating young people on preventive measures
 Introducing topic on STDs and sex education
 Establishing more health care centres such as CENTER FOR CONTROL AND
PREVENTION.
 To ensure unborn baby will not be infected.

13.6. DEMOGRAPHIC PROBLEMS IN RWANDA AND THEIR SOLUTIONS

PROBLEMS POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

1.High fertility rate Family planning measures

2.High birth rate To control the number of children born in a family

3.High death rate(low life expectancy) Better medical facilities in all parts of country.
4.High dependency ratio To reduce birth rate, job creation

5.High levels of poverty Creation of more employment opportunities

6.Low levels of education Education for all
7. High population pressure Lowering birth rate

8.High incidents of diseases Undertake diseases preventive measures

Improved medical facilities.

UNIT 14: RURAL AND URBAN SETTLEMENT IN RWANDA

14.0. INTRODUCTION
 A settlement refers to a place where people live and establish their homes.
There are 2 basic types/categories of settlements
 Rural settlement
 Urban settlement

14.1 .RURAL SETTLEMENT IN RWANDA

  Rural settlements are villages occupied by the people involved in Primary production such as
subsistence agriculture.
14.1.1 Types of rural settlements
a. Nucleated settlements: This is where houses are concentrated in one place without proper arrangement.
They are often linked by roads or foot paths.
b. Linear settlement: This is where houses are arranged along transport and communication lines like along
the main roads in Rwanda.
c. Isolated settlement: This is a type of settlement which is characterized by few houses are too remote or
very far from other settlements. Eg; In national parks like Akagera game lodge,tourists resorts in Birunga
National Park.
d. Sparsed or scattered settlements: This is where houses are fairly distributed away from each other .
Examples are found in some parts of the Eastern province. It is also known as Dispersed settlement.
e. Grouped/planned settlement pattern: This is a well planned settlement by the Government. It is also
known as UMUDUGUDU. These settlements are linked to each other by feeder roads from the main
roads.

Scattered settlement linear settlement Nucleated settlement

14.1.2. Characteristics of rural Settlements

Rural settlement is characterized by:
• The major economic activity carried out is agriculture.
• Low quality transport routes (murram roads, tracks and footpaths)
• Limited or absence of electricity
• Low grade health services and facilities
• Low percentage of population using clean water
• High illiteracy rates.

14.1.3.Problems affecting rural settlements and their solutions

Problems
1. Inadequate basic social facilities for the population
2. The rural to urban migration results to shortage of labour in the farms
3. Deteriorating soil fertility due to poor farming methods that has caused decline in agricultural
production
4. Encroachment onto forested areas reducing the forest cover
5. Few income generating activities leading to increased poverty levels
 6. Easy spread of diseases
Solutions
1. Establishing regrouped settlement through imidugudus
2. Improving the basic infrastructure and services such as water supply, transport lines
3. Introduction of Rural electrification programmes.
4. Improving agricultural production
5. creation of other income generating activities
6. Mass education on environmental conservation.
7. control unplanned rural settlements
Note: Rural electrification refers to the process of spreading electricity in rural areas.

14.1. 4 . Advantages and disadvantages of rural settlement schemes (Imidugudu)

A. Advantages of rural settlement schemes
1. Social services such as schools, hospitals can easily be provided.
2. Unity and reconciliation can be ensured
3. Security can be easily guaranteed to the people
4. Easy provision of transport and communication services
5. It ensures effective utilisation of land.
6. Easy flow of information and communication.
B. Disadvantages of rural settlement schemes
1. There is no privacy because the houses are close to each other
2. There is a risk of environmental degradation
3. Easy spread of diseases (in case of an outbreak of disease like Cholera, typhoid, HIV/AIDS)
4. Massive destruction of properties and lives in case of fire outbreak,flooding.
5. Shortage of social services like medical services, schools among others.
6. Lack of land for expansion the building.

14.2. URBAN SETTLEMENT

 Urbanisation: means the growth and spread of towns.
14.2.1 . Major urban centres in Rwanda
Main city: Kigali
Secondary towns:
 Huye Muhanga,
 Rubavu,Musanze
 Nyagatare, Rusizi

N.B: Urban centres are spread in all five provinces. The major cities are headquarters of the province
/districts.
 14.2.2 . Major characteristics of urban centres/settlement
• They are built-up areas with tall buildings
• They have high population compared to rural areas.
• They have traffic congestion especially during rush hours
• Mobility of people is high
• Secondary and tertiary activities are dominant
• Some are situated in areas where a number of roads converge.
• Settlements range from very low costs to high costs housing units.

14.2.3. Functions of urban centres in Rwanda

a) Functions of Kigali city

1. It is an administrative centre, and serves as the national capital. The main residence and offices of
the President of Rwanda are located here. Offices for various Government Ministries are also found
here.

2. It is a residential centre with different classes of residential zones.

3. It is a transport and communication centre. It is a focus of roads and has an International airport.

4. It is a financial centre, with major banks and insurance companies such as Bank of Kigali, Equity
Bank, Kenya Commercial Bank, and Soras Insurance Company.

5. It is a recreational and cultural centre with museums, national stadium, several hotels and clubs.
 6. It is an educational centre with several primary and secondary schools, universities such as
University of Rwanda.

ADMINISTRATIVE
CENTRE
RESIDENTIAL
CENTRE

EDUCATIONAL
Functions CENTRE
FINANCIAL
CENTRE
of Kigali
city

RECREATIONAL
TRANSPORT AND AND CURTURAL
COMMUNICATION CENTRE
CENTRE

Fig. Summary of functions of Kigali city.

b)Functions of other Urban centres of Rwanda(HUYE,RUBAVU,MUSANZE)

 They are residential centre.
 They are administrative centres.
 They are transport and communication centre.
 HUYE, It is an educational centre, with primary and secondary schools. For instance, it houses the
University of Rwanda and Rwandan National Institute of Scientific Research.
 HUYE, it is cultural centre it is where National Museum of Rwanda located.
 RUBAVU, It is a recreational and cultural centre with several Kivu beach hotels.
 MUSANZE, It is a major tourist destination for watching the unique mountain Gorillas, Musanze
caves

14.2.4. Factors influencing the growth of urban centres in Rwanda

• Rural –urban migration
• Growth industries
• Availability of transport and communication facilities
• The stability of the area
• Demand for goods and services
• Economic activities like trading
• Administrative activities
14.2.5. Problems faced by urban centres and their possible solutions
Problems
The following table presents a summary of the problems facing urban centres in Rwanda.
 PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS
Unemployment Setting up industries in rural areas to reduce
migration
Traffic congestion Construction of wide roads in the major towns
Development of slums Construction more housing units and upgrading old
ones
Inadequate social amenities Putting up social amenities in rural areas
High crime rate Creating job opportunities
Pollution 1. Improving garbage disposal through
treatment of wastes
2. Enforcing laws on disposal of litter
and dumping of sewage

Inadequate space in urban areas Building of skyscrapers to ease the problem of

accommodation

UNIT 15: AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS IN RWANDA

15.0.Definition
 Agriculture refers to the growing of crops and rearing of animals either for subsistence or for
commercial purposes.

15.1.Types of agriculture systems in Rwanda

15.1.1. Subsistence (traditional farming)

This refers to the growth of crops for home consumption. Food crops are dominant. Eg: Bananas,Sweet
potatoes, peas,Beans.
15.1.2.Commercial farming
This is where farmers grow crops or rearing animal for sale. Famers sell the crops and animals products to
earn income.
Crops grown on large scale for sale are called cash crops. They include coffee and tea.
15.1.3..Irrigation farming:
Irrigation refers to the adding water artificially on farms to grow crops during periods of inadequate rainfall.

15.2.Major crops produced in Rwanda (food crops and cash crops)

A.Food crops: maize, beans, rice, bananas, Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava, groundnuts, sorghum and
beans. Vegetables such as onions, cabbages and eggplants are also widely grown.

B.Cash crops: the main cash crops are tea and coffee.

15.3.AGRICULTURE MODERNIZATION
What is agriculture modernisation?
 Agricultural modernisation is the process of transforming the agricultural sector into one that is
technologically developed agriculture.
It involves the increase of using fertilizers, machinery and the planting of high yielding varieties of crops.

15.3.1.Factors favouring implementation of modernised agriculture

  training farmers on agricultural management
 working with private investors to fund agricultural practices
 Supplying input to farmers.
 Ready market for agricultural commodities
 Improved information on changes in weather
 Research on agriculture
 Farmers can get loans and financial advice through cooperatives .

15.3.2 Advantages of modernised agriculture

The advantages of modernised agriculture are:
(i) Improve the standard of living
(ii) Increased employment opportunities
(iii) Increased the production of raw materials for industries
(iv) Modern transport developed
(v) Country earn foreign exchange from export

15.3.3 Disadvantages of modernised agriculture

• The use of chemical fertiliser has negatively affected the environment.
• The use of pesticides kills some useful insects.
• Modern farming requires a lot of water particularly to irrigate the land.
• The use of certified seeds and new animal breeds may in the long run cause a decline in the
original (traditional) plants and animal species.
• A lot of funds are required to support modern agriculture.
• Intensive commercial farming and monoculture in large plantations causes impoverishment of
soil.
15.4. Impact of Agriculture on sustainable development of Rwanda
 Provide adequate food for the people
 Government gets revenue from agriculture
 Infrastructure development
 Foreign exchange from exports
 Employment opportunities
 Source of raw materials for industries
 Supply fodder and manure.

15.5.PLANTATION FARMING
 Plantation farming refers to the growing of a single crop for sale. This is called MONOCULTURE.
Most of crops grown on plantation in Rwanda are Tea and coffee.

15.5.1. The advantages and disadvantages of plantation farming in Rwanda

A.The advantages of plantation farming in Rwanda

• High level of mechanization increases productivity
• Specialization in production process leads to high quality products
• Plantations produce cash crops which provide foreign exchange through exports
• Plantation agriculture provide employment opportunities both skilled and semi-skilled.
• Plantation farming encourages industries (agro-based industries)
• Plantation agriculture provides market for agricultural machinery
• On some plantations, infrastructure such as roads, water supply and electricity have developed
 • Some plantations are research and demonstration centres for a wide range of crops

B.The disadvantages of plantation farming in Rwanda

• It requires heavy investment
• The cash crops use large land that could grow food for the local population
• Natural disasters such as drought, floods, pests and crop diseases may affect the crops
• Monoculture leads to soil exhaustion.
• Plantations are often affected by fluctuation of prices on the world market

15.6.Problems and solutions of agriculture in Rwanda

Problems Solutions
Low production due to drought - practicing of irrigation and
planting drought resistant crops.

Soil erosion -Encouraging the use of organic and

chemical fertlisers
-Encouraging mixing farming
-Practicing crop rotation
Occurrence of pest and spraying using insecticide,pesticides
diseases and on crops

Inadequate funds to buy farm inputs credit facilities and providing them with
such as certified seeds ,fertilizers subsidised farm inputs

Land fragmentation Practicing Land consolidation

Price fluctuation Adding value to the products
Poor transport network Improving and expanding transport and
communication network

15.7.LIVESTOCK FARMING
 Livestock farming is the rearing or keeping animals either for domestic or commercial purposes.

15.7.1.There are two type of livestock farming:

 Traditional (or subsistence) and
 Commercial livestock farming.
A.Traditional (subsistence) livestock farming
This is where farmers keep their animals mainly for family consumption.Products include eggs, milk, meat
and honey.

B.Commercial livestock farming.

Commercial livestock farming is divided into ranching and daily farming; their products are mainly for sale.

15.7.2.. Ranching
 Ranching is a method of farming where livestock is reared in extensive farms.
A.Characteristics of ranching
 Animal are kept mainly for production of milk of meat and for sale
  Animals graze on natural pastures in the ranches
 The ranches are supplied with sufficient water
 The ranches are divided into paddocks
 Cross breeding is done to improve the quality of the animals

15.7.3. Dairy farming

 Dairy farming is a type of farming where the cattle are reared for milk and its products such as
cheese, butter, yoghurt and others.
B. Characteristics of Dairy farming
 Animals are mainly kept for production of milk
 It can be small or large scale
 Farmers grow fodder crops and use manufactured feeds to boost milk production
 Reproduction is facilitated through artificial insemination
 Animals are well cared for to avoid attacks by parasites and diseases
 Most small scale dairy farmers practice zero grazing
 Exotic breeds are kept such as Friesian, Jersey, Ayrshire and Guernsey
NOTE:
 Zero grazing is the form of rearing where by animals are kept in closed room and provided with
feeds and water.
 Exotic breeds refers to the cattle belong to a foreign land which are imported from other countries.

15.7.4. Keeping of small animals

 Small animals that are commonly kept in homes include pigs, goats, sheep, rabbits, chicken and
bees.
Factors affecting the keeping of small animals
 Favourable climate :livestock such goads pigs, hens and rabbits survive range in a wage range of
climate.
 Relief: in high relief is favourable for rearing pigs
 Government policy: government support rearing animals.
 Traditions of the people: many Rwandans have always had one or more animals kept at home.
 Land : because of increase of population ,the land does not enough ,this led to the reduction of small
animals.
 Availability of pasture: small animal need a small piece of land.
15.7.5 . Problems facing livestock farming in Rwanda

(a) Harsh climatic conditions especially during the dry seasons when the pasture dries up, wells and springs
disappear.
(b) Inadequate capital to modernise livestock keeping.
(c) Lack of sufficient markets for the products from the livestock.
(d) Shortage of supply of skilled labour that is required in the modernisation of livestock farming.
(e) Poor transport networks and facilities.
(f) Pests and diseases which affect the animals.
(g) The general lack of pasture has affected livestock farming in Rwanda.
(i) There is overstocking of animals in some farms leading to severe soil erosion.
(j) Lack of veterinary services and facilities in some areas of the country.

(k) There is stiff competition from other countries such as Uganda, Kenya
(l) The farmers still keep indigenous cattle whose productivity is very poor.

15.7.5.2.Ways of improving livestock farming in Rwanda

 Educating farmers on better ways of taking care of livestock
 Setting demonstration farms to train farmers on modern methods of livestock farming
 Fostering cross-breeding with local and imported breeds
 To promote commercial livestock farming
 To improve transport and communication networks

UNIT 16: FORESTRY IN RWANDA

16.1.Definitions of forest, forestry and silviculture

 A Forest: is a large area that is covered by trees.
 Forestry: involves planting ,caring and using forests.
 Silviculture : is a practice of cultivation of trees.
 Lumbering: is harvesting or exploitation of forests for timber.

NOTE:
 Planting trees in an area where a forest has been destroyed is referred to as
reforestation.
 Planting trees in a place that had no forest before is referred to as
afforestation

16.2.Types of forests in Rwanda

There are two type of forest in Rwanda: natural forests and planted forests

A) Natural forests : these are not forests that are not planted by man. Eg: Nyungwe forest
B) Planted forests/artificial forests: these are forests planted by man.

16.2.1.Major forest areas in Rwanda.

a) Nyungwe Forest
(b) Gishwati Forest
(c) Mukura Forest
(d) Cyamudongo forest
(e) Birunga Forest
NOTE: The largest natural forest in Rwanda is Nyungwe forest.

A MAP SHOWING MAJOR FORESTS OF RWANDA.

16.3. Importance of forests in Rwanda
1) Forests provide timber
2) Forests are source of fuel for domestic purposes such as charcoal ,firewood
3) Forest trees act as wind breaks
4) Forest act as water catchment areas
5) Forests provide oxygen to living things
6) Forests provide habitat for wildlife
7) Forests generate a lot of foreign exchange
8) Many tree species are source of medicine
9) Forests promote tourism
10) Conservation of soils
11) Provision of timber for building and construction
12) A measure against climatic change / global warming
13) Forests act as research study area
14) Forests provide employment opportunities such as forest guards, tourist guides
15) Forests lead to the development of industries through lumbering.

16.4. THE CONCEPT OF DEFORESTATION.

A.Definition of deforestation
 Deforestation is the process of cutting down much trees .
B. Causes of deforestation
i. Rapid population growth
ii. Urbanisation
iii. High demand for timber and building materials
iv. Bush fires
 v. Climatic change
C. Effects of deforestation
 Flooding
 Landslides
 Soil erosion
 Shortage of wood raw material and fuels
 Climatic change

D.Control measures for deforestation

 Reduce population growth
 Increase the area of protected areas (forest reserves)
 Encouraging charcoal and timber substitutes
 Increase area of forest plantation
 Mass education about forest conservation.
 Land reforms
 Increase investments in research, education and extension .

16.5. Areas under the risk of deforestation in Rwanda

The following are some of areas under the risk of deforestation in Rwanda.
1. Gishwati due to resettlement of returning refugees
2. Volcanoes national park due to the demand for bamboo trees for furniture
3. Mukura forest due to highly risky
4. Bugesera woodland due to settle, agriculture and collect of firewood.

UNIT 17: FISHING AND FISH FARMING IN RWANDA

17.0.INTRODUCTION
 Fishing is the process of extracting fish from water bodies.
 Fish farming is an activity of rearing fish both in waterbodies or artificial ponds.
It is also referred to as Pisculture.
 Fishing areas/fishing grounds/fisheries: these are the areas where fishing is carried out.

17.1. Major fishing grounds and Fish farming areas in Rwanda

1) Lakes: apart from kivu, other large lakes are Muhazi, Mugesra, Rweru, Cyohoha, Burera and
Ruhondo
2) Rivers: Akagera, Nyabarongo, Akanyaru, Muvumba, Rusizi, Mukungwa, and Kagitumba
3) Wetland: mugesera, Rugezi,
4) Ponds: Rwasave

17.2. Factors influencing fish farming in Rwanda

(a) Existence of waterbodies such as rivers,lakes, wetlands and ponds.
(b) Availability of capital
(c) Availability of trained extension workers
(d) Availability of local and foreign markets
(e) Presence of nutritious fish species like tilapia that matures fast
(f) Presence of planktons (food for fish)
(g) Availability of fish processing industries
(h) Adequate transport means.
17.3. Methods of fishing used in Rwanda (traditional and modern)
(a) Poisoning method
(b) Spearing method
(c) Trapping’
(d) Hook method
(e) Basket method
(f) Gill method
(g) Line fishing method

a) Poisoning method.This involves putting poison in water so that the fish dies. People then collect the
dead fish. The disadvantage of using this method is that the poison may kill all the fish even the young
ones
b) Spearing method This method is used in shallow water where a spear is aimed at a fish and then it is
released to strike the fish.
c) Trapping This involves laying a trap on the path where fish passes. The trap is left in position for
several hours before one checks if any fish has been caught.
d) Hook method A string attached to a strong stick is tied to a hook on its other end. A bait is stuck to the
hook and the string thrown into the water. The fisherman holds the stick and waits to notice the string
being pulled as fish is caught and tries to free itself.

e) Basket method This involves laying baskets made of reeds in the water. The basket has a wide mouth
for getting in and a narrow mouth for getting out. Once the fish enters, it is not able to free itself since it
cannot find its way out.

f) Gill net method Large nets are attached to a boat. The boat then drags the net in the water and fish get
caught by the gills on the mesh of the net. The net is pulled into the boat to empty the catch and thrown
back in the water for another round.

g) Line fishing method : This involves using a long strong line with many hooks on which baits are
attached. Fish are caught as they try to eat the baits.

17.4. Importance of fish and fish farming in Rwanda

a) Fishing provides employment opportunities. They include fish processers, fishermen, fish mongers
and fish transporters.
(b) Fish is as source of food that is so rich in proteins.
(c) Fishing promotes both local and international trade
(d) Fishing promotes the growth and development of transport networks such as roads that connect
fishing grounds and market areas.
(e) The revenue collected by the government through taxes in the industry is used in the development
and provision of social services and facilities like schools and health centres.
(f) Fishing and fish are sources of income for people who are employed in the industry.
(g) Fishing provides markets for other products from various economic sectors. Fishermen buy food
stuffs from agriculture, timber from forestry and fishing gear and equipment from manufacturing
industries.
(h) Fishing and fish provide raw materials to different industries like animal feeds industries, fish
canning industries, fertiliser-processing and cosmetic industries.
(i) Fishing promotes tourism especially in areas of the country where it is carried out as a leisure activity
or for sports.
(k) development of towns. In Rwanda, Rubavu town developed out of fishing activities.
(m) Fish and fish products are a source of traditional medicines that are used by the people of Rwanda.
(n) The fishing industry has contributed to the development of other industries eg: boat construction
industries, fish processing industries and cosmetic industries.

17.5. Problems faced by fishing and fish farming in Rwanda and possible solutions
Problems
1. Over-exploitation of fish
2. Use of unregulated fishing net that catch all sizes of fish
3. Use traditional methods of catching fish (trap, spears, poisoning)
4. Pollution in the lakes, swamps and rivers
5. Inadequate internal market for fish
6. Poor breeds of fish farming.
7. Some fisheries have water weeds
8. Inadequate capital to invest in fish farming
9. Shortage of skilled manpower
10. Limited fish processing industries.

Solutions
a. Restocking of fisheries that have been depleted to increase the species and quantity of fish
b. Punishing fishermen found using the small meshed nets
c. Introducing better method of fishing to increase the
output
d. Enacting law against water pollution
e. Educating and sensitizing the local people on the value of eating fish
f. Rearing and exporting valuable fish
g. Improving preservation methods
h. Expanding supply of electricity for cooling systems to be installed
i. Clearing water weeds

17.6. FISH PRESERVARION AND CONSERVATION IN RWANDA

A. FISH PRESERVATION.
 Fish preservation is the keeping of caught for a long time waiting for consumption.

a) Traditional methods of fish preservation

1) Sun drying: The fish is split open and allowed to dry in the hot sun
2) Salting: This is where the fish is kept in a strong solution of salt
3) Smoking : Fish are dried by the smoke or directly hung above the fire. This is done to dehydrate
the fish by removing moisture from the fish.
 4) Deep frying: They are then dipped in boiling cooking oil until they become hard and dry.

b) Modern methods of fish preservation.

1) Fish freezing (Refrigeration): refrigerators can keep fish fresh for long time without decaying
and refrigerator vehicles can as well transport fish from the fishing ground to the market
2) Canning: this involves making use of metal cans for storing fish which is ready for
consumption .

B. FISH CONSERVATION
 Fish conservation refers to continuous making of fish to exist and breed in water.
Fish conservation includes the following:
 Hatching of fish in ponds and then they are taken to rivers and lakes (or oceans) to mature
 Limiting the size of gill net used and avoid catching young fish
 Restocking and introducing new fish species
 To avoid fishing poisoning
 Constant clearing of water bodies (preventing waters from pollution)
 Training and educating of the population near water bodies about practices of fishing

UNIT 18: MINING AND QUARRYING IN RWANDA

18.1 Definitions (mineral,mining and quarrying).

 A mineral is a naturally occurring solid substance found in rocks of the earth. Minerals are part of
natural resources in Rwanda
 Mining : refers to extraction of mineral resources from the ground. The place where minerals are dug
out or drilled is referred to as a mine.
 Quarrying: is extraction of building materials such as stones, gravel, sand and clay from the ground.

18.2 . MINERALS AND MINING AREAS IN RWANDA

Type of mineral Where it is found
(a) Cassiterite (Tin ore) etc. • Rwinkwavu(Kayonza),• Musha(Rwamagana)
Bugarama, Rutongo(Rulindo) Gatumba
(Ngororero)• Mwaka(Muhanga), • Rutsiro •
Bisesero(karongi)
(b) Coltan • Kabaya • Rutsiro • Ngoma • Nyagatare • Gatsibo •
Rubavu • Rusizi
(c) Natural and methane gas • Lake Kivu
(d) Gold • Nyungwe • Miyove in Gicumbi district •
Nyamasheke
(e) Limestone • Bugarama in Rusizi district
(f) Peat coal It is found in marshy areas along Rivers Akagera,
Akanyaru, Nyabarongo and around Lakes Burera,
Ruhondo
(g) Wolfram (Tungsten) • Rwinkwavu • Gatumba • Rutongo • Nyakabingo •
Bugarama • Gifurwe

18.3 METHODS OF MINING IN RWANDA.

 (a) Open cast mining / quarrying: This involves the removal of the upper layers of rock to get the mineral,
are and is used to mine tin, wolfram
(b) Underground/shaft mining method: This involves digging a tunnel under many layers of rock to get
mineral ore and is used to mine limestone, tungsten
(c) Placer mining method (alluvial): This involves mining a mineral ore that contains a lot of unwanted
rocks hence involve washing off the mud and other subsistence from the mineral are, it is common with
mining of cobalt. It is in two forms: panning and dredging.
(d) Drilling/drifting method: This involves the extraction of semi-liquid or gaseous mineral whereby pipes
are drilled into mineral bearing rock to extract the gaseous/liquid from mineral. It is used in extraction of
natural gas in Lake Kivu.

18.4 Factors influencing mineral exploitation in Rwanda.

(a) The size of mineral deposits Rwanda has few mineral resources.
(b) Mineral quality or grade The quality or grade of the mineral ore to be mined greatly influences mining.
(c) Type of minerals
(d) Availability of capital
(e) Availability of means of transport and communication
(f) Availability of adequate labour force
(g) The presence of reliable power supply.
(h) Favourable government policies
(i)The availability of technology
(j) Political climate
(k) Availability of markets

18.5. Importance of mining and quarrying in Rwanda.

(a) The mining sector earns the country foreign exchange through the export of minerals.
(b) The sector provides employment to the people who work in the mines thus providing them with a source
of income that improves their standards of living.
(c) The sector provides revenue to the government through taxation.
(d) Mining has led to the development of other industries which use the minerals as a raw material.
(e) Mining has led to the development of infrastructure such as roads in areas where mining takes place.
These infrastructure not only benefits the mines but also the surrounding communities.
(f) Mining has led to the development of social facilities such as schools and hospitals that are located near
the mining centres.
(h) Mining provides energy to the country through the provision of natural gas and peat coal.
(i) Mining has led to economic diversification. It has reduced the country’s overdependence on agriculture.
(j) Mining has promoted Rwanda’s relationship with other countries through trade, the presence of
foreign investors and expatriates.
k)Mining has led to the development of urban centres. Examples of urban centres that have developed as a
result of mining activities include Burera town ,Rulindo ,Gicumbi.

18.6.Problems hindering mining and quarrying in Rwanda.

(a) Some minerals are found in small deposit
(b) The country lack sufficient funds to explore and carry out mining
(c) Some valuable mineral are found in remote areas which are not easily accessible
(d) Shortage of qualified personnel to work in the mining industry
(e) The mineral may be found near built-up areas which if mined may be harmful to the health of the people
(f) Some corrupt people smuggle minerals out of Rwanda.

18.7.Effects of mining on the natural environment in Rwanda.

 Destruction of vegetation: This destruction of the vegetation leads to exposure of soil to erosion and in
some cases results to landslides
 Land dereliction: Open pits left behind after open cast mining causes permanent damage to the land
where the natural beauty of the landscape is lost. This is called land dereliction.
 Pollution: Mining activities pollute the environment during the removal and processing of minerals.
Smoke and dust particles are released into the air while poisonous industrial wastes are discharged .

18.8.Future prospects of mining and solutions to the problems affecting mining in Rwanda
 The government exploring for more minerals to reduce dependence on few minerals
 The government ensure to reduce the wasteful and careless mining methods
 The government plans to involve more people in the mining industry particularly women and youth.
 To train more Rwandan in various field such as mining technology, Geology, artisan and
entrepreneurship
 The government is expanding transport and communication network
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UNIT 19: POWER AND ENERGY IN RWANDA

19.0 Introduction
Energy is the power required to work. It is delivered from wind, water, petroleum, coal and natural gas among
other sources, mainly to provide light and heat or to drive machines.

19.1.Energy resources In Rwanda

Energy resources used in Rwanda include the following.
1. Hydroelectric power
2. Methane Gas
3. Biomass
4. Peat coal
5. Geothermal power
6. Biogas
7. Solar power
8. Oil(petroleum) this is not exploited in Rwanda, it is imported.
9. Wood fuels

(a) Hydroelectric power This is power that is generated from running water. A dam is constructed along a
river to store water. Fast moving water produces power used in the generation of electricity. Rwanda has
small and medium-size hydropower stations at Ntaruka, Mukungwa, Gihira in Rabavu District, Rukarara
and Nyabarongo.

(b) Solar energy This is energy derived from radiation from the sun. It is obtained by the use of solar panels
which directly transform sun light into electricity. The solar power station in Rwanda is located in Jali in
Gasabo District Kigali Province.

(c) Biogas Biogas is used in some homesteads and institutions in Rwanda. It is obtained from organic matter
such as cow dung.

(d) Biomass This is the energy produced from organic matter (plants and animals). It is used in the form of
firewood, charcoal or agricultural residues.

(e) Geothermal energy. is generated from natural heat in volcanically active areas. Temperatures in the
interior of the earth are very high. It is a reliable source of energy that supplements hydropower generation.
The main fields are Karisimbi, Rubavu, Kinigi and Bugarama.

(f) Oil This is a source of energy that involves the burning of fossil fuels especially oil or petroleum to run
generators. Since there is no oil in Rwanda, petroleum products in Rwanda are imported.
(g) Peat coal These are charcoal-like-material deposits that are under the earth’s surface. It is present in the
swamps of Eastern Province of Rwanda. It is extracted in the swampy areas of Kamiranzovu and along River
Akanyaru. An example of a peat extraction centre is the Gisagara peat power plant.

h)Methane gas The quantity of methane available in Lake Kivu is believed to be sufficient to power 700 MW
of electricity generation over a period of 55 years. Rwanda’s proportion is 350 MW (50%)

i)Wood Fuel This refers mainly to firewood and charcoal. It is a renewable source of energy. This is the most
common source of energy for cooking and heating. Use of wood fuel has put a lot of pressure to the existing
forest resources.

19.2.Renewable and non-renewable energy resources

There are two main groups of energy sources. These are:
(a) The renewable sources of energy
(b) The non-renewable sources of energy

 Renewable /continuous energy resources These are sources of energy that cannot be exhausted.
They have the capacity of refilling themselves after being used. The production of such energy is
endless because the energy is regenerated naturally .
 Non-renewable /finite energy resources are energy sources of power which cannot be replaced when
exhausted.

Using examples, Difference between Renewable and Non-Renewable energy resources used in Rwanda.

Renewable energy resources Non-renewable energy resources

(examples) (examples)

 Water (Hydroelectric power  Peat coal

 Solar energy  methane gas
 Wind energy  oil(petroleum)
 Biogas.
 Biomass
 Geothermal energy
 Wood fuels

19.3 Importance of power in development of Rwanda

 Energy sector creates direct job opportunities for those in construction of the dams, production and
supply of the energy
 Power is a source of revenue to the government through tax
 Development in the energy leads to the growth of urban centres as well as trade and commerce
 Production of power in Rwanda reduces the dependence on imported fuel such as petroleum
 Power is used for lighting and heating purpose
 Power potentials facilitate the growth of industries
19.4 Problems and future prospects for power and energy production in Rwanda
(a) Insufficient capital
(b) Shortage of skills
(c) High cost of power
(d) Weather changes

19.5 Efficient utilization of power and energy resources in Rwanda

i. Introduction of motivation such as cash power
ii. Development of alternative energy sources such as solar, geothermal, wind, methane gas, and biomass.
iii. Use of efficient energy saving stoves or cookers to limit the use of fuels wood for industrial and domestic
purposes
iv. Promotion of low power consumption bulbs programme
v. Switching off lights when not in use
vi. Encouraging the use of well maintained vehicles with low fuels consumption
vii. Educating people on energy making, conservation and management

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UNIT 20: INDUSTRY IN RWANDA

INTRODUCTION
1.INDUSTRY is an economic activity that leads to the production of goods or services. There are
three types of economic activities also referred to as Industries:
 Primary activities,
 Secondary activities,
 Tertiary activities.
 a. Primary /extractive industry: industry that deal with extraction of natural resources and raw
materials like mining, fishing, agriculture, forestry.
 b. Secondary/ manufacturing industry: industries that deal with the processing of raw materials and
production of consumer goods. (Manufacturing industry=Factories)
 c. Tertiary / service industry: Industries that provide services such as banking, insurance, transport
and recreation (tourism).

2.INDUSTRIALISATION is the process by which an economy is transformed from primarily

agricultural to one based on the manufacturing of goods.
20.1 Classification of industries
Some industries are large while others are small are small scale
1. Large scale industries are those that require large amounts of capital to set up.
Characteristics of Large scale industries
 They also may employ a large labour force.
 They use large amount of electricity.
 Their final products are in large quantities.
 They are owned by large companies or by the government.
Eg: beer brewing and soft drinks industries, cigarette manufacturing and cement manufacturing.
2. Small scale industries are industries whose inputs and outputs are in small quantities. They may be
owned by an individual or by a family.
Eg shoes repairing and tailoring
(a) Agro-based industries: These are industries that use agricultural raw materials. Some are large scale
while other are small scale. They can be classified into two categories:
 Food processing industries: These are industries whose products are mainly for human consumption.
Eg Inyange industries (Milk, fruits juice and drinking water) sugar processing, milk processing, tea
coffee and flour milling. Many industries in Rwanda are agricultural based because the country’s main
economic activity is agriculture.

 Agriculture non-food industries: these industries are use industrial raw materials but the products are
not for human consumption. Eg: manufacturing of animal feed, leather tanning, shoe making, cotton
based textile industries and cigarette manufacturing.

(b) Chemical industries: these are industries that use chemical based raw materials and their products are not
for human consumption. Eg: paint, plastics, fertilisers, synthetics, mattresses and soap.

(c) Mineral based industries: these are industries that use minerals for raw materials. Eg: mineral crushing
and refining, making of roofing materials and cement manufacturing. SAFINTRA Rwanda for roofing and
CIMERWA for cement.

(d) Metal work; these are industries in which metals are used as raw materials. Eg: wheelbarrows, cooking
stoves, animal feedings troughs, metal gates and metal grills. STEELIRWA in Rwamagana district.

(e) Other industries: furniture and boat making which use wood as raw materials, fish processing, fish net
making and hand craft industries.

20.2 Factors for location(site), growth and development of industries in Rwanda

1. Availability of raw materials
2. Availability of capital
3. Availability of labour
4. Availability of market
5. Availability of power supply
6. Government policy
7. Availability of water
8. Good transport and communication network
20.3 Importance of industries in Rwanda
1. Creation of employment opportunities
2. Creating revenue to the government
3. Adding value to the local products
4. Production of export goods
5. Import substitution
6. Development of infrastructure
7. Development of social amenities
8. Controlling rural urban migration
9. Creating market for raw materials

20.4 Problems affecting industrial development in Rwanda

Some of the problems affecting industrial development in Rwanda include the following.
(a) There is a shortage of skilled labour. This results in reduced production and poor utilisation of resources.
(b) There is limited market for products from industries because of the low income of most Rwandans.
(c) The technical development in Rwanda is still low. This affects the quality of industrial products.
(d) There is inadequate supply of raw materials especially those needed in metal work industries. These raw
materials have to be imported making them expensive beyond the reach of many Rwandan citizens.
(e) Rwanda is a landlocked country. This poses a great challenge to industrialisation since it has to depend
on the delivery of raw materials from other countries.
(f) Rwanda faces stiff competition in the international market from other industrial countries like Kenya and
Uganda in the region.
(g) There is limited investment in the industrial sector as a result of insufficient capital required to put up
and operate industries.
(h There are limited raw materials to be used in the manufacturing of different products.
(j) Fire outbreaks have claimed some of the industries in Kigali. This leads to huge losses .
(k) Industries cause pollution that affects the environment and the lives of workers.

20.5. Solutions to problems faced by industries in Rwanda

(a) Improving transport and communication network in the country through construction of new roads and
rehabilitation of the existing ones.
(b) Encouraging more investors, both foreign and local to invest more capital, and managerial skills in the
sector. This will ensure smooth running of industrial activities.
(c) Training of more human resources in different industrial jobs such as communication and marketing.
(d) Cooperating with major development partners such as the World Bank and the African Development
Bank to provide credit facilities so as to address the problem of inadequate capital.
(e) Widening both the local and international markets through joining economic blocs such as the East
African Community (EAC) and Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA).
(f) Improving technology in order to produce high quality goods which can attract high demand in both the
local and foreign markets.
(g) Importation of raw materials which are not found in Rwanda in order to sustain production.
(h) The government should design policies that encourage the establishment of local industries and protect
them from external competition.

UNIT 21: TRANSPORT, COMMUNICATION AND TRADE IN RWANDA

21.0. DEFINITIONS
 Transport is the movement of goods and people from one place to another.
 Communication is passing information from one person to another.
 Trade is buying and selling of goods and services.
21.1 Types of transport in Rwanda
Types of transport are classified according to the mode used. There are three types, namely
 Land transport,
 Air transport and
 Water transport.

21.1.1 Land transport

Transport on land follows four types of routes. These are footpaths used by humans or animals portage, roads
for vehicles and pipelines for transporting liquids.
(a) Footpaths: people use human portage to carry goods from one place to another. Animals like donkeys
are also driven along footpaths to transport goods. Bicycles and motorbikes sometimes use footpaths if
there are no roads.
(b) Roads: are used by vehicles and carrying goods and passengers. They include cars, buses, Lorries and
trucks.
(c) Pipeline: they are constructed to enable transportation of liquids and gas.
-
Advantages of road transport Disadvantages of road transport

-it is flexible -It is not suitable of carrying perishable goods over

 -it is cheap compared to other forms long distances
-spread throughout the country -Prone to frequent accidents
-Vehicles can stop anywhere. -Expensive to carry bulky goods
-Dry weather roads become impassable when it
rains.

21.1.2 Air transport

This is the form of transport that uses aircrafts to transport goods and passengers. International airport:
Kanombe and Kamembe and other are Rubavu, Gabiro and Huye.

Advantages of air transport Disadvantages of air transport

(a) It is fast It is the fastest mode of transport. (a) The occurrence of air accidents leads to great
(b) It is convenient losses of lives and goods.
(c) It is not affected by relief features (b) It is the most expensive form of transport.
(d) It is useful for agriculture ,Aeroplanes are used (c) Small carrying capacity
to spray pesticides on farms. (d) Affected by weather changes
(e) It can be used in risky areas such as the war torn (e) Highly trained personnel.
and troubled places to offer humanitarian services.
(f) It is secure
(g) It operates on fixed time schedules and routes.
This enables users to plan in advance.

21.1.3 Water transport

This involves transportation of passengers and goods on water using water vessels like ships, motorboats and
canoes.
Advantages of water transport Disadvantages of water transport

(a) Less maintenance cost Water bodies occur a) Water transport is limited because water
naturally and do not require maintenance. sources cover specific areas
(b) It is Cheap compared to rail, air and road b) Insecurity due to the using water ways by other
transport. neighbouring countries
(c) Suitable for bulky goods at little cost. c) Dangerous animals may hinder water transport.
(d) Important for foreign trade. d) Some seasonal rivers and canals cannot be used for
(e) Suitable for fragile goods transport throughout the year.
e) The Inland water transport is unreliable.
f) Affected by strong waves

21.2 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS IN RWANDA

The oldest forms of communication include signals such of smoke, beating drums, whistling and sending
messages by word of mouth.
Modern methods of communication include:
(i) Radio and television
(ii) Newspapers and magazines
(iii) Telephone services
(iv)Internet
(v) Postal services
(vi)Facsimile (fax machine)
21.3 Problems and solutions of transport and communication in Rwanda
Problems
1. Rugged landscape (hills make roads construction to be expensive)
 2. Inadequate capital
3. The country is landlocked
4. Political unrest in the neighboring countries
5. Low level of incomes
6. Limited electricity supply
Solutions
(i) Rwanda has to maintain good relationship with the countries through which her overseas trade goods pass
(ii) Rwanda needs to borrow loans from international funding agencies such as World Bank and International
Monetary Fund (IMF) to use in improving her transport and communication systems.
(iii) Rwanda being a member of regional groupings to enable her to transport her goods for overseas
countries
(iv)Rwanda government intends to connect electricity to every household in the country
(v) Maintaining political stability enables a country to undertake development projects faster.

21.4 TRADE IN RWANDA

Definition: Trade is buying and selling of goods.
21.4.1 Types of Trade
There are two categories of trade. There are: Domestic or Internal trade and International trade

(a) Domestic or internal trade

Domestic trade is the buying and selling of goods within the country. Some of the goods sold are locally
produced while others may be imported. Domestic trade is in two forms:
 Wholesale trade: (buying and selling goods in bulk) from a factory or whole sale shops)
 Retail trade: (selling and buying goods in small quantities for individual use)

(b) International trade

International trade involves trade between countries.
 Bilateral trade: When trade is between two countries.
 Multilateral trade: If trade is done with more than two countries.Rwanda imports petroleum,
chemical and machinery and exports tea, coffee and minerals.
21.4.2 Importance of trade in Rwanda
International trade
 The country does not produce goods like machinery, petroleum and chemicals ; they are imported
 Rwanda requires foreign currency to be able to pay her imports. They are gotten from export of tea, coffee
and minerals.
 Maintain friendly relations with other countries
 It promotes development of transport and communication systems between Rwanda and her trading
partners
 International trade encourages good relationship between trading patterns countries.
Internal trade
 The government gains by levying taxes on the trade goods.
 Individuals generate incomes which enables them to improve their standard of living
 Trade creates employment opportunities
 Trade promotes local production of commodities
 Trade encourages development of transport facilities.

21.4.3 Problems affecting trade and possible solutions in Rwanda

Problems
(a) The landlocked position
(b) Long distance to the sea ports
(c) High transport costs
(d) Low income levels
(e) Use of different currencies
(f) Language barrier
(g) Poor roads
(h) Production of similar goods
Solutions
(i) Rwanda as member of regional community it reduces the cost of trade with the other member countries
(ii) To improve internal trade, Rwanda has been constructing more roads in the rural areas
(iii) English and Swahili learning in Rwanda will make trading with people from the neighboring countries
easier in the future
(iv)Creating more employment opportunities enable people to buy goods
21.4.4 Regional and international trade partners with Rwanda
Rwanda imports as well as exporting her products to these EAC and COMESA countries
Rwanda trades with overseas countries in importation of products (China, Germany, USA, UK, France, Israel,
Thailand, Japan and Belgium)

UNIT 22: TOURISM IN RWANDA

22.1 Definition of tourism.
1) Tourism is travelling to visit a place for relaxation, recreation and leisure, usually for a short period of
time.
 When people travel as tourists within their own country, this is referred to as domestic
tourism.
 When people travel to another country as tourists, is referred to as international tourism.
2) Eco-tourism is tourism that is directed towards natural environments, to support conservation efforts
and to observe wildlife. It is a form of responsible travel to natural areas that conserve the
environment.

22.2 Tourist sites in Rwanda (historical and natural sites)

Historical attractions
1. The National Museum
2. Kabgayi church
3. Nyanza Royal palace
4. The Musanze cave
5. Kibeho Religious holy place in Nyaruguru District
Natural tourist sites
1. Nyungwe forest national park
2. The volcanoes national park
3. Akagera national park
4. The hilly landscape
5. Lakes
6. River and waterfalls
22.3 Factors for tourism development in Rwanda.
(a) Political stability
(b) Existence of varied tourist attractions
(c) Gorilla naming ceremony
(d) Publicity and advertisement locally and abroad
(e) Development of tourist hotels
(f) Friendly people
(g) Presence of capital
(h) Adequate infrastructures such as roads.
22.4 Importance of tourism industry to the economy of Rwanda.
(i) Foreign exchange earnings
(ii) Provision of employment opportunities
(iii) Promotion of local craft industry
(iv) Improvement of infrastructure
(v) Conservation of wildlife and natural heritage
(vi) Preservation of important artefacts
(vii) Promotion of development in agriculture
(viii) Promotion of friendly international relations

22.5 Problems affecting tourism in Rwanda.

(a) High population Increase in human population has led to human encroachment on the tourist attraction
sites destroying the natural habitats for wildlife.
(b) Lack of a skilled labour force
(c) Negative image painted Rwanda by the past
(d) Lack of participation in tourism by the locals
(e) Inadequate social facilities such as hospitals, sports and other recreational facilities in areas containing
tourist attractions.
(f) Poor technology
(g) Poaching has led to the diminishing numbers of wild game.
(h) Lack of information on the importance of tourism
(i) Poor transport and communication networks
(j) Inadequate accommodation facilities
(k) Inadequate capital
(l) Presence of tropical diseases that claim a large number of wildlife - both flora and fauna.
(m) Poor climatic conditions

22.6. Solutions to problems facing tourism in Rwanda

(a) Intensive and extensive awareness campaign programs should be conducted to market the country as a
tourist destination of choice.
(b) The government should make it easy for entrepreneurs in the sector to access credit facilities so that they
can invest more in the sector.
(c) The government should integrate tourism in the education system from primary level to the universities.
(d) Transport facilities such as roads – both feeder and tarmac roads should be put in place to connect areas of
tourism potential with the urban centres.
(e) The government should take it as an area of concern to provide security to the tourists.
(f) The private sector and other agencies should be encouraged to invest in tourism.

22.6 Relationship between tourism in Rwanda and regional countries: Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania
 To acquire the East Africa passport which gives free entry into any country of the countries
 Tourists without passports are free to use their national identity cards to enter any of the countries
 It will only require a visa for one country visit any of the countries in EAC.

END OF SENIOR 2 GEOGRAPHY PROGRAM