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A Real Time Approach to Process Control 3rd Edition
William Y. Svrcek Digital Instant Download
Author(s): William Y. Svrcek, Donald P. Mahoney, Brent R. Young
ISBN(s): 9781119993872, 1119993873
Edition: 3rd Edition
File Details: PDF, 5.18 MB
Year: 2014
Language: english
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 General superintendence, 333 dollars per mile of road.

Total, 4,198 dollars per mile of road.

That the detailed expenses may be charged to the proper departments, and that we may be able to take
out the exact cost of working any one class of trains, or of carrying any article of transport, the following
form should be filled.
407. TABLE SHOWING THE GENERAL AND DETAILED EXPENSES OF WORKING AND MAINTAINI

WAY AND WORKS. LOC

Nature of
LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.
the item is
shown in
horizontal Road- Passenger Locomotives. Freight Locomo
columns. Superstructure. Buildings. Total.
bed.
Oil Oil
Name of
Fuel. and Salaries Whole. Repairs. Total. Fuel. and Salaries. Who
railroad.
waste. waste.

Cost, in
dollars, per 351 140 22 F. 513
mile, upon
N. Y. State 453 88 27 P. 568 395 50 140 585 237 822 202 31 122 3
Railroads
Cost in
.020 .161 .010 F. .191
cents, per
ton, or per
passenger .157 .021 .107 .285 .109 .394 .205 .018 .080 .3
per mile
run, N. Y. P.
and Erie .035 .207 .011
.253
Railroad.
NOTES. RECAPITULATION.

408. The following general measures are recommended by Lardner in his Railway Economy, as being
the means of obtaining increased economy in the working of railroads.
1st. So to manage the traffic as to cause the cars to carry more complete loads.
2d. To encourage the transport to long distances.
3d. To regulate the tariff so as to give the largest possible number of cars to each engine.
4th. To adjust the tariffs where the business is chiefly in one direction, so as to attract return traffic, that
the cars may not run without a load.
5th. Not to increase the number of trains beyond a reasonable accommodation of traffic.
6th. To diminish as far as possible express trains, if it be not practicable to abolish them altogether.

RECEIPTS AND PROFITS.

409. The distribution of expenses, as we have seen, is somewhat complicated, and is systematically done
upon a very few roads. The classification of receipts is, however, very easy, and is properly detailed in
nearly all railroad reports. Upon the New York State railroads, the following was the division for the year
1854.
Average receipts per mile of road,
Passengers, $4,074.16
Freight, 3,776.72
Extras, 427.28

Whole, $8,278.16
Whole expense, $4,710.14
or fifty-seven per cent. of the receipts.
Receipts per mile run by trains,
Passengers, $1.32
Freight, 2.02
Extras, 1.67

Whole, $5.01

Average, 1.67

Whole expense per mile run by train, $0.97

Average receipts per passenger and per ton, per mile,
Passenger, 1.95 cents,
Ton, 2.79 cents,

Average of passenger or ton, 2.37 cents,

Average expense of passenger or ton, 1.38 cents,

410. Upon the New York and Erie Railroad for the year ending September 30, 1856.
Receipts per mile of road,
Passengers, $3,397.34
Freight, 7,143.42
Express and mail, 397.84

Whole, $10,938.60
Whole expense per mile of road, 5,263.00
or forty-eight per cent, of the receipts.
Receipts per mile run by trains,
Passengers, $1.16
Freight, 2.13
Average receipts per passenger and per ton, per mile,
Passenger, 2.02 cents,
Ton, 2.37 cents.
411. Upon the New York State roads,
Average number of passengers per mile run, 57.4
Average distance travelled by passengers, 81.4
Average tons per mile run, 90.0
Average distance, whole number of tons carried, 177.0
Length, 496 miles,
Freight tonnage, 150,673,997 miles,
Passenger, 84,069,398 miles.
412. It is of course an object on every railroad to make the gross receipts overbalance the gross expense
by the largest possible amount. The elements which determine the gross receipts are,
 The charge per mile, for transport,
The number of units transported,
The distance carried,

of which the company’s directors can control the first only, except as adjustment of rates may attract
business.
Reduction of tariff, to a certain degree, has the effect of increasing the receipts by augmenting the
number of fares; but the reduction may be carried too far. So, also, for a certain distance, increased rates
will increase the whole receipts; but in this case, also, the extreme must be avoided. The point to be
arrived at is, evidently, that at which the difference of expense and receipt is the greatest, and this is not
necessarily when receipts are the greatest.
We can make the receipts nothing either by making the charges so large that nothing can bear them, or
so small as to vanish. Even when the receipts are 0, we still have the expense of moving the empties.
By forming a table in which one column shall show the different charges, and the second the
corresponding amounts transferred, with the consequent receipts and cost of working, we shall find
which rate of charge will give the greatest difference between expense and receipt.
 EXPRESS TRAINS.
413. Express trains are a source of vast expense, directly and indirectly, which can never be repaid by
any practicable tariff to be levied upon them. Dr. Lardner, (1850):—
Resolved, That this meeting recommend the adoption of a higher rate of fare upon express passenger
trains, corresponding in some degree to the increased cost of such trains.—American Railroad
Convention of 1854.

INCREASED COST OF WORKING.

This is due to the extra wear and tear of engines, cars, and road, from increased speed, and also to the
delays occasioned to other trains in motion at the same time.
The influence of express trains is felt not only by themselves, but by nearly all the trains upon the road.
Note.—To determine the most economical speed, regard need only be had to the variable elements of cost, namely: cost of
power, and maintenance of superstructure, and rolling stock; assuming the power expended as the resistance, and the cost of
repairs of machinery and superstructure as the velocity, we form the following table:—

Velocity in Hours con. in

Resistance in Product of Cost of
miles per going 300 Result.
pounds per ton. column 2 × 3. repairs.
hour. miles.
10 8.6 30 258 100 358
15 9.3 20 186 150 336
20 10.3 15 154 200 354
25 11.6 12 139 250 389
30 13.3 10 133 300 433
35 15.2 8.60 131 350 481
40 17.3 7.50 130 400 530
45 19.8 6.67 132
50 22.6 6 136
60 29.1 5 145
100 66.5 3 200
The result is found by adding the product of columns 2 and 3, or column 4 to column 5, from which the minimum cost is seen
to be produced by a very little more than fifteen miles per hour. The variable (and above assumed) element is the rate of
increase of cost of maintenance.
All trains in motion at the same time within a certain distance of the express, must be kept waiting with
steam up, or be driven with extra velocities in order to keep out of the way.
Where the time table is so arranged as to call for speed nearly equal to the full capacity of the engine, it
is very obvious that the risks of failure in “making time” must be much greater than at reduced rates;
and when they do occur, the efforts made to gain time must be correspondingly greater and uncertain.
A single example will be sufficient to show this:—
A train whose prescribed rate of speed is thirty miles an hour, having lost five minutes of time, and
being required to gain it, in order to meet and pass an opposing train at a station ten miles distant,
must necessarily increase its speed to forty miles an hour; and a train whose prescribed rate of speed
is forty miles an hour, under similar circumstances, must increase its speed to sixty miles an hour; in
the former case it would probably be accomplished, whilst in the latter it would more probably result
in failure; or, if successful, it would be so at a fearful risk of accident.
But a failure in either case would have the effect of retarding the movement of the opposing train,
deranging the time of those of the same and of an inferior class in both directions, involving, perhaps,
on the part of the latter, the necessity of similar struggles for time, and thus may prove the primary
cause of accident to all trains whose movements may have been affected thereby.
The first cost of locomotives, (assuming the cost to increase with the weight,) is thirty per cent. greater
for express trains, than for those of the second or third class.
The cost of repairs being assumed as the product of the weight by distance run, and this distance being
the same, is as the weight, or increased thirty per cent. (This assumes the power to be equally well
adapted.)
The cost of cars does not (though it ought), differ much for express or slow trains; the cost of repairs will
certainly be increased.
The interest of construction capital to be charged to expresses, will be, their mileage proportion plus any
expense which may have been incurred in reducing curves and grades; the proportion of repairs of
25
superstructure, charged to expresses, will depend on their weight. The locomotive causes 29 of the wear
15
of rails, and as the weight of the engines is increased thirty per cent., the increased wear will be of 58 .

The use of stations and of employees costs no more for express than for accommodation trains.
The repairs of locomotives will be nearly, if not quite, as the product of their weight by the distance run;
and this, from the above, will be thirty per cent. greater on an express than on an ordinary train, the
distance being the same.
The carriages for express trains ought to be at once stronger and more convenient than those for the
slower work, the shocks arising from irregularities in the rails being very much greater as velocity
increases; and the runs being very long, passengers require easier seats, even, in some cases,
accommodation for sleeping. The cost for repairs, therefore, of express cars, would be somewhat greater
than for any others.

COST AND MAINTENANCE OF WAY AND WORKS.

As the speed is increased, the relative effect of grade and curves is lessened, but the absolute danger of
passing curves is increased. Express trains require larger radius of curvature, or greater elevation of
exterior rail than others, which extra elevation causes an unnecessary resistance to all other trains. The
rails to resist large and heavy wheels must be heavier and more firmly fastened. All bridges and viaducts
(particularly if on grades or curves), will require more strength to resist the increased shocks to which
they will be subject. The wear of rails is nearly as the weight passing over them; the wear of rails
consequent upon stopping and starting the trains depends upon the momentum of the train which is to
be imparted to them.
The proportion, in which the working expenses are distributed under the several heads on the larger
railways of Great Britain, is as follows:—
Direction and management, 7
Way and works, 16
Locomotive department, 35
Cars, 38
Sundries, 4

100
And the percentage of increase due to fast travelling, to be applied to the several items of expense, with
the resulting increase in total expense, is shown below.
Direction and management, 7 0 = 0.0
Way and works, 16 27 = 4.3
Locomotive department, 35 30 = 10.5
Cars, 38 10 = 3.8
Sundries, 4 0 = 0.0

100 18.6
or 18 per cent. increase, nearly.
Express trains, as worked on many roads, run at an unnecessary speed, to make up for frequent stops.
Overcoming a long distance in a short time, depends as much on decrease in the number of stops, as
increase in the speed.
The following figures show the effect of decreasing the number of stops.
A train running 400 miles, and stopping once in fifty miles, each stop being five minutes, (including
coming to rest and starting,) to pass over the whole distance in eight hours, must run fifty-five miles per
hour.
Stopping once in twenty miles, sixty-three miles per hour.
Stopping once in ten miles, eighty-six miles per hour.
The following table shows the velocities of the different classes of trains in England, France, and
Belgium, including and excluding stops.

EXCLUDING STOPS.

Express. 1st class. 2d class. 3d class.

England, 43.9 32.8 32.8 25.2 miles per hour.
France, 27.5 24.3 28.1 miles per hour.
Belgium, 26.2 25.7 27.6 miles per hour.

INCLUDING STOPS.

Express. 1st class. 2d class. 3d class.

England, 36.5 24.8 24.8 17.5 miles per hour.
France, 22.1 17.9 19.9 miles per hour.
Belgium, 20.7 19.3 18.1 miles per hour.
The distances at which the different classes of trains stop in the several countries, are as follows:—

TRAINS STOP ONCE IN

1st class. 2d class. 3d class. Express.

England, 8 miles, 8 miles, 5 miles, 24 miles.
France, 10 miles, 6 miles, 6 miles, —— miles.
Belgium, 6.8 miles, 5.6 miles, 5 miles, —— miles.

OF THE INCREASED DANGER OF FAST TRAVELLING.

The causes of accident, beyond the control of passengers, are

Collision by opposition.
Collision by overtaking.
Derailment by misplaced switches and draws.
Derailment by obstacles upon the rails.
Breakage of machinery.
Failure of track or bridges.
Fire.
Boiler explosions.
Those causes which are aggravated by fast travelling are the first, second, fifth, and sixth; the effects of
all are worse at high speeds than at low.
The proportion of accidents due to each of these causes, taken at random from one hundred cases on
English railways, are as follows:—
Collision, 56
Breaking of machinery, 18
Failure of the road, 14
Misplaced switches, 5
Obstacles on rails, 6
Boiler explosion, 1

100
In collision by opposition, the engines, tenders, and baggage cars must be demolished before the shock
reaches the passengers; in collision by overtaking, the engine of the rear train plunges at once into the
last passenger car of the leading train; the force in the last case is the difference of the speeds, in the
former the sum. The increase of danger from this cause, attendant upon express trains, is due, first, to
the longer time required in stopping, and second, in the greater shock if collision occurs.
Breakage of machinery is more liable to take place while wheels are revolving 25,000 times per hour,
than when the speed is less.
Failure of the superstructure of bridges, (particularly when on curves or grades,) is more liable to take
place at high than at low velocities.
Accidents from obstacles upon the track, from fire, boiler explosions, and misplaced switches, are no
more attendant upon express than upon other trains, but the consequences are worse with the high
speeds.
From the analysis above, of one hundred accidents, it appears that eighty-eight per cent. of the cases are
due to the causes that are aggravated by increase of speed, and if we assume the aggravation of collision,
and breakage of machinery, to be (speed being doubled) as two to one, the danger of travelling a fixed
distance, by express, is eighty-eight per cent. greater than by a slow train.
 COMPARATIVE COST OF WORKING HEAVY AND LIGHT TRAINS.
414. The question is sometimes asked, if it would not be better to run a greater number of trains and
reduce the weight of engines. A comparison of cost is easily made.
The cost of working trains consists of
Fuel, oil, and waste.
Engine-men’s wages.
Wear of rails.
Conductor and brakemen.
Wear of cars.

Suppose we have to move 1,000 tons per day over any road. If we do it by one engine and 100 cars, the
whole cost will be
One Engineer $2.00
One Fireman 1.50
One Conductor 1.75
Four Brakemen 5.00

$10.25
And if we move 1,000 tons by ten trains of one hundred tons each,
Ten Engine-men at $2 $20.00
Ten Firemen at 1½ 15.00
Ten Conductors at 1¾ 17.50
Ten Brakemen at 1¼ 12.50

$65.00
Difference of salaries in favor of the heavy train, of $54.75.
As the whole weight upon the drivers must be the same to move a given load by either method, the only
difference in weights of engines will be that upon the truck. To lead well a truck must have five tons
upon it. The whole weight upon ten trucks is, then, fifty tons, and that upon one, five tons, which leaves
an excess of forty tons to be daily carried over the road by the small trains. The heaviest freight engine
will not cost over $15,000; the cost of an engine to draw one hundred tons cannot be less than $5,000.
6
10 × 5000 = 50000 less 15000 is $35000. 100 of 35000 is $2100.

Add to this five times as much fuel used in firing up and standing with steam up, ten times as much
oiling, cleaning, and repairing, ten times as much engine house and shop accommodation; also that the
cars in frequent trains are much less loaded than in seldom ones, increased delay and chance of accident
from increased number of trains, and estimating all of them at $170.00 per day, (the cost of the large
engine being assessed at $30 per day, and that of each of the small ones as $20, the daily difference is
$170,) and we have, as the whole daily increased cost of working ten small over one large train,

170.00 + 54.75 × (1006 of 35000)/313 or 6.71 = $231.46 per day,

or $72,446.98 per annum, which employs a capital of $1,207,449.
 BRANCH ROADS.
415. These lines, when belonging to the main road, are generally worked at a loss; and when
independent, are a poor investment. At a meeting of the directors of the Boston and Worcester (Mass.)
Railroad in February, 1855, it was declared that out of six branches, but one was profitable. That four of
them gave an income upon cost of from one and a quarter to one and three quarter per cent.
Independent branch lines generally share a joint business by the mileage standard; and here is where
they lose, for if the branch trains do not traverse the main line, and the tribute passengers help to fill a
train which runs at any rate upon the main, then the branch expense of carrying the passengers is to that
90
of the main, as (say ninety to ten), and the branch should take 100 of the receipts. In this case the branch
is charged with using both the cars and road of the main. If it runs its own cars over the main, (as when
the branch is near the terminus,) it should be charged only with the wear of the road.
In like manner several roads, forming a continuous line, should not divide the receipts according to the
mileage; but according to the cost of working that mileage. Thus if we have the continuous line below,
column one shows the length; column two, the cost of building; column three, that of maintaining; and
column four, the division of receipts.
Division. Length. Construction Capital. Maintaining Capital. Result.
1 8 10 4 10 + 4 = 14
2 9 6 3½ 6 + 3½ = 9½
3 6 7 2¾ 7 + 2¾ = 9¾
4 10 4 1¼ 4 + 1¼ = 5¼
 REPRODUCTION OF ROAD AND STOCK.
416. Besides the annual repairs necessary to maintain a road in proper working order, there is needed a
periodic expenditure for reproduction. Evidently the time will come, upon all roads, when rails and
sleepers, buildings, bridges, etc., need to be replaced. Knowing the life of rails, we also know the annual
depreciation, and from that can easily find what sum must annually be laid aside, which being properly
invested, shall, at the end of the life of the rail, together with its interest, be equal to the cost of renewing.

RAILS.

Suppose rails to last ten years, the annual depreciation is ten per cent. At sixty lbs. per yard we have one
hundred and five tons per mile, which, at $60 per ton, amounts to $6,300. Let the cost of rerolling and
relaying be $30 per ton, the depreciation is then $30 per ton for ten years, or $3 per ton per annum, or
$315 per mile per annum.

SLEEPERS.

If sleepers last seven years, and cost forty cents apiece, their annual depreciation per mile (at 2,400 per
mile) will be $138 per mile (nearly).

BRIDGES.

If wooden bridges cost $30 per lineal foot, and last twenty years, the annual depreciation per foot will be
$1.50, and if there is ten feet per mile of road, $15 per annum per mile.

EXTRAS.

Allowing for the annual depreciation per mile of buildings, fences, etc., $33, we have as the whole annual
depreciation, $500 per mile; and the amounts which yearly reserved and placed at compound interest
for each of the ten years, will pay for reproducing the road, are as follows:—
At the end of the 1st year $298
At the end of the 2d year 315
At the end of the 3d year 333
At the end of the 4th year 354
At the end of the 5th year 373
At the end of the 6th year 397
At the end of the 7th year 417
At the end of the 8th year 446
At the end of the 9th year 472
At the end of the 10th year 500

which, at six per cent., gives, at the end of the tenth year, $500 each.
Note.—Reproduction of rolling stock has been proved to be nothing more than repairs, as a locomotive may be fitted with
one and another new part until none of the original machine remains. See Lardner’s Railroad Economy.
As the business upon a railroad increases, so does the amount of station accommodation necessary, and
also of rolling stock, which increase should be debited to capital, and not to revenue.
The permanent investors in a railroad are in favor of having capital maintained, even at the expense of
revenue. The temporary shareholders, and the speculators in stock, wish most to produce large
dividends, even at a sacrifice of capital, and would charge nothing to revenue.
The rights of both of the above classes are to be regarded, as the road is often built mainly by the efforts
of the temporary investors.
 WORKING RAILROADS BY CONTRACT.
417. An experiment has lately been tried upon the working of railroads which bids fair to reduce very
considerably the cost of operating; and to render the enterprises more profitable, namely, working the
several departments by contract; that is, paying certain persons a fixed price for supplying the necessary
amount of power, cars, or material per annum, thus bringing into play private interest and individual
enterprise. There is no doubt but that by a judicious system of this kind, correctly applied, many roads
which are now worthless could be made to pay, while the value of good roads would be also increased.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FREIGHT.
418. Freight is classified according to its nature, the commercial nature of the country traversed by the
road, and the direction of the principal market. The distribution adopted upon some of the large roads is
as follows:—

CLASSIFICATION OF ARTICLES.

[Articles marked thus * at owner’s risk.]

Double First Class.

Baskets, * Band Boxes;

* Camphene;
* Carboys, and contents;
* Demijohns, and contents;
* Eggs;
Feathers, in bags;
Furs;
Hobby Horses;
Musical Instruments;
* Plaster of Paris, (ornaments);
Pictures, in frames;
Teazles, in casks;
Wagons, (children’s);
Willow Ware.

First Class.

* Ale, in glass;
* Apples, green, pre-paid;
Bacon, loose;
Batting;
Bells;
* Berries, pre-paid;
* Blinds, (window) in packages;
Bonnets;
* Books, in boxes;
Boots;
Bran, in bags;
Brass, in sheets and pigs;
Brass Castings;
Brass Vessels;
Bread and Biscuit;
Brooms, in bales or bundles;
Broom Handles, in boxes or bundles;
Brushes;
Buffalo Robes, packed;
Buttons;
* Candies and Confectionary, canvassed;
Cane;
Cards;
Carpeting;
Caps;
China Ware;
Chocolate;
* Cigars, in boxes;
Cinnamon;
* Clocks, in boxes;
Cocoa;
Cassia;
Coffee, ground;
Collars;
Combs;
Copper, in sheets and pigs;
Copper Vessels;
Corks;
* Cotton, in bales;
* Cotton Waste;
Covers and Sieves;
* Cranberries;
* Cutlery;
Deer Skins, in bundles;
Doors;
Dry Goods;
Fancy Goods;
* Figs, in boxes;
Fire-arms;
* Fish, fresh, pre-paid;
Flour, in bags;
Forks, hay and manure;
* Fruits, fresh, pre-paid;
* Game, pre-paid;
Garden Seeds;
Ginger;
* Glass, in boxes;
* Glass Ware, in boxes or casks;
Glue;
* Grapes, pre-paid;
Gun Stocks, in boxes or bundles;
Hair, in sacks;
Hams, loose;
Harness;
Hides, dry;
Hoe Handles;
* Hollow Ware;
* Honey;
Hops, pressed;
* Ice, pre-paid;
Indigo;
Ink;
Iron Castings, light;
Ivory;
Japan Ware;
Joiners Work;
* Lemons, in boxes, canvassed;
* Looking-glasses, well boxed;
* Machinery, boxed, light;
Marble, wrought, at owner’s risk of breakage;
Mats;
Mattrasses, double, at 150 pounds each;
Mattrasses, single, at 100 pounds each;
Mill Stuffs, in bags or casks;
Measures;
* Meat, fresh, pre-paid;
Meat, in bulk, salted;
Medicines;
* Melons, pre-paid;
Moss, in sacks;
Nuts, in sacks or casks;
* Oranges, in boxes, canvassed, pre-paid;
* Oysters, in cans or kegs;
Palm Leaf, in bales;
Paper, brown wrapping and straw, (light);
Paper Hangings;
Pelts;
* Porter, in glass;
* Poultry, dressed, pre-paid;
* Prunes;
Rags, (see second class);
* Raisins;
Rake Handles;
Rattan;
Rugs;
Saddle Trees;
Saddlery;
* Sash, in packages;
Scale Beams;
Scythe Snaths;
Shoes;
Shovel Handles;
Soap, fancy;
Soda;
Spices;
* Spirits Turpentine;
Stationery;
Straw Goods;
Teas, (see third class);
Tin Ware, in crates or hhds.;
Toys;
Trunks, empty, 80 pounds each;
Tubs;
Turners’ Work;
* Vegetables, pre-paid;
Veneering;
Wadding;
Warp, on beams;
Warp Beams;
Waste, woollen;
Wax;
Whalebone;
Wheelbarrows;
Whips;
Wicking;
* Wines, in baskets or boxes;
* Wooden Ware;
Wool;
Woollens.

Second Class.

Alcoholic Liquors;
* Ale, in casks;
Apples, dried;
Alum;
Anchors;
Anvils;
Ashes, pot or pearl;
Axes, in boxes;
Axles, iron;
Bacon, packed;
Bagging;
Barilla;
Bark, tanner’s, 1¼ cord per ton;
Beans;
* Beef, in casks or boxes;
Beer, in casks;
Bleaching Salts;
Bones;
* Bottles, packed, (empty);
Brimstone;
Burr Blocks;
Burlaps, in original packages;
* Butter, in firkins;
* Candles, in boxes;
Cannon;
Canvas;
Castings, heavy;
Cement;
Chains;
Chalk;
Chair and turned Stuff in bales or bdls.;
Cider, in casks;
Cheese, in boxes or casks;
Clay, Coal, and Coke, in casks or boxes;
Clover Seed;
Coffee, in sacks;
Copperas;
Cordage;
Crockery Ware, well packed;
Domestics, in original packages;
Dye Stuffs, in woods;
Earthen Ware, well packed;
* Fire Brick;
Fish, dried or salted;
Flax Seed;
Flocks;
Floor Cloth, painted;
Flour, in barrels, 20 barrels or less;
Furnaces;
Grain, of all kinds;
* Grindstones;
Groceries, generally heavy, not otherwise specified;
Gunnies, in bales;
Hoes;
Hams, shoulders or sides, in casks or boxes;
Hardware, except Cutlery;
* Hemp, in bales;
Hemp Seed;
* Hides, green;
* High Wines;
Hoops, shaved or split, 3,000 pounds per cord;
India Rubber;
Iron, pig, bloom, boiler, rod, and bar;
Iron, hoop, sheet, or bolts;
Iron, nuts, rivets, and spikes;
Junk;
Lard, in barrels or casks;
Lead, sheet, pig, or pipe;
Leather;
Liquors, in barrels or casks;
Lime, in barrels or casks;
Marble, unwrought, at owner’s risk of breakage;
Meal, in bags or casks;
Molasses;
Moss, pressed;
Nails, in kegs;
Oakum, in bales;
Oil, owner’s risk of leakage;
Oil Cake,
Oil Cloth;
* Oysters, in shell;
Paints, dry or in oil;
Paper, (white,) in boxes or bundles;
Paper, (heavy brown and hardware);
Pasteboard;
Pepper;
Peaches, dried;
Peas, in sacks or casks;
Pickles, in casks;
* Pipes, in boxes;
Pitch;
Plaster, in casks or barrels;
Ploughs;
Pork, packed;
* Porter, in casks;
Potatoes, in casks or sacks;
Rags, foreign, pressed;
Rakes;
Railroad Chairs and Spikes;
Rice;
Rope;
Rosin;
Saleratus;
Salt, in bags or casks;
Saltpetre;
Scales, in boxes;
Scythes, in bundles;
Scythe Stones;
Shot, in bags;
Shovels and Spades;
Sizing;
Slate;
Soap, (common,) in boxes;
Soda:
Spelter and Zinc;
Spikes, in kegs;
Spirits, domestic;
Starch;
Steel, in boxes or bundles;
Steel Springs;
Stone;
* Stone Ware, well packed;
Sugar;
Sumac;
Tallow, owner’s risk of heat;
Tar;
Tiles;
Tin, metal and plate;
Tobacco, in bales, boxes, or hhds.;
Tow, pressed, (in bales,) owner’s risk of fire;
Twine, in bales;
Vegetable Roots, in sacks or casks;
* Vinegar;
Water, Mineral;
Whiskey, in casks;
White Lead;
Whiting;
* Wine, in casks;
Wire, in rolls and casks;
Woods, in shape, unfinished;
Woods, of value, namely, Mahogany, Lignum Vitæ, Rosewood, Cherry, Cedar, Walnut, etc.;
Wool, foreign, pressed, in bales;
Yam, pressed;
Zinc and Spelter.

Third Class.

Includes the following articles in quantities of 8,000 pounds, and less than 16,000 pounds, in any one
shipment from one consignor to one consignee. Same articles shipped in like manner, in quantities of
16,000 pounds and upwards, will be taken at special rates.

Anchors;
Anvils;
Ashes, pot and pearl, in casks;
Axes, iron;
Bacon, packed;
Bark, tanner’s, 1¼ cord per ton;
Beans, in sacks or casks;
Beef, packed;
Burr Blocks;
Cannon;
Cement, in barrels or casks;
Chain Cable;
Cider;
Clay;
Coffee;
Copper, in boxes;
Flaxseed, in sacks or casks;
Flour, in barrels;
Grain, of all kinds;
Grindstones;
Hams, packed;
High Wines;
Iron, pig, bar, bloom, sheet, hoop, or rod;
Iron Castings, heavy;
Lard, in casks or barrels;
Lead, sheet, pig, or pipe;
Lime, in barrels;
Marble, unwrought, at owner’s risk of breakage;
Molasses;
Nails, in kegs;
Plaster, in barrels;
Pork, packed;
Potatoes, in sacks or casks;
Railroad Iron, Chairs and Spikes;
Salt, in sacks and barrels;
Shot;
Slate;
Spikes, in kegs;
Sugar, in casks;
Teas;
Tobacco, in boxes or hhds.;
Vinegar, in barrels;
Whiskey, in barrels.

Besides the above regular articles, are the following special objects of transport:—

Stores;
Cabinet Ware;
Brick;
Charcoal;
Pressed Hay;
Broom Corn;
Boxes of Cigars;
Barrels;
Bags;
Corn in the Ear;
Poultry;
Looking-glasses;
Trees and Shrubbery;
Safes;
Mill-stones;
Steam-engines;
Machinery;
Agricultural Implements;
Lumber;
Live-Stock;
Carriages;
Coal and Coke.
 TIME TABLES.
Fig. 158, (see end of volume).
419. The most complete graphic solution of an engineering problem, is doubtless the time table of S. S.
Post, Esq., chief engineer of the New York and Erie Railroad. Let the vertical lines represent time in
spaces of ten minutes each, and the horizontals, distances, the heavy lines representing the several way
stations. Suppose now that we leave station A at six, A. M., and wish to arrive at K at two, P. M., stopping
ten minutes at each station; the number of way stations being eight, the whole time consumed in stops
will be 10 × 8 = 80 minutes. From two, P. M., and on the line K, go back eighty minutes or to M, and from
A draw A B, in the direction A M, which cuts the line B B at B, which is four miles, or thirteen minutes
from A. Now, as we wait ten minutes, pass along on the line B B one division (ten minutes) to B′ and
start again parallel to A B, arriving at C at one and a half hours from starting. Proceeding thus, we arrive
at K at the required time. The inclination of the line shows the speed. Thus, if it passes twenty horizontal
spaces in six vertical divisions, we have twenty miles in sixty minutes, or twenty miles per hour.
Suppose now we would start an express train at eight, A. M., from A to arrive at K at one, P. M., (see line 8
F,) it will pass the first train at station F, and will run at the rate of seventeen miles per hour from A to F,
at the same rate from F to G, and at thirteen miles per hour from G to 1.
Suppose also that we start a train from K at six, A. M., to arrive at A at eleven, A. M., we pass the before-
mentioned trains at E and D.
Also a freight train which is required to pass the above named trains, leaving K at eight, A. M., and
arriving at A at one, P. M., will stop ten minutes at G, ten minutes at M, pass the first train at L, wait ten
minutes on a siding at two and a half miles from L, and run to A at nearly a uniform rate of speed.
So also may the motion of any train be laid down and traced through the hours of the day upon the table.
By plotting the profile of the road upon the line A K, the places are shown at which grades will oblige us
to use a less speed. Curves also may be shown by increasing the steepness of the grades; or by making a
grade on the profile when the road is level, steep enough to involve an amount of power equal to that
consumed by the curve.
 LOCOMOTIVE REGISTERS.
420. American railroad reports are, as a general thing, quite destitute of detailed accounts of the
performance of the power. Some of the large roads, indeed, are of late improving in this respect.
That fares and tolls may be properly applied to the different articles of transport, the cost of moving each
article should be known.
Such items as the salaries of employees, and repairs of machinery, are easily distributed to the proper
heads; but the correct amount of fuel, oil, and waste, to be charged to any department, is not so evident.
What we require is, the exact amount of fuel, oil, and waste used, and work done by each engine; to
obtain which, some system of registering these quantities must be adopted.
The following five blanks being filled, we have all that is required:—
Number 1 is the engineer’s weekly return to the master of machinery, and gives, as seen, the times of
arriving at, and departing from, each station. The fuel should always be ready at each station for
delivery, in cords and half cords, or in tons and fractions, when coal or coke. It may be delivered either
from a small car placed on a pair of rails at right angles to the track, or from a box hung upon a crane,
which may be at once swung over and lowered into the tender; the box which is already in, being first
removed. The latter method gives the most correct results, as whatever fuel is left at the station may be
credited to the engine. The whole operation of wooding would not take longer than it does to describe it,
and would lead to a systematic and economical method of working.
The tanks and pumps being charged to construction, we may, without material error, charge the cost of
the water supply to the trains according to their mileage.
Number 2 is the wood register, showing the amount of fuel delivered to the several engines from the
different stations, and should be weekly signed and returned by the station wood master to the fuel
agent. The engineer’s fuel receipts (No. 1) check these reports.
Number 3 is the conductor’s mileage account, giving the exact weight left at, and taken from, each
station; and, consequently, the load carried between stations, which is checked by the station master’s
return.
Number 4 is the monthly account of the performance of engines, compiled from the weekly return by the
superintendent of machinery, and reported to the superintendent.
Number 5 gives the annual performance of each and all of the engines upon the road, and is obtained
from the monthly reports, and from those of the repair and transportation departments.
The work done by different classes of cars should be registered in like manner.
Knowing the amount of material used, and also the work done, it is easy to find the cost per mile of
moving any article of transport, regard of course being had to the character of the parts of the road
traversed by the several engines. An engine working a sixty feet grade should be allowed more fuel than
one which works a level only.

Number 1.

A. and B. Railroad. Report of amount of material consumed, and of work done by Engine No. 50, during
the week ending July 4, 1856.
————————, Engineer.

MONDAY. Name of train.

Name of station.
Time of arriving.
Time of departing.
Fuel taken.
Whole cost fuel consumed
 Whole time under steam
Whole time running
And the same for each day of the week.

WEEKLY MEMORANDA.

Cords of wood used

Gallons oil used
Pounds tallow used
Pounds waste used
Miles run
Whole time running
Whole time under steam
Time under repairs
Cost of repairs
————, Master of Machinery.

Number 2.

—— RAILROAD. AMOUNT OF FUEL DELIVERED TO ENGINES FROM —— STATION

DURING WEEK ENDING ——.
Name of Engine. A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. K. Total.
Morning.
Monday.
Afternoon.
Morning.
Tuesday.
Afternoon.
Morning.
Wednesday.
Afternoon.
Morning.
Thursday.
Afternoon.
Morning.
Friday.
Afternoon.
Morning.
Saturday.
Afternoon.
Total to each engine. Wood Station Master ——.

Number 3.

A. and B. Railroad. Conductor’s mileage return, for week ending July 4, 1856, showing work done by
Engine No. 54.
Train.
Station.
Cars taken.
Cars left.
MONDAY. Cars in train.
Weight of train.
Eq’d distance.
Eq’d mileage.
Total equated mileage
 And the same for each day of the week.

Number 4.
A. AND B. RAILROAD. PERFORMANCE OF LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES FOR MONTH E
Time. Wages. Fuel. Oil, waste, and tallow. Rep
Cost
Cost per
Miles Cost Miles Gallons Miles Pounds Pounds of oil, mile
Number. Use. At Under
run. Working. Cost. per Cords. per oil per of of waste, of oil, Cost.
rest. repairs.
mile. cord. used. pint. waste. tallow. and waste,
tallow. and
tallow.

Number 5.
A. AND B. RAILROAD. ANNUAL REPORT OF COST OF MAINTENANCE OF, AND WORK DONE BY THE LOCOMOTIVE POWER, ALSO THE COST

GENERAL CHARACTER AND PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS OF THE ENGINES.

Weights. Cylind’rs. Driv’g wheels.

Relative Boiler
Name of the
Name Date of Whole power,
builder or Use to
or commc’g weight Capacity or
manufactory which it Weight Weight
Number work of of traction
from is Mode of
of the upon the engine upon of the tender Diameter at a Grate W
whence applied. the tender Stroke. connection. Number. Diameter. he
engine. road. with in of bore. mean area.
bought. driving with su
fuel gallons. cylinder
wheels. feed. pressure
and
water. of 75 lbs.

Recapitulation, No. 1. Recapitulation, No. 2.

Cost per equated mile, per ton, of working freight engines. Cost per equated mile, per passenger, of working engines.
Engineer and fireman. Fuel. Oil, tallow, and waste. Repairs. Total. Engineer and fireman. Fuel. Oil, tallow, and waste. Repairs.
 TELEGRAPH.
421. The magnetic telegraph has lately come into use as a means of communication along the lines of
long railroads, and nothing serves better the purposes of adjusting the movement of trains, of
transmitting orders, and of keeping the general superintendent informed at all hours, of the exact
condition in detail of the whole road, and of all its trains. The following is extracted from Mr.
McCallum’s Report, before referred to:—
“A single track railroad may be rendered more safe and efficient, by a proper use of the telegraph, than a
double track railroad without its aid,—as the double track can only obviate collisions which occur
between trains moving in opposite directions, whilst the telegraph may be used effectually in preventing
them, either from trains moving in an opposite, or the same direction; and it is a well established fact
deduced from the history of railroads, both in Europe and in this country, that collisions between trains
moving in the same direction have proved by far the most fatal and disastrous, and should be the most
carefully guarded against. I have no hesitation in asserting, that a single track railroad, having
judiciously located turnouts, equal, in the aggregate, to one quarter of its entire length, and a well-
conducted telegraph, will prove to be a more safe and profitable investment than a much larger sum
expended in the construction of a continuous double track, operated without a telegraph.
“Collisions between fast and slow trains, moving in the same direction, are prevented by the application
of the following rule:—‘The conductor of a slow train will report himself to the superintendent of the
division, immediately on arrival at a station where by the time table he should be overtaken by a faster
train; and he shall not leave that station until the fast train passes, without special orders from the
superintendent of the division.’ A slow train under such circumstances, may, at the discretion of the
division superintendent, be directed to proceed. He, being fully apprised of the position of the delayed
train, can readily form an opinion as to the propriety of doing so, and thus, whilst the delayed train is
permitted to run without regard to the slow train, the latter can be kept entirely out of its way.
“Note.—In moving trains by telegraph, nothing is left to chance. Orders are communicated to the conductors and engineers
of the opposing trains, and their answers returned giving their understanding of the order before either is allowed to proceed.
“Their passing place is fixed and determined, with orders positive and defined that neither shall proceed
beyond that point until after the arrival of the other; whereas, in the absence of a telegraph, conductors
are governed by general rules and their individual understanding of the same; which rules are generally
to the effect, that in cases of detention, the train arriving first at the regular passing place, shall, after
waiting a few minutes, proceed cautiously, ‘expecting to meet the other train,’ until they have met and
passed, the one failing to reach the ‘half way post’ between stations being required to back (always a
dangerous expedient), and the other permitted to proceed; the delayed train being subjected to the same
rule in regard to all other trains of the same class it may meet, thus pursuing its hazardous and uncertain
progress during the entire trip. The history of such a system furnishes a serious commentary on the
imperfection of railroad regulations.
“The liability to collision under the system referred to has prompted the invention of various expedients
for suddenly arresting the progress of trains; and which seem to have been conceived under the
impression, more imaginary than real, that the difficulties they were designed to obviate, are
unavoidable in their character; but which may, by the exercise of ordinary care and the use of the
telegraph, be subjected to perfect control. Some of these inventions undoubtedly possess sufficient merit
to entitle them to adoption under any circumstances, whilst others, for the above reasons, are entirely
valueless—indeed it is questionable whether a reliance on their use may not in many cases lead to
danger, by producing recklessness, and thus increase instead of diminish the evils sought to be
avoided.”
 NEW YORK AND ERIE RAILROAD.
422. As a fine specimen of American railroad engineering, and American railroad management, stands
the above-named line, extending from Jersey City to Lake Erie, at Dunkirk; embracing with its branches
496 miles of road, employing over 1,000,000 dollars worth of labor per annum, upwards of 200
locomotive engines, and about 3,000 cars; earning annually over 5,000,000, and expending 2,680,000
dollars.
The whole cost of the road up to September 30, 1855, was, with the equipment, nearly $33,750,000.
There are 129 truss bridges, amounting in all to 15,692 feet in length; 64 trestle, stringer, and pile
bridges, of 5,489 feet total length; 3 viaducts, of length 1,274 feet in all; 167 arch culverts, of from 3 to 30
feet span; 527 box culverts, from 1 to 12 feet span; 92 wood sheds, 14,200 feet total length; 435
buildings; 433 switches, of 387,914 feet available length, and 504,205 feet total length.
Notwithstanding the immense amount of business transacted by such a road, so complete is the
organization and management of employees, that the general superintendent, sitting in his New York
office, can at any moment tell, within one mile, where each car or engine is, what it is doing, with what
loaded, the consignor and consignee, and the time of arriving and departing the several stations, and
other trains; and thus at any moment may perceive and correct faults and remissness, and in reality
control the whole road.
APPENDIX.
 A.
DECIMAL ARITHMETIC.

The advantage of a Decimal system of Arithmetic and of

mensuration, as applied to engineering, can hardly be overstated.
Civil and mechanical engineers both use “per force” some decimal
expressions, as 0.7854, 3.1416, etc., etc. Why not adopt the system
entirely? All calculations are much easier made decimally, and
measurements made with more exactness. The most perfect system
of weights and measures is doubtless that of the French. All lengths
are based upon the meter as a unit, and whether the mechanic is
making a watch or a locomotive his scale is metrical. The meter is
1
exactly 10000000 of the distance from the pole to the equator, and was
found, by measuring a meridian line from Rhodes to Dunkirk
(France), 570 miles long. The metrical scale is thus,
Millimetre .001 1
or 1000
Centimetre .01 1
or 100
Decimetre .1 or ⅒
Metre 1.
Decametre 10.
Hectometre 100.
Kilometre 1000.
Myriametre 10000.
The metre is 3.280899 ft., or 39.370788 English inches. The English
35000
and American foot is ⅓ of the yard; the yard is 351393 of a pendulum
vibrating seconds at the latitude of London, at the level of the sea, in
a vacuum. The standard American scale is an eighty-two inch bar
made by Troughton of London for the United States Coast Survey. In
civil engineering the decimal division is almost entirely adopted;
indeed, any other would lead to almost endless calculation. The
chain is one hundred feet long and divided into one hundred links.
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