Business Research
Methods
Adopted From
Uma Sekaran
Revised by Nelson V. K. Wong
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Chapter 2
SCIENTIFIC
INVESTIGATION
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After completing this chapter you
would be able to understand:
1. The Hallmarks of Scientific Research
2. Some obstacles to conducting scientific
research in the management area
3. The building blocks of science in research
4. The hypothetico-deductive method
5. Other types of research
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Definition of Scientific
Research
Scientific Research focusing on solving
problems and pursues a step by step
logical, organized & rigorous method to
identify the problems, gather data,
analyze them and draw valid
conclusions there from.
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Why Scientific Research?
This research is not based on hunches (guess),
experience and intuition.
It is purposive and rigorous. It enables all those
who are interested in researching and knowing
about the same or similar issues to come up with
comparable findings when data are analyzed.
Findings are accurate and confident.
Apply solutions to similar problems.
It is more objective.
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Cont.
Highlights the most critical factors at the work
place that need specific attention to solve or
minimize problems.
Scientific investigation & managerial decision
making are integral part of effective problem
solving. It can be applied to both basic and
applied research.
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The Hallmarks of Scientific Research
The hallmarks or main distinguishing
characteristics of scientific research may be
listed as follows:
1. Purposiveness
2. Rigor
3. Testability
4. Replicability
5. Precision and Confidence
6. Objectivity
7. Generalizability
8. Parsimony
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Hallmarks of Scientific Research
1. Purposiveness
Research should have a clear aim or
purpose, focusing on solving specific
problems or answering particular
questions.
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2. Rigor
This refers to the careful and precise
methodology used in the research process,
ensuring that the study is conducted with
attention to detail and accuracy.
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Example 1:
A manager asks 10-12 employees how to increase
the level of commitment. If solely on the basis of
their responses the manager reaches several
conclusions on how employee commitment can be
increases, the whole approach to the investigation
would be unscientific. It would lack rigor for the
following reasons:
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1. Based on few employees
2. Bias and incorrectness
3. There might be other influences on commitment
which are ignored and are important for a researcher
to know
Thus, Rigorous involves good theoretical base and
thoughtout methodology.
➢ These factors enable the researcher to collect the right
kind of information from an appropriate sample with
the minimum degree of bias and facilitate suitable
analysis of the data gathered.
➢ This supports the other six too.
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3. Testability
Scientific research must involve hypotheses
that can be tested through empirical data
collection and analysis.
After random selection manager and researcher
develops certain hypothesis on how manager
employee commitment can be enhanced, then
these can be tested by applying certain statistical
tests to the data collected for the purpose.
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4. Replicability
It means that the same methods should
yield similar results when applied in similar
contexts.
Example 1: The study concludes that
participation in decision making is one of the
most important factors that influences the
commitment, we will place more faith and
credence in these finding and apply in
similar situations. To the extent that this does
happen, we will gain confidence in the
scientific nature of our research.
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5. Precision and Confidence
Precision
Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to
“reality” based on a sample.
It reflects the degree of accuracy and exactitude of the
results of the sample.
Example: If a supervisor estimated the number of
production days lost during the year due to
absenteeism at between 30 - 40, as against the
actual of 35, the precision of my estimation (1/10)
more favorably than if he has indicated that the
loss of production days was somewhere between
20 – 50 (1/20).
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5. Precision and Confidence
Confidence refers to the probability that our
estimations are correct.
That is, it is not merely enough to be precise,
but it is also important that we can
confidently claim that 95% of the time our
results would be true and there is only a 5%
chance of our being wrong.
This is also known as confidence level.
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6. Objectivity
The conclusions drawn through the interpretation
of the results of data analysis should be should be
free from bias; they should be based on the facts
of the findings derived from data rather than
personal beliefs or opinions.
For example: If we had a hypothesis that stated
that greater participation in decision making will
increase organizational commitment & this was
not supported by the results, it makes no sense if
the researcher continues to argue that increased
opportunities for employee participation would
still help!
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7. Generalizability
The results of the research should be applicable to
broader contexts beyond the specific study
sample, allowing for wider implications.
For example: If a researcher’s findings that
participation in decision making enhances
organizational commitment are found to be true
in a variety of manufacturing, industrial and
service organizations, and not merely in the
particular organization studied by the researcher,
then the generalizability of the findings to other
organizational settings in enhanced. The more
generalizable the research, the greater its
usefulness and value.
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8. Parsimony
The research should strive for simplicity,
avoiding unnecessary complexity in
explanations and theories.
For instance, if 2-3 specific variables in the work
situation are identified, which when changed
would raise the organizational commitment of the
employees by 45%, that would be more useful be
more useful and valuable to the manager than if it
were recommended that he should change 10
different variables to increase organizational
commitment by 48%.
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The Building Blocks of Science in
Research
Deduction and Induction
Deduction and induction are 2
fundamental reasoning processes used
in scientific research and logical
reasoning.
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Deduction : If.. then..
It is a logical process where conclusions are
drawn from general principles or premises.
It starts with a general statement or
hypothesis & examines the possibilities to
reach a specific, logical conclusion. If the
premises are true, the conclusion must also
be true.
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Deduction
Example:
Premise 1: All humans are mortal.
Premise 2: Socrates is a human.
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
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Induction
Induction is a reasoning process that involves
drawing general conclusions from specific
observations or instances. It starts with specific
data or observations and formulates a
generalization or theory based on the patterns
observed. Inductive reasoning does not guarantee
the truth of the conclusion, but it suggests that it
is likely based on the evidence.
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Induction
Induction is a process where we observe certain
phenomena & on this basis arrive at conclusions.
In other words, in induction we logically
establish a general proposition based on
observed facts.
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Example of Induction
Observation 1: The sun has risen in the east every day of
my life.
Observation 2: The sun rose in the east yesterday.
Conclusion: Therefore, the sun will rise in the east
tomorrow.
The conclusion is based on repeated observations. While it
is highly probable that the sun will rise in the east again, it
is not guaranteed, as it is based on past experiences rather
than a definitive logical structure.
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Summary
Deduction moves from general principles to
specific conclusions, ensuring that if the premises
are true, the conclusion must also be true.
Induction moves from specific observations to
broader generalizations, suggesting likely
conclusions based on patterns but without
absolute certainty.
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hypothetico-deductive research
The hypothetico-deductive method
involves a systematic approach to
scientific research, consisting of the
following 7 steps.
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1. Identify a Broad Problem Area
This step involves recognizing a general issue
that needs investigation/observation.
For example, a manager notices a decline in
employee productivity.
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2. Define the Problem Statement
The researcher narrows down the broad
problem into a specific statement that
outlines the objectives and research
questions. For instance, the problem
statement could be: "What factors are
contributing to the decline in employee
productivity?"
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3. Develop Hypotheses
Based on the problem statement, the
researcher formulates testable hypotheses.
For example, one hypothesis might be:
"Increased workload is negatively
affecting employee productivity."
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4. Determine Measures
This step involves deciding how to measure
the variables involved in the hypotheses.
For example, the researcher might choose to
measure productivity through performance
metrics and workload through employee
surveys.
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5. Data Collection
The researcher gathers data relevant to
the hypotheses. In this case, data could
be collected through surveys distributed
to employees regarding their workload
and productivity levels.
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6. Data Analysis
After collecting the data, the researcher
analyzes it to determine whether the
hypotheses are supported.
For example, statistical analysis could
reveal a correlation between increased
workload and decreased productivity.
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7. Interpretation of Data
Finally, the researcher interprets the
results, drawing conclusions about the
hypotheses. If the analysis shows a
significant negative correlation, the
researcher might conclude that increased
workload is indeed impacting
productivity and recommend strategies to
manage workloads better.
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The Hypothetico-Deductive Method
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Observation
Observation is the first stage, in which
one senses that certain changes are
occurring or that some new behaviors,
attitudes and feelings are surfacing in
one’s environment (i.e., the work place).
How does one observe phenomena and
changes in the environment?
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Preliminary Information Gathering
It involves the seeking of information in depth, of
what is observed.
This could be done by talking informally to
several people in the work setting or to clients or
to other relevant sources, thereby gathering
information on what is happening and why
(unstructured interviews). Then it is followed by
structured interviews. Additionally, by doing
library research or obtaining information through
other sources, the investigator would identify
how such issues have been tackled in other
situations.
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Theory Formulation
It is an attempt to integrate all the information in
a logical manners, so that the factors responsible
for the problem can be on conceptualized and
tested.
The theoretical framework formulated is often
guided by experience and intuition.
In this step the critical variables are identified
& examined as to their contribution or influence
in explaining why the problem occurs & how it
can be solved.
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Hypothesizing
It is the next logical step after theory formulation.
From the theorized network of associations
among the variables, certain testable hypotheses
or educated conjectures can be generated.
Hypothesis testing is called deductive research.
Sometimes, hypotheses that were not originally
formulated, it is generated through the process of
induction.
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Further Specific Data Collection
After the development of the hypotheses,
data with respect to each variable in the
hypotheses need to be obtained.
Further data are collected to test the
hypotheses that are generated in the study.
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Data Analysis
Data gathered are statistically analyzed to
see if the hypotheses that were generated
have been supported.
Co-relational method will be used to
analyze & determine the relationship of 2
or more factors in the hypotheses.
For example: stock availability &
customer satisfaction.
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Deduction
Deduction is the process of arriving
at conclusions by interpreting the
meaning of results of the data
analysis.
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Other Types of Research
Case studies and action research
are sometimes used to study certain
types of issues.
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Case Studies
➢ Case studies involve in depth, contextual analyses of
similar situations in the other organizations, where the
nature & definition of the problem happen to be the
same as experienced in the current situation.
➢ Case study, as a problem-solving technique, is not often
undertaken in organizations because such studies
dealing with problems similar to the one experienced by
a particular organization of a particular size and in a
particular type of setting are difficult to come by.
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Action Research
➢ The researcher begins with a problem that is
already identified and gathers relevant data to
provide a tentative problem solution.
➢ This solution is then implemented, with the
knowledge that there may be un-intended
consequences following such implementation.
➢ The effects are then evaluated, defined and
diagnosed and the research continues on an
ongoing basis until the problem is fully resolved.
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Alternative perspectives on making good research
Alternative perspectives on what constitutes "good
research" stem from differing philosophical
foundations and methodological approaches.
Different perspectives on what makes good research
highlight the diversity of approaches in the field. Each
perspective offers valuable insights and methodologies
that can enhance our understanding of complex
phenomena. The choice of perspective often depends
on the research question, the context of the study, and
the goals of the researcher.
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Some of the key perspectives
➢ Positivism good
research
➢ Interpretivism
➢ Critical
Realism
➢ Constructivism
➢ Pragmatism
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Positivism - data & proof
It emphasizes the use of scientific methods &
empirical data to derive knowledge.
It advocates for objective measurement and
observable phenomena.
Good research is characterized by rigor,
replicability, & the ability to generalize findings.
It relies heavily on quantitative methods &
statistical analysis to test hypotheses.
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Interpretivism - why?
It focuses on understanding the subjective
meanings & experiences of individuals. It
emphasizes the context & the complexity of
human behavior. It values depth over breadth,
using qualitative methods such as interviews &
case studies to explore participants' perspectives. It
seeks to understand the "why" behind behaviors
rather than just the "what."
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Critical Realism
It acknowledges the existence of an objective
reality but also recognizes that our understanding
of it is mediated by social, cultural, & historical
contexts.
It aims to uncover underlying structures &
mechanisms that influence observable
phenomena. It combines both qualitative &
quantitative methods to provide a more
comprehensive understanding.
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Constructivism
It posits that knowledge is constructed
through social processes & interactions. It
emphasizes the role of context & the
subjective nature of reality.
Good research is seen as collaborative &
participatory, often involving stakeholders
in the research process. It values multiple
perspectives & the co-construction of
knowledge.
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Pragmatism
It focuses on the practical implications of research
& the usefulness of findings in real-world
applications. It does not adhere strictly to one
methodology but rather uses whatever methods are
most effective for the research question.
Good research is flexible, context-sensitive, &
aimed at solving practical problems. It values both
qualitative & quantitative approaches as needed.
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Conclusion
Different perspectives on what makes good
research highlight the diversity of approaches in
the field. Each perspective offers valuable
insights & methodologies that can enhance our
understanding of complex phenomena.
The choice of perspective often depends on the
research question, the context of the study, & the
goals of the researcher.
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Different perspectives on research to
acquire knowledge
Epistemology is the branch of
philosophy that studies the nature,
origin, & limits of knowledge.
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epistemology
What is knowledge? How do we acquire
knowledge? What do we know, and how do we
know it?
In the context of research, epistemology examines
the assumptions and beliefs that underpin
different approaches to inquiry and the methods
used to gather and interpret data.
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Importance of Understanding Different
Perspectives on Research
1. Influence on Research Design:
Different epistemological perspectives shape how
researchers formulate their questions, design their
studies, and choose their methods. For instance, a
positivist approach may lead to quantitative methods,
while an interpretivist approach may favor qualitative
methods. Understanding these perspectives helps
researchers select the most appropriate design for their
specific research questions.
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Importance of Understanding Different
Perspectives on Research
2. Awareness of Biases:
Recognizing the epistemological standpoint can
help researchers become aware of their biases &
assumptions. This awareness is crucial for
maintaining objectivity & rigor in research, as it
allows researchers to critically evaluate their
own perspectives and the potential impact on
their findings.
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Importance of Understanding Different
Perspectives on Research
3. Diverse Methodological Approaches:
Different epistemologies advocate for various
methodologies, each with its strengths &
limitations. By understanding these diverse
approaches, researchers can adopt a more
different & pluralistic view, integrating multiple
methods to enrich their studies & provide a more
comprehensive understanding of the phenomena
being investigated.
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Importance of Understanding Different
Perspectives on Research
4. Enhancing Validity and Reliability:
Knowledge of different epistemological
perspectives can improve the validity &
reliability of research findings. By employing
triangulation—using multiple methods or
perspectives to study a phenomenon—
researchers can cross-verify results & enhance
the robustness(being strong enough to withstand)
of their conclusions.
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Importance of Understanding Different
Perspectives on Research
5. Facilitating Communication:
Understanding various epistemological
perspectives fosters better communication among
researchers, practitioners, & stakeholders. It
allows for a more nuanced discussion about
research findings & their implications, as different
stakeholders may have different views on what
constitutes valid knowledge.
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Importance of Understanding Different
Perspectives on Research
6. Guiding Ethical Considerations:
Different epistemological perspectives can also
influence ethical considerations in research. For
example, participatory approaches emphasize
collaboration & respect for participants' voices,
which can lead to more ethical research
practices. Understanding these perspectives
helps researchers navigate ethical dilemmas
effectively.
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Conclusion
In summary, epistemology is a foundational
aspect of research that influences how knowledge
is constructed and understood. Being aware of
different perspectives on research is essential for
designing effective studies, recognizing biases,
enhancing the validity of findings, and fostering
meaningful communication among researchers
and stakeholders. This understanding ultimately
contributes to the advancement of knowledge in
various fields.
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Exercise of chapter 2
Critique the following research done in
a service industry as to the extent to
which it meets the hallmarks of
scientific investigation discussed in this
chapter.
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The Mobile Phone Company
The Mobile Phone Company has been named as the most
complained‐about mobile phone company, narrowly
beating 3G, which has shot to the top of the table as the
worst landline provider. According to the latest figures
from the regulator, Ofcom, the Mobile Phone Company
was the most complained‐about mobile provider – with
0.15 complaints per 1,000 – in the last 3 months of 2014.
It saw its complaint figures rise substantially in the last
quarter of 2014. The company wanted to pinpoint the
specific problems and take corrective action.
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The Mobile Phone Company
Researchers were called in, and they spoke to a number
of customers, noting the nature of the specific problems
they faced. Because the problem had to be attended to
very quickly, they developed a theoretical base, collected
relevant detailed information from a sample of 100
customers, and analyzed the data. The results promise
to be fairly accurate with at least an 85% chance of
success in problem solving. The researchers will make
recommendations to the company based on the results
of data analysis.
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make-up classes
1. ClassTime: 2025/02/19 14:30~17:30
ClassVenue: A108 [32] (135-課室)
2. ClassTime: 2025/04/02 14:30~17:30
ClassVenue: A108 [32] (135-課室)
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Thanks
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