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Dislocation strengthening mechanism
Mechanisms of plastic deformation in metals
Slip
Slip is the prominent mechanism of plastic deformation in metals. It involves
sliding of blocks of crystal over one other along definite crystallographic planes,
called slip planes.
In physical words it is analogous to a deck of cards when it is pushed from one
end. Slip occurs when shear stress applied exceeds a critical value.
During slip each atom usually moves same integral number of atomic distances
along the slip plane producing a step, but the orientation of the crystal remains the
same. Steps observable under microscope as straight lines are called slip lines.
Slip occurs most readily in specific directions (slip directions) on certain
crystallographic planes. This is due to limitations imposed by the fact that single
crystal remains homogeneous after deformation.
In a single crystal, plastic deformation is accomplished by the process called slip,
and sometimes by twinning.
In a polycrystalline aggregate, individual grains provide a mutual geometrical
constraint on one other, and this precludes plastic deformation at low applied
stresses. That is to initiate plastic deformation, polycrystalline metals require
higher stresses than for equivalent single crystals, where stress depends on
orientation of the crystal.
Slip in polycrystalline material involves generation, movement and re-
arrangement of dislocations. Because of dislocation motion on different planes in
various directions, they may interact as well. This interaction can cause
dislocation immobile or mobile at higher stresses.
Twinning
The second important mechanism of plastic deformation is twinning.
It results when a portion of crystal takes up an orientation that is related to the
orientation of the rest of the untwined lattice in a definite, symmetrical way.
The twinned portion of the crystal is a mirror image of the parent crystal. The
plane of symmetry is called twinning plane.
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Each atom in the twinned region moves by a homogeneous shear a distance
proportional to its distance from the twin plane. The lattice strains involved in
twinning are small, usually in order of fraction of inter-atomic distance, thus
resulting in very small gross plastic deformation.
The important role of twinning in plastic deformation is that it causes changes in
plane orientation so that further slip can occur. If the surface is polished, the twin
would be still visible after etching because it possesses a different orientation
from the untwined region. This is in contrast with slip, where slip lines can be
removed by polishing the specimen.
Strengthening mechanisms in Metals
Strengthening of a metal consist hindering dislocation motion.
Dislocation motion can be hindered in many ways, thus are strengthening
mechanisms in metals. Strengthening by methods of grain-size reduction, solid-
solution alloying and strain hardening applies for single-phase metals.
Precipitation hardening, dispersion hardening, fibre strengthening and
Martensite strengthening are applicable to multi-phase metallic materials.
Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction
This strengthening mechanism is based on the fact that crystallographic
orientation changes abruptly in passing from one grain to the next across the
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grain boundary. Thus it is difficult for a dislocation moving on a common slip
plane in one crystal to pass over to a similar slip plane in another grain,
especially if the orientation is very misaligned.
A grain boundary can hinder the dislocation motion in two ways: (1) by forcing
the dislocation to change its direction of motion and (2) discontinuity of slip
plane because of disorder.
With decrease in grain size, the mean distance of a dislocation can travel
decreases, and soon starts pile up of dislocations at grain boundaries. This
leads to increase in yield strength of the material.
Solid Solution Strengthening
Adding atoms of another element that those occupy interstitial or
substitutional positions in parent lattice increases the strength of parent
material. This is because stress fields generated around the solute atoms
interact with the stress fields of a moving dislocation, thereby increasing the
stress required for plastic deformation i.e. the impurity atoms cause lattice
strain which can "anchor" dislocations. This occurs when the strain caused by
the alloying element compensates that of the dislocation, thus achieving a state
of low potential energy.
|It can be said that solute atoms have more influence on the frictional
resistance to dislocation motion than on the static locking of dislocations. Pure
metals are almost always softer than their alloys. Solute strengthening
effectiveness depends on two factors – size difference between solute and
parent atoms, and concentration of solute atoms.
Strain Hardening
Strain hardening is used for hardening/strengthening materials that are not
responsive to heat treatment. The phenomenon where ductile metals become
stronger and harder when they are deformed plastically is called strain
hardening or work hardening.
Strain hardening is used commercially to enhance the mechanical properties
of metals during fabrication procedures. In addition to mechanical properties,
physical properties of a material also change during cold working. There is
usually a small decrease in density, an appreciable decrease in electrical
conductivity, small increase in thermal coefficient of expansion and increased
chemical reactivity (decrease in corrosion resistance).
Precipitation Hardening and Dispersion strengthening
The small particles distributed in a ductile matrix can hinder the dislocation
motion and thus increase the strength of a material.
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This particle either can be introduced by mixing and consolidation (dispersion
strengthening) or precipitated in solid state (precipitation hardening).
Precipitation hardening or age hardening is produced by solution treating and
quenching an alloy. Term ‘Age hardening’ is used to describe the process
because strength develops with time.
Fiber strengthening
The material can also be introduced into matrix in form of fibers to strengthen
it. However, mechanism of strengthening is different from either precipitation
hardening or dispersion strengthening where second phase is introduced as
fine particles.
In fiber-reinforced materials, high modulus fibers carry essentially the entire
load while the matrix serves to transmit the load to the fibers. Matrix also
protects fibers from surface damage, serves to blunt cracks which arise from
fiber breakage while it also serves to separate the fibres.
Martensite Strengthening
This strengthening can be achieved in systems where a diffusion-controlled
invariant transformation can be suppressed by rapid cooling.
The Martensite strengthening process, thus, basically is a diffusion-less and
displacive reaction.
The martensitic phase is formed from the retained high temperature phase at
temperatures lower than the equilibrium invariant transformation
temperature.
Recrystallization and Grain Growth
During recrystallization, the mechanical properties that were changes during
deformation are restored to their pre-cold-work values. Thus material
becomes softer, weaker and ductile.
During this stage of annealing impurity atoms tend to segregate at grain
boundaries, and retard their motion and obstruct the processes of nucleation
and growth.
During this stage newly formed strain-free grains tend to grow in size. This
grain growth occurs by the migration of grain boundaries. Driving force for this
process is reduction in grain boundary energy i.e. decreasing in free energy of
the material. As the grains grow larger, the curvature of the boundaries
becomes less. This results in a tendency for larger grains to grow at the
expense of smaller grains.
