Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 1: Forces and Motion

Summary Notes
(Content in bold is for physics only)

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Movement and position

• Speed is defined as the distance travelled per unit time. If the speed of something is
changing, it is accelerating. The acceleration of free fall near to the Earth is constant.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
• 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
• Velocity is the speed in a given direction.
• Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣−𝑢
• 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑎= 𝑡
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
• (𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)2 = (𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)2 + (2 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒) 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
• Distance is measured in metres (m), time in seconds (s), speed and velocity in metres per
second (m/s), and acceleration in metres per second squared (m/s2).

In a distance-time graph:

• The gradient is velocity

o Negative gradient is returning back to the
starting point
• A horizontal line means it is stationary
• If the distance is zero, it is back at the starting point
• A curved line means that the velocity is changing,
and it is accelerating.

In a velocity-time graph:

• The gradient is acceleration

o Negative gradient (i.e. negative acceleration)
is deceleration
• If the speed is zero, it is at rest
• A horizontal line means constant speed
• The area under the line is the distance travelled
• A curved line means that the acceleration is
changing.

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Forces, movement, shape and momentum
Vectors & scalars:

• A vector has magnitude and direction

• A scalar has just a magnitude

Examples:

Scalars Vectors
Distance Displacement
Speed Velocity
Time Acceleration
Energy Force

Effects of forces:

Forces can change the speed, shape or direction of a body and they are measured in Newtons (N).
There are various different types of forces (e.g. gravitational, electrostatic).

Friction is a force between two surfaces which impedes motion and results in heating. Air
resistance is a form of friction.

To find the resultant of two or more forces acting along the same line, they should be added
together if in the same direction and subtracted if in the opposite direction.

• Newton’s first law states that an object has a constant velocity unless acted on by a
resultant force.
• Newton’s second law states that 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
• Newton’s third law states that every action force has an equal and opposite reaction
force. For example, the force of the Earth’s gravity on an object is equal and
opposite to the force of the object’s gravity on the Earth.

Mass is a measure of how much matter is in an object, measured in kilograms (kg). Weight is a
gravitational force (the effect of a gravitational field on a mass).

• 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

• The gravitational field strength on Earth is 10N/kg.
• The weight of an object acts through its centre of gravity.

For example, motion of a body falling in a uniform gravitational field:

• Initially, there is no air resistance and the only force acting on it is weight
• As it falls, it accelerates which increases its speed and hence air resistance
• This causes the resultant force downwards to decrease
• Therefore, the acceleration decreases, so it is not speeding up as quickly
• Eventually they are equal and opposite and balance so there is no resultant force
• So, there is no acceleration and the terminal velocity is reached

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When a driver notices a hazard:
• The distance travelled in the time between the driving realising he needs to brake and
actually pressing the brakes is called the thinking distance. Factors which increase the
thinking distance include:
o Greater speed
o Slower reaction time due to alcohol, tiredness or distractions. Reaction time can
also be increased by caffeine, which reduces the thinking distance.
• The distance travelled in the time between pressing the brakes and the vehicle coming to a
stop is called the braking distance. Factors which increase the stopping distance include:
o Greater speed or mass
o Poor road conditions (icy, wet) or car conditions (worn tires, worn brake pads)
• The stopping distance is the sum of the thinking distance and braking distance.

A force may produce a change in size and shape of a body. This is called deformation:

• Elastic deformation is when the object returns to its original shape when the load has been
removed, an example being a spring being stretched under normal usage.

Hooke’s law states that for a spring, 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 where F is the force applied to the spring, k is the
spring constant, and x is the extension.

Linear (straight line) force-extension graph:

• Elastic deformation following Hooke’s law
o The point it stops being linear is called the
limit of proportionality. From then on, it
does not obey Hooke’s law.
• Gradient is the spring constant, k

Non-linear (curved line) force-extension graph:

• Deformation not following Hooke’s law
• After this region, it will fracture

The moment of a force is a measure of its turning effect, measured in Newton metres (Nm).
• 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒗𝒐𝒕 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝑭𝒅
• An object is in equilibrium when the sum of clockwise moments equals the sum of
anticlockwise moments (the principle of moments) and there is no resultant force.
• For a horizontal beam supported at its ends, the upwards forces at the supports
change with the position of a heavy object placed on the beam. The nearer the heavy
object to a given support, the greater the force at that support.

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The momentum of an object is the product of its mass and velocity:
• 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗
• It is measured in kilogram metres per second (kgm/s).

The force exerted on an object is equal to its change in momentum over time:
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒎𝒗−𝒎𝒖
• 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
𝑭= 𝒕
• Safety features in cars work by increasing the time taken for the people in the car to
come to rest (i.e. there is the same change in momentum in a longer time, so the
force is reduced). For example, a seatbelt achieves this by stretching.

In a collision, the total momentum before is equal to the total momentum afterwards, known
as the principle of the conservation of momentum.

For example: a 10kg stationary gun is loaded with a 0.01kg bullet. It is fired, with the bullet
travelling at 100m/s. What is the recoil speed of the gun?

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝟎

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒔
𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝒗
𝒗 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝒎/𝒔
So, the recoil speed is 0.1m/s (-0.1m/s is the velocity which is a vector, so we take the
magnitude of it as we are finding the speed).

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 Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 2: Electricity
Summary Notes
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Energy and voltage in circuits
Current

Current​ I is measured in ​amperes (A)​ and is the ​rate of flow of charge​ at a ​point​ in the circuit.
● The current is given by I=Q/t, where Q is measured in ​coulombs (C) ​and t in ​seconds (s).
● In metals, current is due to a ​flow of electrons.​ In solutions it can be the flow of ions.
Conventional current is the rate of flow of ​positive​ charge - this is in the ​opposite​ direction
to the flow of electrons because electrons are ​negatively​ charged.
● Current is ​conserved​ at a ​junction ​in a circuit because charge is always conserved.
● Current is measured with an ​ammeter ​connected in ​series ​with the component.

Potential difference

Potential difference ​V is measured in​ volts (V where 1 V = 1 JC​ ) ​and is the ​work done per unit
-1​

charge​ in moving​ between two points​ in a circuit.

● The potential difference is given by V=E/Q.
● It is measured with a ​voltmeter​ placed in​ parallel ​across the component.
● The higher the potential difference, the greater the current (​V = IR​).

Resistance

The ​resistance​ of a component is measured in ​ohms (Ω) ​and is given by the potential difference
across it divided by the current through it, i.e. ​R=V/I​. The greater the resistance, the harder it is for
current to flow through the component.

In an ​ohmic conductor ​(such as a ​resistor at a constant temperature​),​ ​the current is directly

proportional to the voltage (i.e. it has constant resistance). In a non-ohmic conductor (such as a
filament lamp​), the resistance changes as the voltage and current changes.

In a filament lamp, this is because as the ​current increases​ through the filament, so does the
temperature,​ which means ​electrons and ions vibrate more​ and ​collide more, increasing
resistance.

A​ thermistor​ is a resistor whose resistance decreases as the​ temperature​ increases.

A ​light dependent resistor​ is a resistor whose resistance decreases as ​light intensity​ increases.

Electric circuits

Series:
● Components are connected ​end to end​ in one loop
● The ​same current​ flows through every component

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 ● The ​potential difference is shared​ across each component - depending upon their
resistance (i.e. the sum of the p.d.s across the components is equal to the total p.d. across
the supply) - components with a higher resistance have a greater PD across.
● The total resistance in series is the ​sum of the resistances​ of each component​ R​ = R​ + R​
T​ 1​ 2

Parallel:
● Components are connected to the power supply in ​separate branches
● The ​current is shared ​between each branch (i.e. the sum of the currents in the separate
branches is equal to the current through the source) - because charge can only flow one
way.
● The ​potential difference​ is the ​same​ across every branch
● Connecting lamps in parallel is advantageous because if one breaks, current can still pass
through the rest.

Mains electricity
Dangers of electricity

Hazards:

● Damaged insulation​ – contact with the wire due to gaps in the insulation can cause an
electric shock​ or pose a​ fire hazard​ by creating a short circuit.
● Overheating of cables​ – high currents passing through thin wire conductors cause the
wires to heat up to very high temperatures which could ​melt the insulation​ and cause a
fire.
● Damp conditions – water can conduct a current so wet electrical equipment can cause an
electric shock.

Fuses and circuit breakers:

● A ​fuse​ is a thin piece of​ wire ​which overheats and ​melts​ if the ​current is too high,
protecting the circuit.​ They have a current ​rating​ which should be slightly higher than the
current used by the device in the circuit. The most common are 3A, 5A and 13A.
● Circuit breakers ​consist of an automatic ​electromagnet​ switch which ​breaks the circuit ​if
the ​current rises over a certain value.​ This is better than a fuse as it can be ​reset​ and
used again, and they operate ​faster.

Earthing metal cases:

● Earth wires create a ​safe route​ for current to flow through in the case of a ​short circuit,
preventing electric shocks.
● Earth wires have a​ very low resistance​ so a strong current surges through them which
breaks the fuse and disconnects the appliance.

Double insulation:

● Appliances with ​double insulation ​have either ​plastic casings ​completely covering their
electrical components, or have been designed so that the earth wire ​cannot touch​ the
metal casing, preventing them from giving an electric shock.

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Electrical transfer of energy

Energy, measured in ​joules (J)​, is transferred from ​chemical ​energy in the ​battery ​to​ electrical
energy used by ​circuit components ​and then to the ​surroundings.
● The ​power​ of a component is measured in ​watts (W) ​and is given by P=IV (by using V=IR,
this can be shown to be equivalent to P=I​2​R and P=V​2​/R)​. ​Using this equation, the energy
transferred is given by E=IVt.

Alternating current and direct current

In a​ direct current,​ the current only flows in ​one direction​ whereas in an​ alternating current,​ the
current continuously ​changes direction.

Mains electricity ​is an alternating current (a.c.) whereas the current supplied by a ​cell or battery
is direct current (d.c.).

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Electric charge
Charge​ is measured in coulombs, C. There are ​positive​ and ​negative​ charges; ​opposite ​charges
attract​ and ​like​ charges​ repel.
● Atoms are composed of protons, electrons and neutrons. Protons have a charge of ​+1​,
electrons have a charge of ​-1​ and neutrons have a charge of ​0​.
● Charging a body involves the ​addition​ or ​removal​ of ​electrons - ​charging atoms creates
ions.
● Conductors​ such as ​metals​ allow electrons to flow through them whereas ​insulators ​such
as ​plastics​ impede the flow of electrons.
o When two insulators are ​rubbed​ together, friction causes electrons to move from
one to the other and they become charged. The material that loses electrons
becomes ​positively charged​ and the material that gains electrons becomes
negatively charged​.
o The ​magnitude​ of the charge on each material is equal, since they lose/gain the
same number​ of electrons.
o For example, when a​ rod​ is rubbed with a ​cloth,​ electrons are transferred from the
rod onto the cloth and the rod becomes positively charged.
The charges cannot move within the insulator so they build up - this is known as ​static electricity​.

Consequences of static electricity can be seen in a number of phenomena.

● Lightning:
○ Electrostatic charge can build up on clouds due to ​friction​.
○ When this charge becomes large enough, the clouds ​discharge​ through the air to
the earth. This results in ​lightning​.
● Charged balloon on a wall:
○ A positively charged balloon will stick to a wall if moved close enough.
○ Positive charges in the wall are​ repelled by the balloon​ and move to other parts of
the wall. This leaves a ​negative charge​ on the area of the wall closest to the
balloon.
○ The ​attraction​ between the ​negatively charged wall​ and the​ positively charged
balloon​ makes the balloon stick.
● Comb picking up bits of paper:
○ Rubbing a comb against an​ insulator ​will cause it to pick up an electrostatic charge
due to the ​transfer of electrons​.
○ The charge on the comb ​repels ​like-charged in the paper, leaving the paper closest
to the comb with an electrostatic charge ​opposite to the comb​.
○ This end of the paper is then ​attracted​ to the comb.

Electrostatic phenomena caused by the movement of electrons have many useful applications but
also pose many risks.
● Dangers of electrostatic charges include:
o Static charges pose a risk of ​electric shock​. If a person touches an object with a
large amount of static charge, electrons will flow through the person’s body to the
earth​.
o When ​fuelling aircraft and tankers, ​if enough charge builds up on the vehicle or
pump it can create a ​spark.​ This can ignite the fuel and cause a ​fire or explosion.
For safety, an ​earthing ​wire can be attached so that the charge instead flows into
the earth.
● Safety measures when using electrostatic charges include:
o Earthing​ involves offering electrons an ​alternative pathway​ to the earth.

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 o This prevents too much electrostatic charge form ​building up​ on the surface of an
insulator. Less electrostatic charge​ reduces the risk​ of electric shock, or the harm it
can cause.
● Uses of electrostatic charges include:
o In an ​inkjet printer, ​droplets of ​ink​ are ​charged ​and pass between ​two charged
metal plates,​ one of which has a positive charge and the other a negative charge.
The droplets are attracted to the plate with the opposite charge and repelled by the
plate with the same charge and ​deflected​ towards a specific place on the paper.

o In a ​photocopier, ​the image of a document is projected onto a ​positively charged

plate; ​where light falls onto the plate, the charge leaks away. ​Negatively charged
toner particles ​are attracted to the remaining positive areas. Paper is then placed
over the plate and the toner is transferred to it, making the photocopy.

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 Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 3: Waves
Summary Notes
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General wave properties
Waves ​transfer energy and information without transferring matter; ​the particles oscillate
about a fixed point.

● Transverse​ waves
o Have​ peaks​ and ​troughs
o Vibrations are at ​right angles ​to the direction of travel
o An example is light
● Longitudinal​ waves
o Consists of compressions (particles pushed together) and rarefactions (particles
moved apart)
o Vibrations are in the ​same direction ​as the direction of travel
o An example is sound

Amplitude – the ​distance​ from the ​equilibrium​ position to the ​maximum displacement
Wavefront – a line joining points on a wave at the same point in their wave cycle at a given
time
Frequency – the ​number of waves​ that pass a single point​ per second
Wavelength – the ​distance​ between a ​point​ on one wave and the ​same point​ on the next wave
Time period – the ​time taken ​for ​one complete wave ​to pass a fixed point

The ​speed​ of a wave is equal to the product of the frequency and wavelength:
● speed = f requency×wavelength v = fλ
The frequency of a wave is equal to the reciprocal of the time period, measured in ​Hertz (Hz):
1
● f requency = time period f = T1

The Doppler Effect:

If a wave source is ​moving relative ​to an observer, there will be a

change​ in the ​observed frequency and wavelength ​due to the
Doppler effect. ​This is because the wavefronts either get ​bunched
together​ or ​spaced apart. ​An example of this is when the siren of an
ambulance is high-pitched as it approaches you, and low-pitched as
it goes away.

Reflection:
● All ​waves can be ​reflected ​when they travel from a medium of low
optical density ​(such as air) to one of much higher optical density
(such as glass)
● The law of reflection states that:
o Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
● Frequency, wavelength, and speed are all ​unchanged

Refraction:
● All waves can be refracted, which is when the ​speed​ of a wave
changes​ when it enters a new medium
● If the wave enters a ​denser​ medium, its speed ​decreases​ and it
bends ​towards​ the normal
● If the wave enters a​ less dense​ medium, its speed ​increases
and it bends ​away from​ the normal

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 ● In all cases, the ​frequency​ stays the ​same​ but the ​wavelength changes.​ As a result, the
velocity must change.

Electromagnetic spectrum
You need to learn the ​main groups ​of the electromagnetic spectrum in order of ​decreasing
wavelength ​and ​increasing frequency ​including the ​colours​ of the visible spectrum (ROYGBIV).

All electromagnetic waves travel with the ​same high speed​ in a vacuum and ​approximately the
same​ speed in air.

Uses of electromagnetic waves:

● Radio waves​ are used for ​radio and television communications.​ They have a long
wavelength and are reflected by a layer of the atmosphere called the ​ionosphere​.
● Microwaves​ are used for ​satellite transmissions​ and in ​cooking.​ As they have a greater
frequency (shorter wavelength) they are more penetrating so can pass through the
ionosphere and penetrate deep into food.
● Infrared radiation​ is used in ​heaters ​and​ night vision equipment.
● Visible light ​is used in ​fibre optics ​and ​photography.
● Ultraviolet ​light is used in ​fluorescent lamps.
● X-rays​ are used in ​medical imaging ​and in ​security​ as (because they have a very short
wavelength and high frequency) they can penetrate material easily.
● Gamma radiation​ is used in ​sterilising food and medical equipment ​due to its high
energy.

Hazards:
● Microwaves can cause ​internal heating​ of body tissues.
● Infrared radiation can cause ​skin burns.
● Ultraviolet light exposure increases the risk of​ skin cancer​ and ​blindness.
o Sun cream ​and ​sun glasses ​prevent over-exposure in summer.
● X-rays and Gamma rays are ​ionising​ radiation that can cause ​mutations​ leading to
cancer.
o Exposure​ to these kinds of radiation should be ​minimised ​(for example, by using
protective shielding made of very dense materials such as lead).

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Light and sound
Light​ waves are ​transverse​ waves and can be ​reflected​ and ​refracted.

● Reflection​ of light can be shown when light reflects at a plane

mirror and forms an image.
o This can be represented by a ​ray diagram​ like the first
one shown on the right.
● Refraction​ of light can be shown when light is passed through a
glass slab at an angle to its normal.
o When light enters a more optically dense medium,
the ​angle of incidence ​(the angle between the
incident ray and the normal) is​ greater​ than the
angle of refraction​ (the angle between the
refracted ray and the normal). This can be
represented by a ray diagram like the second one
shown on the right.
o The​ opposite​ is true when light enters a less
optically dense medium.

Snell's law​ relates the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction to the refractive index of a
medium by n1sini = n2sinr where n is the optical density & i is the angle of incidence and r is the
angle of refraction.

Total internal reflection:

● At a certain angle of incidence called the ​critical angle​, the light
will travel along the boundary between the two media.
● Total internal reflection​ occurs when the angle of incidence is
greater​ than the critical angle and the light​ reflects​ back into the
medium.
● For total internal reflection to occur, the light must also be
travelling from a ​more optically dense medium​ into a ​less
optically dense medium​ (most common example is glass to
air).
● The critical angle c can be related to the refractive index by:
1
n= sin sin c
Optical fibres:
● An ​optical fibre​ is a long thin rod of ​glass​ surrounded by cladding which uses total internal
reflection to transfer information by light, even when bent.

● They are used extensively in ​medicine ​(endoscopes, inside-body flexible cameras) and
communications​ (high speed data transfer).

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Sound waves are ​longitudinal​ waves and can be ​reflected​ and ​refracted.

The range of audible frequencies for a healthy human ear is 20 Hz to 20000 Hz.

To measure the​ speed of sound ​in air, you can make a noise at a known, large​ distance​ from
a solid wall and record the ​time​ for the ​echo​ (reflected sound) to be heard, then use
speed = distance/time, where distance is 2 x length - taking into account the fact that the
sound had to go there and back.

An ​oscilloscope​ connected to a ​microphone​ can be used to display a sound wave and find
its frequency and amplitude.
● The ​greater the amplitude​ of a sound wave, the ​louder​ it is.
● The​ greater the frequency​ of a sound wave, the ​higher its pitch.

● The first sound wave shown is

quiet​ and ​low pitched.
● The second sound wave shown
is ​loud ​and ​low pitched.
● The third sound wave shown is
loud​ and ​high pitched.

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 Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 4: Energy Resources and Energy

Transfers
Summary Notes
(Content in ​bold​ is for physics only)

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Energy transfers
Energy​ can be transferred between different stores including ​chemical, kinetic, gravitational,
elastic, thermal, magnetic, electrostatic ​and​ nuclear ​as a result of an event or process.

Energy can be transferred in various ways including:

● Mechanically​ e.g. when gravity accelerates an object and gives it kinetic energy.
● Electrically​ e.g. when a current passes through a lamp and it emits light and heat.
● By heating​ e.g. when a fire is used to heat up an object.
● By radiation​ e.g. when vibrations cause waves to travel through the air as sound, or an
object emits electromagnetic radiation.

Energy is always ​conserved.​ The total energy before is equal to the total energy after.

The ​efficiency​ is the ​ratio​ of the​ useful energy

output ​to the ​total energy supplied,​ often
expressed as a percentage.
usef ul energy output
ef f iciency = total energy input ×100%

Sankey diagrams ​can be used to represent the

transfer​ of input energy into useful energy and
wasted energy. For example, the diagram on the
left shows the Sankey diagram for a lamp.

Conduction:
● Thermal energy in ​solids​ and​ liquids ​can be transferred by the vibration of particles - this
is known as ​conduction.
● Non-metals are usually poor conductors known as​ thermal insulators.
As a substance is heated up, the molecules​ vibrate more​ hitting and cause adjacent
molecules to vibrate more too,​ transferring heat energy​ from hot parts to cooler parts.
Because insulators transfer heat much more slowly, they are used to ​reduce unwanted energy
transfer ​such as in homes.
● Metals are usually good conductors. The electrons can leave the atoms and move freely
among positively charged ions. As the metal is heated, the ions and electrons ​vibrate
more.​ The ​free electrons collide with ions ​throughout the metal and​ transfer heat
energy​ from hot parts to cooler parts.

Convection:
● Thermal energy in​ fluids​ (liquids and gases) can be transferred by ​convection.
● Convection occurs when molecules in a fluid (which are not fixed together by forces
between molecules like in a solid) move from an area of high to low thermal energy.
Preventing the circulation of the fluid can help reduce unwanted energy transfer by
convection.
● When part of a fluid is heated, it expands - the particles move further apart - and becomes
less dense.​ It therefore​ rises​ up to less dense areas in the fluid. Denser, colder fluid falls
down to take its place.
● Examples of convection include in ​water boilers ​and ​hot air balloons.

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Radiation

● Thermal energy is also transferred by ​infrared radiation​ which does ​not require a
medium.​ Infrared radiation is part of the ​electromagnetic spectrum.
● Black​ bodies with a ​dull ​texture are the​ best absorbers and emitters​ of radiation. ​White
bodies with a ​shiny​ texture are the ​best reflectors​ of radiation. Shiny surfaces can be
used to ​reduce unwanted energy transfer ​such as on the surface of a vacuum flask.
● The ​higher the temperature​ and the ​greater the surface area​ of a body the ​more
infrared radiation​ emitted.

Work and power

Work​ is done when a ​force​ moves something through a ​distance ​(whenever energy changes
forms).​ ​The work done is ​equal​ to the energy transferred.

work done = f orce × distance W = Fd

The conservation of energy produces a link between gravitational potential energy, kinetic energy
and work. ​For example, when a ball is dropped, gravity does ​work​ on it and its ​gravitational
potential energy​ becomes ​kinetic energy​ as it accelerates downwards:

● k inetic energy = 21 ×mass×speed2

E k = 21 mv 2
● g ravitational potential energy = mass ×gravitational f ield strength×height
E p = mgh

Power​ is the ​rate at which energy is transferred​ or the ​rate at which work is done.​ For
example, a lamp with a greater power will be brighter because it transfers more energy from
electrical energy to light and heat energy in a given time.

work done W
power = time taken P = t

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Energy resources and electricity generation
● Renewable ​energy is energy which can be ​replenished ​as quickly as it is used.
Examples include:
o Wind
o Water (hydroelectricity, waves, tides)
o Geothermal
o Solar (heating systems and cells)
All have a ​potentially infinite ​energy supply, but they are usually ​more costly ​(e.g. the
manufacture and implementation of solar panels is very expensive) and ​less reliable
(e.g. the wind is intermittent and solar energy relies on good weather).

● Non-renewable​ energy is used more for large-scale energy supplies due to the ​large
energy output ​but will eventually ​run out. ​Examples include:
o Fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)
▪ Cheaper​ than most renewable sources but harmful for the environment
because they release ​greenhouse gases ​which cause ​global warming.
o Nuclear power
▪ A ​small amount ​of radioactive material produces a ​lot of energy, ​but
they produce ​highly toxic nuclear ​waste which needs to be safely
stored underground for many years.

Energy transfers​ take place in the generation of electricity. For example:

- In burning fossil fuels: ​chemical energy ​in chemical bonds
- In nuclear reactors: ​nuclear energy ​in atomic nuclei
- In a solar cell, ​light energy ​from the sun
- In geothermal energy: heat energy from the Earth’s core
- In wind energy: ​kinetic energy​ from the moving wind
- In HEP: ​kinetic energy ​of the moving waves or ​GPE ​of water stored high up
… is transferred into​ kinetic energy​ in a turning turbine, then into ​electrical energy.

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 Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 5: Solids, Liquids and Gases

Summary Notes
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Density and pressure

The ​density​ of a substance is defined as the ​mass per unit volume ​and is measured in
kilograms per metre cubed (kg/m​3​).
mass m
density = volume ρ= V

To find the density of a liquid:

● Find the mass of the measuring cylinder by placing it on a balance, then fill it with the liquid
and measure the new mass. The difference in masses is the mass of the liquid minus the
cylinder (alternatively, we can press tare on the balance so it’s zeroed). This avoids ​zero
error​.
● The volume can be read from the cylinder. It must be read straight-on to avoid ​parallax
error.
● Find the density using the equation.

To find the density of solid:

● Measure the mass of the solid by placing it on a balance.
● If the solid is:
o regularly shaped, measure its dimensions using a ruler or other measuring tool and
then use a mathematical formula to find the volume.
o irregularly shaped, immerse it in water and measure the volume of the water
displaced. This is the volume of the solid.
● Find the density using the equation.
Pressure is defined as the force per unit area and is measured in ​Pascals (Pa).
f orce F
pressure = area p= A

For example, lying down on a bed of nails compared to a single nail:

● The ​force​ applied is the weight of your body
● The total ​area​ is either a single pin point or many points spread out over a larger area
o Therefore, on a bed of nails, the pressure is lower as the area is greater.

The ​pressure​ at a point in a gas or liquid at rest acts ​equally​ in ​all directions​ and causes a force
at right angles to any surface. Pressure in a fluid (gas or liquid) is created from the movement of
particles (as they collide with a surface).

The pressure beneath a liquid surface increases with ​depth,​ the ​density ​of the liquid and the
gravitational field strength.
● It is given by p = ρgh
- Deeper in the fluid the more particles above the point, hence the greater their weight.
- Fluids with higher density have more particles per unit of volume, hence greater weight.
- Weight depends upon gravitational field strength.

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Change of state

Heating​ a system ​increases​ its ​internal energy ​and causes either an ​increase​ in ​temperature
or a ​change of state.
● When the ​temperature​ of a body ​rises​, the energy goes towards making the
molecules ​vibrate more ​and ​increases​ their ​kinetic energy.
● When a body ​changes state, ​energy goes towards making the molecules ​freer​ from
each other rather than increasing their kinetic energy – the temperature stays
constant.
o Melting ​occurs when molecules in a solid vibrate enough to move away from
their fixed positions, turning into a liquid.
o Boiling ​occurs when molecules in a liquid gain enough energy to break their
bonds and become separate molecules, turning into a gas.

Graph showing the temperature of ice with time when

energy is put in at a constant rate:
● From A to B the ice is rising in temperature
● From B to C it is melting into water
● From C to D the water is rising in temperature
● From D to E the water is boiling into steam
● From E to F the steam is rising in temperature

There is ​no change in temperature while the substance is changing state​ (the line is
horizontal) because energy supplied is used to separate the particles (breaking the forces
between the molecules).

Evaporation​ is the escape of molecules with ​higher energy​ from the ​surfaces ​of liquids.
After they escape, the remaining molecules have a ​lower average kinetic energy​ which
means the temperature is lower (i.e. evaporation ​cools​ the liquid). This is useful for cooling
things down such as sweating from the body.
● To increase the rate of evaporation, increase temperature, increase surface area, or
provide a draught.

Evaporation is different to boiling because it can happen at ​any temperature​ and only
occurs at the ​surface ​of the liquid (boiling occurs throughout a liquid and only at the boiling
point).

● Solids
o Molecules ​close​ together in ​regular ​pattern
o Strong​ intermolecular forces of attraction
o Molecules ​vibrate​ but can’t move about

● Liquids
o Molecules ​close ​together in ​random ​arrangement
o Weaker​ intermolecular forces of attraction than solids
o Molecules ​move around each other

● Gases
o Molecules ​far ​apart in ​random​ arrangement
o Negligible/very weak intermolecular forces
o Molecules move quickly in all directions

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The ​specific heat capacity​ is the ​amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg
of a substance by 1​℃​ ​and is measured in ​Joules per kilogram degree Celsius (J/kg​℃).

change in thermal energy = mass ×specif ic heat capacity ×temperature change

∆Q = mc∆T

Ideal gas molecules

Gas molecules move ​rapidly​ and ​randomly ​due to ​collisions ​with other gas molecules.

Gases exert ​pressure​ on a container due to​ collisions​ between gas molecules and the wall.
When the molecules rebound off the walls, they ​change direction​ so their velocity and therefore
momentum changes.​ This means they exert a​ force​ because force is equal to the change in
momentum over time.

● At a constant volume, if the ​temperature increases,​ the​ pressure increases ​because the
molecules move faster so they collide ​harder​ and ​more frequently ​with the walls.
o The temperature at which the ​pressure is zero​ is called ​absolute zero ​(-273​℃).
The ​Kelvin​ scale of temperature defines absolute zero to be 0K with an increment
of one Kelvin equal to an increment of one degree Celsius. This means that:
▪ temperature in kelvin = temperature in degrees celsius + 273
o For a gas at fixed mass and volume, where the temperature is measured in Kelvin:
p1 p2 p
T = T or T = constant
1 2
● At a constant temperature, if the ​volume increases,​ the​ pressure decreases​ because the
molecules collide ​less frequently ​with the walls and over a ​greater area.
o For a gas at fixed mass and temperature:
p1 V 1 = p2 V 2 or pV = constant
This is known as ​Boyle’s Law
The ​temperature in Kelvin​ of a gas is proportional to the​ average kinetic energy​ of the
molecules. The higher the temperature, the greater the average kinetic energy and so the faster
the ​average speed​ of the molecules.

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 Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 6: Magnetism and

Electromagnetism
Summary Notes
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Magnetism
Magnets ​repel and attract other magnets ​and ​attract magnetic materials.​ Like poles of
magnets repel and opposite poles attract.

● Non-magnetic materials are materials that are not attracted to

magnets and cannot be magnetised (e.g. glass, plastic)
● Magnetic materials are materials that are attracted to magnets and
can be magnetised (e.g. iron, steel, cobalt, nickel)
o Magnetism can be ​induced​ in magnetic materials​ ​by
placing​ them in a ​magnetic field.
o Magnetic materials that can be ​permanently​ magnetised
are described as​ magnetically hard​ (e.g.​ steel​). Magnetic
materials that are only ​temporarily​ magnetised are
described as ​magnetically soft​ (e.g. ​soft iron​).

Magnetic field lines:

● Magnetic field lines​ represent the ​magnetic force ​on a
north pole ​at a given point.
o The ​direction​ of a magnetic field line shows the
direction ​of the force.
o How ​close together ​the magnetic field lines are
shows the ​magnitude​ of the force.
● Field lines​ from magnets point ​from north to south.
o The field lines of a bar magnet are shown in the diagram.
o There is a ​uniform magnetic field between the opposite poles of two magnets
placed close together, as the field lines move from the north pole of one straight
towards the south pole of the other. The field lines are ​parallel ​and ​evenly spaced​.

Electromagnetism
An ​electric current ​passing through a ​conductor ​produces a ​magnetic
field​ around it.

Electromagnets​ consist of a coil of wire wrapped around a

magnetically soft core ​and can be turned on and off.

● The​ ​right-hand grip rule determines the direction of the

magnetic field produced by a current carrying ​wire, ​shown
in the first diagram.
● The magnetic field created by a current carrying ​solenoid​ is
like the field produced by a ​bar magnet, ​shown in the
second diagram.
● The magnetic field created by a current carrying ​flat circular
coil ​is shown in the third diagram.

A ​force​ acts on a
current-carrying conductor​ in a
magnetic field. ​Fleming’s
left-hand rule​ shows the relative

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directions of the force, field, and current…
This is called the ​motor effect​.
● If the ​current ​is ​reversed​ or the ​magnetic field​ is ​reversed,​ the ​force​ will be ​reversed.
● If the ​magnitude​ of the ​current​ or of the ​magnetic field​ is ​increased,​ the ​magnitude​ of
the ​force​ will ​increase.

DC motors ​consist of a coil of wire in between two permanent magnets. ​Direct current​ flows
through the wire and it experiences a ​turning effect​ due to the forces exerted on it in the magnetic
field. As the current flows in opposite directions on each side of the coil, the forces on each side
are in opposite directions - making it turn. The turning effect can be increased by:
● increasing the current
● using a stronger magnetic field
● increasing the number of turns on the coil.
A ​split ring commutator​ is used to ensure that the ​direction​ that the​ current​ flows in the coil
reverses every half turn.

Loud speakers ​consist of a coil attached to a cone in a magnetic field. When ​alternating current
flows through the coil, the cone is continuously pushed away and pulled back, making a ​sound.
The ​frequency​ (and therefore pitch) of the sound can be altered by changing the frequency of the
alternating current used.

A force is also exerted on ​charged particles​ moving in a magnetic field (because moving
charged particles are current) as long as they are ​not​ moving parallel to the field.

Electromagnetic induction
● When there is relative movement between a conducting wire & a magnetic field, a voltage
will be induced. For example, if conducting wire ​moves across a magnetic field,​ a voltage
is induced in it. If it is part of a complete circuit, this causes a current to flow.
This is called the ​generator effect​.

● The induced voltage can be increased by:

- moving the wire ​more quickly,
- using a ​stronger magnetic​ field,
- or ​increasing the length​ of the wire inside the magnetic field (eg. by making it more
coiled).
● A voltage is also induced in a coil with a ​changing magnetic field​ through it.​ ​For example,
when a magnet is moved into a coil, a voltage is induced in it.
- The ​more quickly​ the magnetic ​field changes, ​the ​greater​ the ​voltage.

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Electricity can be generated by ​rotating a magnet​ within a ​coil​ or by ​rotating a coil ​in a
magnetic field.​ As they rotate, the magnetic field through the coil ​changes,​ which induces a
voltage​ and therefore a ​current​ in the coil. The voltage can be increased by:
● increasing the length of wire inside the magnetic field ​(eg. by using a larger area, more
turns or a longer wire)
● using a ​stronger magnet
● increasing the speed​ of rotation.

A transformer consists of two coils wrapped around a soft iron core and is used to change
the size of a voltage.
They are used to:
- ​step up​ the voltage (to a greater value) for transmission in ​power lines ​which
reduces power loss ​(because lower current causes less power loss due to the
resistance of the cables)
- then ​step down ​the voltage for usage in ​homes​ (to keep us safe)
● An alternating voltage produces an alternating current in the ​primary coil. ​ This
creates a changing magnetic field which links with the ​secondary coil​ and induces
an alternating voltage in it.
● A ​step-up ​transformer has ​more turns on the secondary than the primary​ which
means the voltage of the secondary is greater than that of the primary. A ​step-down
transformer has ​fewer turns on the secondary than the primary ​which means the
voltage of the secondary is less than that of the primary.
primary voltage primary turns
● secondary voltage = secondary turns
● For a ​100% efficient ​transformer, because the power used is constant, V p I p = V s I s

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 Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 7: Radioactivity and Particles

Summary Notes
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Radioactivity

An atom consists of:

● A ​positively charged nucleus ​made of:
o Positive ​protons
o Neutral ​neutrons
● Surrounded by​ negatively charged electrons ​which orbit the nucleus

The radius of the nucleus is a lot smaller than the radius of the entire atom. Almost all the mass of
the atoms lies in the nucleus.

Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 0.0005 -1

Atoms of the same element have the ​same​ number of protons. ​Isotopes​ are forms of an element’s
atom with the ​same number of protons​ but a​ different number of neutrons.
For a given nuclide (distinct nucleus):
● X is the ​symbol​ of the element
● A is the ​mass (nucleon) number​ (number of neutrons and protons)
● Z is the ​atomic (proton) number​ (number of protons)

Radioactive decay is the ​spontaneous​ transformation of an ​unstable​ nucleus into a more ​stable
one by the release of radiation. It is a ​random​ process which means one cannot know ​what
nucleus will decay or ​when​ it will decay because it is down to chance.

Decay processes:

● Alpha:
o A heavy nucleus emits an ​alpha particle​ (helium nucleus - 2A, 4X).
o The nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following
equation: Z AX→(X − 4A − 2Z) + α
o They are ​highly ionising​ and ​weakly penetrating. ​They are stopped by a sheet of
paper.
● Beta:
o A neutron turns into a proton and emits a ​beta particle​ (electron)
o The nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following
equation: ZAX→(X − A − Z ) + β −
o They are ​moderately ionising​ and ​moderately penetrating. ​They are stopped by
a thin sheet of aluminium.
● Gamma:
o After a previous decay, a nucleus with excess energy emits a ​gamma particle.
o Gamma particles are a form of electromagnetic radiation.
o They are ​lowly ionising ​and ​highly penetrating. ​They are stopped by many
centimetres of lead.
● Neutron radiation:
o In neutron-rich nuclides, occasionally one or more ​neutrons​ are ejected. They are
also emitted during nuclear fission.
o The nucleus becomes a new isotope of the original element according to the
following equation: Z AX→(X − A) + 1n

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Some ways of detecting radiation include:
● Photographic film:
o The more radiation absorbed by the film, the ​darker​ it gets (the film is initially white).
o They are worn as ​badges​ by people who work with radiation, to check how much
exposure they have had.
● Geiger-Muller tube:
o A Geiger-Muller tube is a ​tube​ which can detect radiation.
o Each time it absorbs radiation, it transmits an electrical pulse to the machine, which
produces a ​clicking sound.​ The greater the frequency of clicks, the more radiation
present.

Weak radiation that can be detected from​ external ​sources is called ​background radiation.
Sources of background radiation include:
● From space:
o Cosmic rays include high-energy charged particles penetrating the atmosphere
● From Earth:
o Radioactive rocks which give off radioactive radon gas
o Food and drink which contains radioactive isotopes (such as Carbon 14)
o Fallout from nuclear weapons testing
o Medical sources such as x-rays from MRI scanners
o Nuclear power plants which produce radioactive waste

The ​activity​ of a radioactive source is the ​number of decays ​which occur ​per unit time ​and is
measured in ​becquerels (Bq where 1 Bq = 1 decay per second). ​The activity of a radioactive
source ​decreases​ over a period of time.

The ​half-life​ of an isotope is the ​time taken for

half the nuclei to decay​, or the ​time taken for
the activity to halve. ​It is different for different
radioactive isotopes.
● In the graph, the count rate drops from 80
to 40 counts per minute in 2 days, which
means the half-life is around 2 days. Or
from 40 counts per minute to 20 counts
per minute in the next two days. Half-life
is ​constant ​(it does not depend on how
many nuclei have decayed).
● Background radiation must be ​subtracted
before attempting to perform half-life
calculations

Uses of radioactivity:
● Industry
o Smoke detectors
Long half-life ​alpha​ emitters are used in ​smoke detectors.​ Alpha particles cause a​ current​ in the
alarm. If smoke enters the detector, some of the alpha particles are ​absorbed​ and the current
drops,​ triggering the alarm.
o Thickness monitoring
Long half-life ​beta​ emitters can be used for ​thickness monitoring​ of metal sheets. A source and
receiver are placed on either side of the sheet during its production. If there is a ​drop ​or ​rise​ in the
number of beta particles detected, then the thickness of the sheet has changed and needs to be
adjusted.

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 ● Medicine
o Sterilisation of equipment
Gamma​ emitters are used to ​kill ​bacteria or parasites on equipment so it is safe for operations
(this means they can be sterilised through their protective packaging to eliminate the risk of
contamination).
o Diagnosis and treatment
- Short half-life ​gamma​ emitters such as technetium-99m are used as ​tracers​ in medicine as
they concentrate in certain parts of the body. The half-life must be long enough for
diagnostic procedures to be performed, but short enough to not remain radioactive for too
long.
- Other gamma emitters such as cobalt-60 can be used to ​destroy​ tumours with a ​high dose
of radiation.

Contamination​ occurs when a ​radioactive source ​has been ​introduced into or onto ​an object.
The contaminated object will be radioactive for as long as the source is in or on it.

Irradiation​ occurs when an object is exposed to a ​radioactive source ​which is ​outside​ the object.
The irradiated object does ​not​ become radioactive.

Exposure to radiation can ​destroy living cell membranes​ by ​ionisation,​ causing the cells to ​die,
or ​damage DNA ​which causes ​mutations​ that could lead to ​cancer.

Safety measures include:

● Minimising the time​ of exposure to radiation, keeping as ​big a distance​ from the
radioactive source as possible, and using ​shielding​ against radiation (such as protective
clothing made from dense materials such as lead).
● Radioactive waste from nuclear reactors must be ​disposed of carefully,​ usually by burying
it in sealed drums deep underground and ​remotely handling ​it after it has been thoroughly
cooled.

Fission and fusion

Nuclear fission:
● The process of ​splitting a nucleus​ is called ​nuclear fission.
● When a ​uranium-235 ​nucleus ​absorbs a thermal ​(slow-moving) ​neutron,​ it splits into ​two
daughter nuclei​ and ​2 or 3 neutrons,​ releasing ​energy​ in the process.
● The neutrons then can induce further fission events in a ​chain reaction ​by striking other
uranium-235 nuclei.
● In a nuclear reactor:
o Control rods ​(usually made of boron) are used to
absorb neutrons ​and keep the number of neutrons
such that only ​one​ fission neutron per event goes on to
induce further fission.
o The ​moderator ​(usually water) ​slows down neutrons
by ​collisions​ so that they are moving slow enough to be
absorbed by another uranium-235 nucleus.
o A coolant (also water) is used to prevent the system
from overheating.
o The reactor core is a ​thick steel vessel ​which
withstands the ​high pressures and temperatures​ and
absorbs​ some of the ​radiation.​ The whole core is kept in a building with ​thick
reinforced concrete walls ​that act as ​radiation shields ​to ​absorb ​all the
radiation​ that escapes the reactor core.

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Nuclear fusion:
● The process of ​fusing two nuclei​ to form a larger nucleus is called​ nuclear fusion.
● There is a very small ​loss of mass​ in the process, accompanied by a ​release of energy.
● Nuclear fusion is how the sun and other ​stars​ release energy.
● Nuclear fusion does ​not​ happen at ​low temperatures and pressures​ because the
electrostatic repulsion ​of the ​protons​ is too great.

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 Edexcel Physics IGCSE

Topic 8: Astrophysics
Summary Notes
(Content in ​bold​ is for physics only)

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Motion in the universe
● The ​universe​ is a large collection of billions of galaxies.
● A ​galaxy ​is a large collection of billions of stars.
● A ​solar system​ is a collection of planets orbiting a common star. Our ​solar system ​is in
the ​Milky Way ​galaxy.

The ​gravitational field strength ​is the force per unit mass on a body in a gravitational field and is
measured in ​Newtons per kilogram (N/kg). ​It varies with the ​mass​ and ​size​ of the body and is
therefore different on other planets and the moon compared to the Earth.
● weight = mass×gravitational f ield strength W = mg

Gravitational force enables the various bodies to ​orbit

around others. For example:
● Moons orbit planets
o The orbits are ​slightly elliptical ​with ​near
constant orbital speed
● Planets and comets orbit the Sun
o The orbits of planets are ​slightly elliptical
with ​near constant orbital speed. ​The orbits
of comets are ​highly elliptical.
● Artificial satellites orbit the Earth
The greater the orbital radius or the smaller the time period,
the greater the orbital speed:

● orbital speed = 2×π×orbital radius

time period v = 2πr
T
Comets have a ​greater ​speed nearer to the star (when r is smaller) because the ice inside them
melts as they get closer (& warmer) - causing their mass to decrease.

Stellar evolution
● A star begins as a cloud of dust & gas called a
nebula.​ The particles experience a weak
attraction towards each other due to gravity and
begin to ​clump​ together.
● They continue to clump together until the
pressure​ and ​temperature​ is great enough for
nuclear fusion ​to occur.
o Hydrogen​ nuclei fuse together to form
helium nuclei which releases a large
amount of energy and causes a great
outwards pressure.
o This outwards pressure ​balances​ with the
inwards pressure ​due to gravity and the
star is now stable and called a ​main
sequence star.
● Eventually the hydrogen in the star is used up.
There is no longer enough outward pressure from
nuclear fusion and it ​collapses​ under its own
gravitational attraction, becoming ​unstable.
o If the star has a similar mass to the Sun, it expands massively and becomes a ​red
giant.​ It then becomes a ​white dwarf ​(and finally cools into a black dwarf).

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 o If the star has a mass larger than the Sun, it expands and becomes a ​red super
giant, ​before exploding in a ​supernova. ​What remains is either a ​neutron star, ​or if
it was exceptionally massive, a​ black hole.
Stars can be ​classified ​according to their ​colour.​ The colour of a star is related to its ​surface
temperature,​ with ​hotter​ stars being ​bluer​ and ​cooler ​stars being ​redder.

The ​brightness ​of a star depends upon where it is measured

- at a standard distance it can be represented using ​absolute
or ​apparent magnitude.
- A star’s ​absolute magnitude​ is defined to be ​equal​ to
the ​apparent magnitude​ that the star would have if it
were viewed from exactly 10 parsecs (32.6
light-years) away.
- The ​apparent magnitude​ is how bright it appears at a
particular point in space.

A ​Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (HR diagram) ​shows the

relationship between a star’s ​surface temperature ​and
brightness.​ The main components are shown in the diagram on the right.
- Supergiants (top right)
- Red giants (below supergiants)
- The Main Sequence (a diagonal strip from top left to bottom right)
- White dwarfs (bottom left)
Other stages don’t show on the HR diagram because a star is only in them for a very short
period of time.

Cosmology

The ​Big Bang ​theory states that the universe expanded outwards from a single point.
Evidence for this theory includes:
● Red shift
o The ​red shift ​of light from galaxies shows that they are all ​moving away ​from
us and that those which are ​furthest away ​are moving the ​fastest,​ suggesting
that the universe was formed from an explosion at a single point, evidence for
the Big Bang. This is the principle of the Doppler effect.
● Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR)
o Just after the Big Bang, lots of ​short wavelength radiation ​should have been
released. This radiation, as the universe expanded over time, would have been
stretched to become ​microwaves.
o The fact that there is ​cosmic microwave background radiation ​present
wherever you point a telescope in the sky provides evidence for the Big Bang.
As the Big Bang theory is currently the only theory which accounts for all the experimental
evidence, it is the most accepted model.

If a wave source is ​moving relative ​to an observer, there will be a ​change​ in the ​observed
frequency and wavelength ​due to the ​Doppler effect. ​An example of this is when the siren of
an ambulance is high-pitched as it approaches you, and low-pitched as it goes away.
change in wavelength velocity of a galaxy λ−λ0 Δλ v
● ref erence wavelength = speed of light λ = λ = c
0 0

Doppler shift is responsible for the ​red-shift ​of light from galaxies which are ​moving away
from Earth, which is when the ​wavelength​ of the light coming from them ​increases.​ The
faster​ it is ​moving,​ the ​more ​its light is ​red-shifted.

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