STD – XII BIOLOGY HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE 7

CHAPTER

HUMAN HEALTH AND

DISEASE
7
WHAT YOU WILL LEARN?
Health, for a long time, was a considered as a state of body and mind, where there was a balance of
certain ‘humors. This is what early Greeks like Hippocrates as well as Indian Ayurveda system of
medicine asserted. It was thought that persons with ‘blackbile’ belonged to hot personality and would
have fevers. In this chapter, we will learn about various common diseases in humans caused by bacteria,
virus, protozoans, helminths, fungi, the ways of prevention of these diseases. Then we will learn about
AIDS, its mode of spread, pathway of HIV virus in causing the disease, regarding cancer, its effects,
types of tumors, ways of diagnosis and detection and prevention and we will also learn about immunity
in detail. In the last part we will learn in detail regarding drug and alcohol abuse.
TOPICS

7.1 INTRODUCTION TO HEALTH & DISEASE

7.2 COMMON DISEASES IN HUMANS
7.3. AIDS
7.4 CANCER
7.5 IMMUNITY
7.6 DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE

TOPIC 7.1 | INTRODUCTION TO HEALTH AND DISEASE

According to World Health Organisation (WHO) (1948), health is defined as: “Health is a state of
complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely an “absence of disease” or “physical
fitness.”
Health is a state of body when all the organs and systems are functioning properly and a perfect balance
is maintained between the environment and the body.
When people are healthy, they are more efficient at work. This increases productivity and brings
economic prosperity. Health also increases longevity of people and reduces infant and maternal
mortality.
FACTORS AFFECTING HEALTH
 Physical environmental factors like light, temperature, natural disasters etc., soil type, rainfall etc.

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 Social environmental factors like job conditions, housing conditions, family’s atmosphere and
relationship between neighbours and friends.
 Public cleanliness so as to avoid accumulation of garbage, blocking of drainage, stagnant water etc.
Which may increase the chances of poor health.
 Personal hygiene which includes self-cleanliness by developing clean habits.
 Regular exercise or yoga which keep the body and mind fit by improving blood circulation, opening
sweat pores and reducing tension etc.
 Supply of hygienic food and water resources and balanced diet for good health as these are
essential for normal body functioning, growth and development.
 Awareness about diseases and their effect on different bodily functions, awareness about
immunization (vaccination) against infectious diseases, proper disposal of wastes, control of vectors
etc., are necessary for achieving good health.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD HEALTH
 Free from sickness and diseases
 Free from unnecessary anxiety
 Free from social and psychological tensions
 Self-confidence
 Feeling of joy in living
 Ability to work efficiently and at his/her best.
Health is affected by –
i. Genetic disorders – deficiencies with which a child is born and deficiencies/defects which the
child inherits from parents from birth;
ii. Infections and
iii. Life style including food and water we take, rest and exercise we give to our bodies, habits that
we have or lack etc.
DISEASE (dis = against; ease = comfort)
Any condition which interferes with the normal functioning of the body and impairs the health is called
disease. When the functioning of one or more organs or systems of the body is adversely affected,
characterised by appearance of various signs and symptoms, we say that we are not healthy, i.e., we have
a disease.
CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES
On the basis of the mode of transmission, diseases can be classified into infectious and non-infectious
diseases:
Infectious diseases are those which are transmitted from an infected person to a healthy person by means
of air, water, food, physical contact or vectors. Disease causing microorganisms (bacteria, virus,
protozoan, fungi, helminthes etc.,) are called pathogens. Examples: Typhoid, leprosy, AIDS, hepatitis,
malaria, Ascariasis, Ring worm etc.
Non-infectious diseases are those which do not spread from an infected person to a healthy persons.
Examples: Diabetes mellitus, cancer (major cause of death), stroke, arthritis etc.
PREVENTION AND CONTRL OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES
I. For diseases transmitted through food and water (E.g., typhoid, amoebiasis,
ascariasis, etc.)

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(a) Maintenance of personal hygiene:
 Keeping the body clean
 Consumption of clean drinking water, food, vegetables, fruits, etc.
(b) Maintenance of public hygiene:
 Proper disposal of waste and excreta
 Periodic cleaning and disinfection of water reservoirs, pools, cesspools and tanks.
 Observing standard practices of hygiene in public catering.
II. For air-borne diseases (E.g., common cold, pneumonia, etc.)
 Maintenance of personal hygiene
 Maintenance of public hygiene
 Close contact with the infected persons or their belongings should be avoided
III. For diseases transmitted through insect vectors (E.g., malaria, filariasis, etc.)
 Control or eliminate the vectors and their breeding places.
 Avoiding stagnation of water in and around residential areas.
 Regular cleaning of household coolers.
 Use of mosquito nets
 Introducing fishes like Gambusia in ponds that feed on mosquito larvae.
 Spraying of insecticides in ditches, drainage areas and swamps, etc.
 Doors and windows should be provided with wire mesh to prevent the entry of mosquitoes.

NCERT EXEMPLAR QUESTIONS

1. The term “health” ' is defined in many ways. The most accurate definition of the health would
be:
(a) Health is the state of body and mind in a balanced condition.
(b) Health is the reflection of a smiling face.
(c) Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being.
(d) Health is the symbol of economic prosperity
Ans: (c) Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being
Health does not, simply mean ‘absence of disease’ or ‘physical fitness’. It could be defined as a state of
complete physical, mental and social well-being. When people are healthy, they are happy with smiling
face and more efficient at work. This increases productivity and brings economic prosperity. It also
increases longevity of people and reduces infant and maternal mortality
2. The organisms which causes diseases in plants and animals are called:
(a) Pathogens
(b) Vectors
(c) Insects
(d) Worms
Ans: (a) pathogens
A wide range of organisms including bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoans, helminths, etc., cause diseases
in plants and animals. Such disease causing organisms are called pathogens. While vectors are the
carriers of pathogens which may be insects or worms.
3. Diseases are broadly grouped into infectious and non-infectious diseases. In the list given below,
identify the infectious diseases
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i. Cancer
ii. Influenza
iii. Allergy
iv. Small pox
(a) I and II
(b) II and III
(c) III and IV
(d) II and IV
Ans: (d) II and IV
4. When an apparently healthy person is diagnosed as unhealthy by a psychiatrist, the reason
could be that:
(a) The patient was not efficient at his work
(b) The patient was not economically prosperous
(c) The patient shows behavioural and social maladjustment
(d) He does not take interest in sports
Ans: (c) the patient shows behavioural and social maladjustment
Health can be defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. So, when an
apparently healthy person is diagnosed as unhealthy by a psychiatrist, the reason could be that the patient
shows behavioural and social maladjustment. Due to mental discomfort. It patient is not efficient at
his/her work and do not show interest in routine, social and sports activities it means that he is physically
not well and need treatment by a psychiatrist.
5. Certain pathogens are tissue/organ specific. Justify the statement with suitable examples.
Ans: It's absolutely true that certain pathogens exhibit tissue or organ specificity. This means they have
a tendency to target and infect particular areas of the body. This specificity arises from the pathogen's
ability to recognize and bind to specific receptors on the cells of those target tissues.
 Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Infects the lungs, causing tuberculosis because lung tissues provide the
necessary oxygen-rich environment for bacterial growth.
 Influenza virus: It targets the respiratory tract due to specific receptors on lung epithelial cells.
 Plasmodium (malaria parasite): Initially infects liver cells before entering red blood cells.
 Rabies virus: Infects the nervous system causing fatal inflammation of the brain.
 Vibrio cholerae: Infects the small intestine, causing cholera, due to its ability to produce toxins that
acts on intestinal cells.
 HIV: Targets the T cells in the immune system, leading to AIDS
 Rhino virus causes inflammation of the nasal epithelium and upper part of the respiratory tract so is
characterized by nasal congestion and discharge, sore throat, hoarseness, coughing etc.
6. “Prevention is better than cure”. Comment.
Ans: The phrase "Prevention is better than cure" emphasizes that it is wiser and more effective to take
measures to prevent diseases rather than treating them after they occur. Preventing a disease not only
saves lives but also reduces the economic and emotional burden associated with medical treatment.
 Many diseases, especially infectious ones like malaria, tuberculosis, and COVID-19, can be
prevented through vaccines, hygiene, and public health measures. By preventing their occurrence,
we reduce morbidity and mortality rates. Example: Vaccination against polio has nearly eradicated
the disease globally, preventing lifelong disabilities.

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 Medical treatments, hospitalization, and medications can be expensive, whereas preventive measures
are often more affordable. Example: Maintaining a healthy lifestyle through balanced diet and
exercise can prevent diabetes, which, if developed, requires costly lifelong treatment.
 Preventing diseases helps ease the pressure on hospitals and healthcare workers, ensuring resources
are available for unavoidable illnesses and emergencies. Example: Widespread handwashing and
sanitation practices reduce cases of diarrheal diseases, lowering hospital admissions.
 People who adopt preventive measures enjoy better physical and mental well-being compared to
those who frequently fall ill and require treatment. Example: Avoiding smoking and alcohol reduces
the risk of lung cancer and liver disease, leading to a healthier life.
7. Explain any three preventive measures to control microbial infections.
Ans: Preventive measures to control microbial infections
a) Personal Hygiene: Maintaining good personal hygiene prevent the spread of microorganisms.
 Hand washing: Washing hands with soap and water removes germs and prevents diseases like
flu, diarrhea, and COVID-19.
 Oral Hygiene: Brushing teeth and rinsing the mouth prevent bacterial infections like tooth decay
and gum disease.
 Bathing Regularly: Keeps the skin free from harmful microbes, preventing infections such as
fungal skin diseases.
 Proper Food Handling: Washing, cooking, and storing food safely prevents foodborne illnesses
like typhoid and food poisoning.
b) Vaccination: They are one of the most effective ways to prevent infections caused by viruses and
bacteria
 Immunization: Vaccines such as MMR (Measles, Mumps, Rubella), HPV, Hepatitis B and
Influenza protect individuals from viral infections.
 Routine childhood vaccines: Vaccines like DPT (Diphtheria, Pertussis, Tetanus) and Polio
prevent the spread of severe bacterial and viral infections.
c) Vector control: Many infections, especially parasitic and viral diseases, are transmitted through
vectors like mosquitoes and flies.
 Insect Repellents and Mosquito Nets: Protecting yourself with insect repellents or using bed nets
reduces the risk of diseases like malaria, dengue, and Zika virus.
 Eliminating Standing Water: Reduce mosquito breeding by eliminating stagnant water in
containers, ponds, or puddles.
8. “Maintenance of personal hygiene and public hygiene is necessary for prevention and control
of many infectious diseases”. Justify the statement giving suitable examples.
Ans: The statement “Maintenance of personal hygiene and public hygiene is necessary for prevention
and control of many infectious diseases” is justified because poor hygiene creates an environment
conducive to the spread of pathogens such as bacteria, viruses and fungi. Proper hygiene reduces the risk
of infections, promoting better health for individuals and communities.
Personal hygiene and disease prevention
Personal hygiene involves practices that help maintain cleanliness and prevent the spread of infectious
diseases.
 Hand washing: Washing hands with soap reduces the transmission of diseases such as diarrhea,
cholera, and COVID-19 by removing pathogens picked up from contaminated surfaces.

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 Oral Hygiene: Brushing teeth and flossing prevent dental infections like tooth decay and gum
disease.
 Bathing and Clean Clothing: Regular bathing removes sweat, dirt, and microbes, preventing
skin infections like fungal infections and scabies.
 Food Hygiene: Washing fruits, vegetables, cooking food properly prevents foodborne diseases
like tvphoid and food poisoning.
Public hygiene and disease prevention
Public hygiene focuses on maintaining cleanliness in the environment to control the spread of infections
in communities.
 Proper Waste Disposal: Accumulation of garbage and sewage can attract flies and rodents,
spreading diseases like dengue, malaria, and leptospirosis.
 Clean Drinking Water: Access to clean water prevents waterborne diseases like cholera and
dysentery.
 Sanitation Facilities: Proper toilets and sewage systems reduce the risk of intestinal infections
and parasitic diseases.
 Vector Control: Eliminating stagnant water prevents mosquito breeding, reducing malaria and
dengue fever cases.
Examples of hygiene in disease control
 COVID-19: Personal hygiene practices like wearing masks, sanitizing hands, and maintaining
social distancing helped control the spread of the virus.
 Polio Eradication: Improved sanitation and vaccination programs have helped eliminate polio
in many countries.
 Cholera Prevention: Countries with improved water supply and sanitation have reduced cholera
outbreaks.
9. What are lifestyle diseases? How are they caused? Name any two such diseases.
Ans: Life style disease are caused by specific food habits, work related posture or exposure to harmful
radiations or substances, lack of physical exercise, mental stress, etc. E.g., cancer, alcoholism, heart
disease, etc.
10. Compare the life style of people living in the urban areas with those of rural areas and briefly
describe how the life style affects their health.
Ans: Comparison of Urban and Rural Lifestyles and their effects on health
I. Living environment:
 Urban Areas: Cities are densely populated with modern infrastructure, high-rise buildings,
and industries. Pollution levels (air, noise, and water) are generally high.
 Rural areas: Villages and small towns have open spaces, fresh air, and natural surroundings,
offering a more peaceful environment.
Health impact: Urban pollution can lead to respiratory diseases, stress and heart-problems,
while rural areas offers a cleaner environment with fewer pollution-related illnesses.
II. Social and mental well-being:
 Urban areas: Fast-paced life with more work pressure, competition and social isolation.
 Rural areas: Close-knit communities, less stress and slower-paced life.
Health impact: Urban stress leads to anxiety, depression, and burnout, while rural areas have
stronger social support but may experience loneliness due to migration.

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III. Healthcare access:
 Urban areas: More hospitals, specialists, and advanced medical facilities.
 Rural areas: Limited access to healthcare, with fewer doctors and medical centres.
Health impact: Urban residents have better access to treatment, but longer waiting times and
expensive healthcare. Rural residents may suffer from preventable diseases due to lack of
medical facilities.
IV. Diet and nutrition:
 Urban areas: People rely more on processed and fast foods due to busy schedules.
 Rural areas: Diets are often fresher, including homegrown fruits, vegetables, and grains.
Health impact: Urban diets high in sugar, salt, and unhealthy fats increase the risk of lifestyle
diseases like diabetes and hypertension, while rural diets provide better nutrition but may lack
variety.
V. Occupation and physical activity:
 Urban areas: People mostly have office jobs that involve sitting for long hours, leading to
sedentary lifestyles.
 Rural Areas: Many people engage in farming and manual labour, requiring physical effort.
Health impact: Urban lifestyles contribute to obesity, diabetes, and heart diseases due to
inactivity, whereas rural lifestyles promote physical fitness but can lead to injuries from hard
labour.

CAN YOU ANSWER?

1. What is health?
2. List down the factors affecting health
3. Define disease.
4. What are infectious diseases? Give two examples.
5. Name four non-infectious diseases.
6. Name any two sexually-transmitted diseases.
7. Differentiate between infectious and non-infectious diseases.
8. List the three ways through which health is affected.
TOPIC 7.2 | COMMON DISEASES IN HUMANS
A wide range of organisms belonging to bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoans, helminths, etc., could cause
diseases in man. Such disease causing organisms are called pathogens. Most parasites are therefore
pathogens as they cause harm to the host by living in (or on) them. The pathogens can enter our body by
various means, multiply and interfere with normal vital activities, resulting in morphological and
functional damage. A few representative members from different groups of pathogenic organisms are
discussed here along with the diseases caused by them.
7.2.1 BACTERIAL DISEASES
TYPHOID
Pathogen Salmonella typhi
Part of the body it infects Small intestine
Mode of infection and spread  Contaminated food and water. Houseflies may carry the
pathogens from the faeces to the food, milk and water.

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 The pathogens enters the small intestine and then the other parts
through blood
Symptoms  Sustained high fever
 Weakness
 Stomach pain
 Constipation
 Headache
 Loss of appetite
 Intestinal perforation and death in severe cases
Confirmatory test Widal test
A classic case in medicine, that of Mary Mallon nicknamed Typhoid Mary, is worth mentioning here.
She was a cook by profession and was a typhoid carrier who continued to spread typhoid for several
years through the food she prepared.
PNEUMONIA
Pathogen Streptococcus pneumonia
Haemophilus influenza
Part of the body it infects Alveoli of the lungs. The alveoli gets filled with fluid leading to
severe problems like respiration
Mode of infection and spread  By inhaling the droplets or aerosols released by an infected
person.
 By sharing contaminated articles (glasses and utensils) with an
infected person
Symptoms  Fever
 Chills
 Cough
 Headache
 Lips and finger nails may turn gray to bluish in colour (severe
cases)
Other examples for bacterial diseases include:
 Diphtheria – Corynebacterium diphtheriae
 Cholera – Vibrio cholerae
 Leprosy – Mycobacterium leprae
 Tetanus – Clostridium tetani
 Anthrax – Bacillus anthracis
 Botulism (food poisoning) – Clostridium botulinum
7.2.2 VIRAL DISEASES
COMMON COLD
Pathogen Rhino viruses
Part of the body it infects Nasal and respiratory passage, but not the lungs.
Mode of infection and spread  Cough and sneezing-droplets from an infected person.
 Contaminated objects like pens, books, cups, door-knobs,
computer keyboard, mouse, etc.

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Symptoms (Usually lasts for 3  Nasal congestion and discharge
to 7 days)  Sore throat
 Cough
 Headache
 Tiredness
 Hoarseness
DENGUE FEVER
Pathogen Dengue virus (Arbovirus) – Flaviviridae family
Vector Female Aedes aegypti mosquito
Incubation period 3 to 7 days (stays for about 4 to 7 weeks)
Symptoms  Body rashes
 High fever
 Muscle, bone or joint pain
 Headache
 Nausea and vomiting
 Low platelet count (thrombocytopenia)
 In severe cases, dengue haemorrhagic fever which can cause bleeding, low
blood pressure and shock.
CHICKUNGUNYA
Pathogen Chikungunya virus – Togaviridae family
Vector Female Aedes aegypti mosquito
Incubation period 1 to 12 days (duration varies from 1 to 2 weeks)
Symptoms  Severe joint pain
 Fever
 Headaches
 Muscle pain
 Swelling
 Body rashes
 Complications such as chronic arthritis and rate neurological problems are possible in
Chikungunya. In severe cases of Dengue, respiratory problems, organ failure or shock can be
used. Arthritis is absent in Dengue.
 In Chikungunya, rashes all across the face, palms, feet and limbs can be found whereas, in
Dengue, rashes are limited to limbs and face.
Other examples of viral diseases
 Chickenpox – Varicella zoster virus  Measles – Rubella virus
 Small pox – Variola virus  Mumps – Mumps virus
 Poliomyelitis – Polio virus
7.2.3 PROTOZOAN DISEASES
MALARIA
 It is caused by a protozoan, Plasmodium (P. Vivax, P. Malaria, P. Falciparum).
 P. Falciparum causes the most serious and fatal malignant malaria.
Life cycle of Plasmodium:

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Life cycle of Plasmodium is digenetic i.e., it has two hosts. Two hosts are man (secondary host) and
female Anopheles mosquito (primary host). Female Anopheles mosquito is the vector of this disease.

 Plasmodium enters the human body as sporozoites which is the infectious form through the bite of
female Anopheles mosquito.
 The parasites initially multiply within the liver cells and then attack the red blood cells (rbcs)
resulting in their rupture.
 The rupture of rbcs is associated with release of a toxic substance, haemozoin, which is responsible
for the chill and high fever recurring every three to four days.
 When a female Anopheles mosquito bites an infected person, these parasites enter the mosquito’s
body and undergo further development.
 The parasites multiply within them to form sporozoites that are stored in their salivary glands.

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 When these mosquitoes bite a human, the sporozoites are introduced into his/ her body, thereby
initiating the events mentioned above.

AMOEBIASIS (ENTERIC, AMOEBIC DYSENTERY)

Pathogen Entamoeba histolytica
Mode of transmission  Housefly acts as a mechanical carrier and transmits the parasite from
feces of infected person to the food and water.
 Infection takes place through contaminated food and water.
Symptoms  Constipation
 Abdominal pain
 Cramps
 Stools with excess mucus and blood clots
Treatment Oral rehydration therapy and antibiotics

7.2.4 HELMINTHIC DISEASES

These are caused by helminths (flatworms and roundworms)
ASCARIASIS
It is a childhood infection commonly called “roundworm trouble”.
Pathogen Ascaris lumbricoides (intestinal endoparasite of human)
Mode of transmission  The eggs of the parasite are excreted along with the feces of the infected
and spread persons which contaminate soil, water, plants etc.
 A healthy person acquires this infection through contaminated water,
vegetables, fruits etc.
Symptoms  Internal bleeding
 Muscular pain
 Fever
 Anaemia
 Blockage of the intestinal passage
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FILARIASIS (ELEPHANTIASIS)
Pathogen Wuchereria (W. Bancrofti and W. Malayi)
Part of the body it  Lymphatic vessels of the lower limbs
infects  Genital organs
 The adult worms live in the lymph glands and lymph nodes of man.
 Man is the primary host
 The secondary host (intermediate host) is the female Culex mosquito
Symptoms Inflammation of organs in which they live.
Blockage of lymph vessels of lower limbs resulting in swelling. Lower limbs
appear like legs of elephant, hence known as elephantiasis.
Genital organs may also be affected, leading to deformation

7.2.5 FUNGAL DISEASES

RINGWORM
Pathogen Microsporum, Trichophyton and Epidermophyton
Mode of transmission  Human infection occurs through either contact with an infected person
and spread or from the soil.
 It also spreads through towels, clothes, combs, etc., of the infected
persons.
 Heat and moisture help these fungi to grow, which make them thrive in
skin folds such as those in groins or between the toes.
Symptoms  Dry and scaly lesions on skin, nails and scalp.
 Lesions are accompanied by intense itching.

NCERT EXEMPLAR QUESTIONS

1. The clinical test that is used for the diagnosis of typhoid is:
(a) ELISA
(b) ESR
(c) PCR
(d) Widal
Ans: (d) Widal Test
Typhoid fever could be confirmed by Widal test.
ELISA is widely used as a diagnostic test for AIDS
PCR test is used to identify the genome sequences of organisms.
ESR test is a type of blood test.
2. The sporozoites that cause infection when a female Anopheles mosquito bites a person, are
formed in:
(a) Liver of the person
(b) Rbcs of the mosquito
(c) Salivary glands of the mosquito
(d) Gut of the mosquito

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Ans: (c) Salivary glands of the mosquito
Sporozoites enter the female Anopheles mosquito when they bite an infected person where these
sporozoite fertilise and multiply in the stomach wall of the female Anopheles and stored in the salivary
gland of mosquito till it is again transferred to the human body by a mosquito bite.
After entering the human body the sporozoites reach the liver cells, where they multiply. This is followed
by their attack on red blood cells resulting in their rupture. The ruptured rbcs release a toxin called
haemozoin, which is responsible for high recurring fever, chills and shivering.
3. The disease Chikungunya is transmitted by:
(a) House fly
(b) Aedes mosquito
(c) Cockroach
(d) Female Anopheles
Ans: (b) Aedes mosquito
Chikungunya is transmitted by the vector Aedes mosquitoes. Housefly is the vector for Cholera,
Cockroach transmits jaundice or yellow fever and is a carrier of food and waterborne disease. Female
Anopheles mosquito is responsible for spreading malaria.
4. Many diseases can be diagnosed by observing the symptoms in the patient. Which group of
symptoms are indicative of pneumonia?
(a) Difficulty in respiration, fever, chills, cough, headache
(b) Constipation, abdominal pain, cramps, blood clots
(c) Nasal congestion and discharge, cough, headache
(d) High fever, weakness, stomach pain, loss of appetite and constipation
Ans: (a) Difficulty in respiration, fever, chills, cough, headache
Pneumonia is caused by the pathogenic bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus
influenzae and spreads inhaling droplet/aerosol from infected person during sneezing or coughing.
5. Haemozoin is a :
(a) Precursor of haemoglobin
(b) Toxin released from Streptococcus infected cells.
(c) Toxin released from Plasmodium infected cells
(d) Toxin released from Haemophilus infected cells.
Ans: (c) Toxin released from Plasmodium infected cells
6. Which of the following is not the causal organism for ringworm?
(a) Microsporum
(b) Trichophyton
(c) Epidermophyton
(d) Macrosporum
Ans: (d) Macrosporum
Ringworm infections are caused by fungi belonging to the genera Microsporum, Trichophyton and
Epidermophyton. Macrosporum is an ectomycorrhizal zoosporic fungus causing diseases of
economically important vascular plants.
7. A person with sickle cell anaemia is:
(a) More prone to malaria
(b) More prone to typhoid
(c) Less prone to malaria
(d) Less prone to typhoid
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Ans: (c) Less prone to malaria
People with sickle cell anemia have abnormal hemoglobin (hbs), which alters the shape of red blood
cells. This condition provides some protection against malaria because the Plasmodium parasite, which
causes malaria, struggles to survive and replicate in these misshapen cells. As a result, individuals with
sickle cell trait (heterozygous for hbs) are less likely to develop severe malaria infections.
8. Given below are the pairs of pathogens and the diseases caused by them. Which out of these is
not a matching pair and why?
(a) Virus common cold
(b) Salmonella typhoid
(c) Microsporum Filariasis
(d) Plasmodium malaria
Ans:
(c) Wuchereria bancrofti and Wuchereria malayi, the filarial worms cause a slowly developing chronic
inflammation of the organs in which they live for many years, usually the lymphatic vessels of the lower
limbs and the disease is called elephantiasis or filariasis.
Fungi belonging to the genera Microsporum, Trichophyton and Epidermophyton are responsible for
ringworms which is one of the most common infectious diseases in man.
9. The following table shows certain diseases, their causative organisms and symptoms. Fill the
gaps.
Diseases Causative organisms Symptoms
Ascariasis Ascaris -----------
------------- Trichophyton Appearance of dry, scaly lesions on various parts
of the body
Typhoid ----------------- High fever, weakness, headache, stomach pain and
constipation
Pneumonia Streptococcus pneumonia ------------------
----------- Rhino viruses Nasal congestion and discharge, sore throat,
cough, headache
Filariasis ---------------- Inflammation in the lower limbs
Ans:
Diseases Causative organisms Symptoms
Ascariasis Ascaris Internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anaemia and
blockage of the intestinal passage.
Ringworm Trichophyton Appearance of dry, scaly lesions on various parts of the
body
Typhoid Salmonella typhi High fever, weakness, headache, stomach pain and
constipation
Pneumonia Streptococcus Fever, chills, cough and headache. In severe cases, the
pneumonia lips and finger nails may turn gray to bluish in colour.
Common cold Rhino viruses Nasal congestion and discharge, sore throat, cough,
headache
Filariasis Wuchereria Inflammation in the lower limbs
(W. Bancrofti, W.
Malayi)

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10. Diseases like dysentery, cholera, typhoid etc., are more common in overcrowded human
settlements. Why?
Ans: Diseases like dysentery, cholera, and typhoid are more common in overcrowded human settlements
due to poor sanitation, contaminated water supplies, and inadequate hygiene. Overcrowding increases
the chances of direct contact with infected individuals and exposure to contaminated food and water
sources. Limited access to clean drinking water and proper waste disposal facilitates the spread of
bacteria and viruses that cause these diseases, leading to frequent outbreaks in densely populated areas.
11. If there are two pathogenic viruses, one with DNA and other with RNA, which would mutate
faster? And Why?
Ans: The RNA virus would mutate faster than the DNA virus
RNA is less stable and more prone to errors during replication, meaning mutations occur more frequently
compared to the more stable DNA structure. DNA replication has built-in proofreading mechanisms that
help correct errors during replication. This means that any mistakes made during the copying of DNA
can often be fixed, leading to a lower mutation rate.
12. Represent schematically the life cycle of a malarial parasite.
Ans:
Schematic representation of the life cycle of malarial parasite

CAN YOU ANSWER?

1. Name the confirmatory test for the diagnosis of typhoid fever.
2. How is Pneumonia transmitted from infected person to a healthy person?
3. Give the causative agent of ringworm.
4. List the symptoms of Ascariasis.
5. Name the disease characterized by muscular and joint pain with severe body rashes and also
have a low platelet count.
6. Name the two hosts of filarial worms.
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 STD – XII BIOLOGY HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE 7
7. Differentiate between sporozoite and haemozoin.
8. Write a short note on Filariasis.
9. Give one difference between dengue and chikungunya
10. Name any two examples of bacterial diseases.
TOPIC 7.3 | AIDS
 AIDS stands for Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome.
 It is not a congenital disease but an acquired disease which means deficiency of immune system is
acquired during the lifetime of an individual.
 It is caused by a retrovirus HIV (Human immuno-deficiency virus) as enclose single-stranded RNA
genome, which was first reported in African green monkey.
 It was first recognized in Hatai (USA) in 1981. In India, AIDS-virus was first reported in 1986 among
ten prostitutes in Chennai and in the last 25 years or so, it has spread all over the world killing more
than 25 million persons.
Transmission of HIV-infection generally occurs:
 During sexual intercourse with an infected person
 Use of contaminated hypodermic needles and syringes by intravenous drug abusers
 Contaminated blood transfusion
 Organ transplantation, artificial insemination.
 From infected mother to foetus through placenta
 From infected mother to infant by colostrum during breast feeding.
People who are at high risk of getting this infection includes:
Individuals who have multiple sexual partners
Individuals who require repeated blood transfusions
Drug addicts who take drugs intravenously.
Children born to an HIV infected mother.
Modes through which HIV/AIDS does not spread: by mere touch, physical contact, hugging,
kissing, sharing meals, shaking hands, mosquito bites, coughing, sneezing, looking after AIDS patients,
blood-sucking insects etc.
Mechanism of HIV virus:
 The AIDS virus on entering the human body infects a macrophage and enters into it.
 The RNA genome of the virus starts producing viral DNA by the process of reverse transcription
which is catalyzed by the enzyme reverse transcriptase.

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 The viral DNA gets incorporated into the DNA of the host cell (macrophage) and directs the infected
cell to produce viral particles.
 The new viruses are released from the macrophages and they start infecting new macrophages or
helper T-lymphocytes in the body of the infected person.
 The virus replicates and produces progeny viruses, which are released into the blood with the damage
of the helper T-cell.
 This process is repeated and there is a progressive decrease in the number of helper T-lymphocytes.
 So, the immune system of the infected person weakens and he starts suffering from infections and
also suffers from bouts of fever, diarrhoea and weight loss, infection due to bacteria especially
Mycobacterium, viruses, fungi and even parasites like Toxoplasma.
INCUBATION PERIOD
The time-lag between the infection and appearance of AIDS symptoms is known as the incubation
period. This period may vary from a few months to many years (usually 5 – 10 years).
DIAGNOSIS
AIDS can be diagnosed by ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immuno-sorbent Assay). Confirmatory test for
HIV infection is Western Blot test. The ELISA test is based on antigen-antibody interactions.

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TREATMENT
No absolutely satisfactory vaccine is yet available against HIV infection and treatment is done using
anti-retroviral drugs which is only partially effective. They can only prolong the life of the patient but
cannot prevent death, which is inevitable.
PREVENTION (PROPHYLACTIC MEASURES)
As AIDS has no cure, prevention is the best option. Moreover HIV infection, more often, spreads due to
conscious behavior patterns and is not something that happens inadvertently, like pneumonia or typhoid.
Of course, infection in blood transfusion patients, new-borns (from mother) etc., may take place due to
poor monitoring. The only excuse may be ignorance and it has been rightly said – “don’t die of
ignorance”.
In our country, the National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO) and other ngos (non-governmental
organization) are doing a lot to educate people about AIDS. WHO has started a number of programmes
to prevent the spreading of HIV infection.
 Making blood (from blood banks) safe from HIV.
 Ensuring the use of only disposable needles and syringes in public and private hospitals and clinics.
 Free distribution of condoms, controlling drug abuse.
 Advocating safe sex and promoting regular check-ups for HIV in susceptible populations.

NCERT EXEMPLAR QUESTIONS

1. AIDS is caused by HIV. Among the following, which one is not a mode of transmission of HIV?
(a) Transfusion of contaminated blood
(b) Sharing with infected needles
(c) Shaking hands with infected persons
(d) Sexual contact with infected persons
Ans: (c) Shaking hands with infected persons
2. The immune system of a person is suppressed. In the ELISA test, he was found positive to a
pathogen.
(a) Name the disease the patient is suffering from.
(b) What is the causative organism?
(c) Which cells of the body are affected by the pathogen?
Ans:
(a) AIDS (Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome).
(b) HIV (Human Immuno-deficiency Virus)
(c) Helper T-lymphocytes
3. If a patient is advised Anti-Retroviral Therapy, which infection is he suffering from? Name the
causative organism.
Ans) The infection he is suffering from is AIDS. The causative organism of AIDS is HIV (Human
Immuno-deficiency Virus).
4. In the given flow diagram, the replication of retrovirus in a host is shown. Observe and answer
the following questions.
(a) Fill in (1) and (2).
(b) Why is the virus called retrovirus?
(c) Can the infected cell survive while viruses are being replicated and released?

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Ans:
(a) 1 – Viral DNA is produced by reverse transcriptase, 2 – New viral RNA is produced by reverse
transcriptase
(b) The virus is called retrovirus because it does not follow the central dogma of molecular biology
and it works under the enzyme reverse transcriptase.’
(c) Yes, the infected cell can survive, while viruses are being replicated and released.

CAN YOU ANSWER?

1. Expand the term NACO.
2. Which tests are performed to diagnose AIDS?
3. Which day is celebrated as World AIDS Day?
4. Name the causative organism of AIDS. What is its peculiarity?
5. What is the incubation period of AIDS?
6. What is the principle of ELISA test?
7. List out the prophylactic measures for AIDS infection.
8. Draw a schematic diagram representing the replication of retrovirus.
9. AIDS is an acquired disease and not a congenital disease. True or False.
10. Name the cells which are attacked by HIV virus.
TOPIC 7.4 | CANCER
 Cancer is one of the most dreaded diseases among human beings and is also a major cause of death
all over the globe. More than a million Indians suffer from cancer and a large number of them die
from it annually.
 Cancer is characterized by uncontrolled growth and division of certain body tissues, so forming a
tumor. It is due to the breakdown of those regulatory mechanisms which control and regulate the
growth and differentiation of cells.
 Contact inhibition – It is a property shown by normal cells in which contact with other cells inhibit
the uncontrolled growth of other cells.

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 Cancer cells do not show the property of contact inhibition. As a result, cancerous cells just continues
to divide giving rise to masses of cells called tumors.
CLASSIFICATION OF TUMORS
Based on the mode of spread, tumors are classified into two types: (a) Benign tumors (b) Malignant
tumors
a) Benign tumor: It is also known as non-malignant tumor. These remain confined in the organ affected
and do not spread to other body parts. Though they are less troublesome but need immediate removal
as it causes severe pain and may become malignant. They are less troublesome.
b) Malignant tumor: These are the tumors which spread from one organ to other organ of the body
and normal tissues. As these cells actively divide and grow, they also starve the normal cells by
competing for vital nutrients. Metastasis is the most feared property of malignant tumors where is
the process of transference of cancerous cells from the site of origin to distant parts of the body.
CAUSES OF CANCER
Transformation from a normal cell to a cancerous neoplastic cell may be induced by physical, chemical
or biological agents. These agents are known as carcinogens.

Physical agents: Ionising radiations (X-rays, Gamma rays), non-ionising

radiaitons (UV rays) causes DNA damage leading to neoplasmic
transformation.

Chemical agents: Tobacco smoke has been identified as a major cause of

lung cancer. Caffeine, polycyclic hydrocarbons, heavy metallic ions are also
carcinogenic. Chewing of betels is known to cause mouth cancer.

Biological agents: Cancer causing viruses are known as oncogenic viruses.

These oncogenic viruses have genes called viral oncogenes. Several genes
called cellular oncogenes (c-onc) or proto oncogens have been identifed in
normal cells which when activated under certain conditions, could lead to the
transformation of oncogenic cells.

DETECTION OF CANCER
Early detection of cancer is essential as it allows the disease to be treated successfully as it allows the
disease to be treated successfully in many cases.
 Biopsy – In biopsy, a piece of the suspected tissue is cut into thin sections, and then it is stained and
examined under microscope (histo-pathological studies) by a pathologist. It is done for the tissue
and blood and bone marrow tests for increased cell counts in the case of leukemia (blood cancer).
 Computed Tomography (CT): It uses X – rays to generate a three-dimensional image of the
internals of an object.

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 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): It uses strong magnetic fields and non-ionising radiations to
accurately detect pathological and physiological changes in the living tissue.
 Antibodies: Antibodies against cancer-specific antigens are also used for detection of certain
cancers.
 Molecular biology techniques: It can be applied to detect genes in individuals with inherited
susceptibility to certain cancers. Identification of such genes, which predispose an individual to
certain cancers, may be very helpful in prevention of cancers. Such individuals may be advised to
avoid exposure to particular carcinogens to which they are susceptible (e.g., tobacco smoke in case
of lung cancer)
TREATMENT OF CANCER
The most common approaches for cancer treatment are surgery, radiation therapy and
immunotherapy.
 Radiotherapy: Tumor cells are irradiated lethally, taking proper care of the normal tissues
surrounding the tumor mass.
 Several chemotherapeutic drugs: They are used to kill cancerous cells. Some of these are specific
for particular tumors. Majority of drugs have side effects like hair loss, anemia, etc.
 Surgery: It involves the removal of cancerous parts by operative methods. It is the easiest method
of cancer treatment. It cannot be employed against all the cancer types, e.g., for leukemias. But in
most cases it can be employed to reduce the tumor load before starting other therapeutic methods.
 Immunotherapy: It is the latest methodology of cancer treatment where the patients are given
substances called biological response modifiers such as α-interferons which activates their immune
system and helps in destroying the tumor.

NCERT EXEMPLAR QUESTIONS

1. The genes causing cancer are:
(a) Structural genes
(b) Expressor genes
(c) Oncogenes
(d) Regulatory genes
Ans: (c) Oncogenes
Normal cells have genes called cellular oncogenes or proto-oncogenes which are present in an
inactivated state, but under certain conditions like mutation, these get transformed to cancer causing
oncogenes, whereas structural genes, expressor genes and regulatory genes are responsible for regulation
for gene expression (operon model).
2. In malignant tumors, the cells proliferate, grow rapidly and move to other parts of the body to
form new tumors. This stage of disease is called
(a) Metagenesis
(b) Metastasis
(c) Teratogenesis
(d) Mitosis
Ans: (b) Metastasis
Metagenesis is the alternation of generation seen in Phylum Cnidarian, in particular, Obelia.
Teratogenesis is a prenatal toxicity characterized by structural, functional defects in the developing
embryo or foetus.
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Mitosis is a type of cell division that results in the formation of two similar daughter cells.
3. Differentiate between benign tumor and malignant tumor.
Ans:
Benign tumor Malignant tumor
It is a non-cancerous tumor It is a cancerous tumor.
It stops growth after reaching a certain size It shows indefinite growth
It is non-invasive It shows metastasis by invading other parts of the body
It causes very little damage It causes fatal damage to the body
4. Give the full form of CT and MRI. How are they different from each other? Where are they
used?
Ans: CT stands for Computed Tomography and MRI stands for Magnetic Resonance Imaging.
CT uses X-rays to generate 3D images of internal organs whereas MRI uses strong magnetic fields and
non-ionising radiations to detect pathological and physiological changes in the living tissue accurately.
Both are used in cancer detection.
5. What is cancer? How is a cancer cell different from the normal cell? How do normal cells attain
cancerous nature?
Ans: Cancer is a disease in which abnormal cells grow and divide uncontrollably, often forming tumors
and spreading to other parts of the body (a process called metastasis). This uncontrolled growth happens
because of genetic mutations that disrupt the normal regulation of cell division, growth, and death.
Difference between cancer cell and normal cell
Cancer cell Normal cell
They divide in an uncontrolled manner They divide in a controlled manner
They do not show contact inhibition The cells show contact inhibition
They have the ability to invade and metastasize They do not have the ability to invade and
metastasize.
Genes called cellular oncogenes (c-onc) or proto-oncogenes present in the normal cells get activated
under certain conditions and the lead to the oncogenic transformation of the normal cells thereby
attaining cancerous nature.
6. What are the methods of cancer detection? Describe the common approaches for the treatment
of cancer.
Ans: Early detection of cancer is very much essential. The methods of cancer detection and treatment
are as follows:
Methods of cancer detection:
 Biopsy and histopathological studies of the tissue and blood and bone marrow tests for increased cell
counts in the case of leukemia (blood cancer). In biopsy, a piece of the suspected tissue is cut into
thin sections and then is stained and examined under microscope by a pathologist.
 Computed tomography (CT) uses X-rays to generate a 3D image of the internals of organs.
 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses strong magnetic fields and non-ionising radiations to
accurately detect pathological and physiological changes in the living tissues.
 Antibodies against cancer-specific antigens are also used for the detection of certain cancers.
 Molecular biology techniques to detect genes in individuals with inherited susceptibility to certain
cancers
Treatment of cancer: The common approaches for the treatment of cancer are surgery, radiation
therapy, chemotherapy and immunotherapy.
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 In radiotherapy, tumor cells are irradiated lethally, taking proper care of the normal tissues
surrounding the tumor mass.
 Several chemotherapeutic drugs are used to kill cancerous cells. Some of these are specific for
particular tumors and majority of them have side effects like hair loss, anaemia etc.
 Most cancers are treated by a combination of surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy.
 Tumor cells have been shown to avoid detection and destruction by immune system. Therefore, the
patients are given substances called biological response modifiers such as α-interferon which
activates their immune system and helps in destroying the tumor.

CAN YOU ANSWER?

1. Give the term for the uncontrolled growth of certain body tissues.
2. What are carcinogens?
3. Define proto-oncogenes.
4. Name the carcinogen present in the cigarette smoke.
5. What is biopsy?
6. Compare benign tumor with malignant tumor.
7. Define the term “contact inhibition”.
8. What do you mean by the term metastasis?
9. List down the different methods for cancer detection.
10. Write the full form of MRI and CT.
11. Which are the physical agents acting as cancer-causing substances?
TOPIC 7.5 | IMMUNITY
Immunity is the overall ability of the host to fight the disease-causing organisms, conferred by the
immune system is called immunity. Immunology is the study of immunity, while the infected person
with no disease is said to be immune.
Immune system forms the third line of defense. The most peculiar characteristic of immune system is
that it can differentiate between self (body’s own cells) and non-self (foreign microbes).
Antigen: Any foreign substance which, when enters the body is capable of stimulating an immune
response is called an antigen.
Antibody: The protective chemicals produced by the body in response to antigens are known as
antibodies. They are a class of proteins called immunoglobulins (Ig).
TYPES OF IMMUNITY
There are two main types of immunity: (a) Innate immunity (b) Acquired immunity
INNATE IMMUNITY
It is the type of immunity which is present at the time of birth and is inherited from the mother through
the placenta. It is not acquired from the previous attack of a disease.
Innate immunity consists of four types of barriers:
Physical barrier  Skin is the main barrier which prevents the entry of microorganisms into
our body.
 Mucous coating of epithelium of respiratory, gastrointestinal and
reproductive tracts also act as physical barriers for microbes entering the
body.

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Physiological barrier  Acid in the stomach (hcl)
 Saliva in the mouth (lysozyme)
 Tears in the eyes (lysozyme)
All of the above prevent microbial growth
Cellular barrier  Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNL – neutrophils), monocytes and also
macrophages. Monocytes are liberated at the site of the infection and then
later converted into macrophages – these cells perform phagocytosis.
 NK cells are also involved in cellular barrier and do not perform
phagocytosis.
Cytokine barrier It includes interferons which are antiviral proteins secreted by virus infected
cells. They protect non-infected cells from further viral infections.
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
 It is the type of immunity which is not present from the birth but is acquired during one’s own life.
 It is pathogen-specific.
 It is developed by the organism in response to a disease caused by the infection of microbes or
vaccine.
 It is characterized by memory which means that when our body encounters a pathogen for the first
time, it produces a response called primary response which is of low intensity. Subsequent encounter
with the same pathogen elicits a highly intensified secondary or anamnestic response.
 It is so as some antibody producing cells persist as “memory cells” for long period and produce
antibodies immediately after second infection to counter it.

Cells of Immune System

Lymphocytes are a kind of wbcs in the blood and they are the main cells involved in the immune system.
These are formed by liver and spleen in the foetus and by the bone marrow and lymph nodes in adults.
There are two classes of lymphocytes – T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes.
The B-lymphocytes produce an army of proteins in response to pathogens into our blood to fight with
them. These proteins are called antibodies. The T-cells themselves do bot secrete antibodies but help B
cells to produce them.

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Structure of antibody
Electron microscopic studies have revealed that the shape of an antibody molecule is Y-shaped which
has four polypeptide chains, formed of two identical light chains and two identical heavy chains and
they are held together by disulphide bonds. So, an antibody is represented as H 2L2. Different types
include: igg, iga, igm, igd and ige.
Types of acquired immunity
Classification based on the basis of involvement of the type of lymphocytes:
They are mainly of two types: (a) Humoral immune response (Antibody-mediated immunity) and
(b) Cell-mediated immune response (Cell-mediated immunity)
 Humoral (Antibody-mediated) immunity: It is formed of proteinaceous defensive chemicals
called antibodies which produced by B-lymphocytes and circulate in the plasma of blood and lymph.
 Cell Mediated Immunity: It is formed of highly specialized cells called T-lymphocytes, which
directly attack pathogenic microorganisms that have entered the host’s body or grafts such as
transplanted kidney or skin grafts taken from another person. It is also responsible for the graft
rejection. Here the body can differentiate between self and non-self.
When some human organs like heart, eye, liver, kidney, fail to function satisfactorily, transplantation
is the only remedy to enable the patient to live a normal life. In order to decrease the chances of
rejection of transplant organ, tissue matching and blood group compatibility must be done before
transplantation and even after the transplantation the patient has to take immune – suppressants all
his/her life.

Classification on the basis of participation of immune system of host:

They are divided into two types: (a) Active immunity and (b) Passive immunity
A) Active immunity:
When a host is exposed to antigens, which may be in the form of living or dead microbes or other
proteins, antibodies are produced in the body of the host.
 It provides a slow response but has a long-lasting effect.
 It has no side effects or only few.
 Immunological memory is present.
 It is used for prophylaxis to increase body resistance
They are again divided into natural active immunity and artificial active immunity:
Natural active immunity: This type of immunity is developed as a result of some disease or
through recovery from a disease. It is the most effective and generally persists for a long time,
sometimes even for life. E.g., Chickenpox, measles, mumps, etc.
Artificial active immunity: It is the resistance induced by vaccines which are preparation of live
or killed microorganisms or their products used for immunization. E.g., BCG vaccine for
tuberculosis, TAB vaccine for enteric fever, Sabin vaccine for poliomyelitis.
B) Passive immunity:
 When readymade antibodies are directly given to protect the body against foreign agents, it is
called passive immunity.
 It provides a faster response but has a less lasting effect

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 It has side effects and may cause a reaction.
 Immunological memory is absent.
 It is used for the treatment of acute infection
They are again divided into natural passive immunity and artificial passive immunity
Natural passive immunity: This type of immunity is found in newly born child acquired from
the mother through the placenta. E.g., Colostrum, the first milk produced by the milk has
antibodies iga which provides immunity to the body, igg is the immunoglobulin which can cross
the placenta barrier to reach the foetus.
Artificial passive immunity: If a person is infected with some deadly microbes to which quick
immune response is required (as in tetanus), we need to directly inject the preformed antibodies,
or antitoxins which is developed through injection of immune serum present in already
immunized organisms. E.g., ATS (Anti-Tetanus Serum) for tetanus infection, anti-venom against
snake bites.
VACCINATION AND IMMUNISATION
The principle of immunisation and vaccination are based on the property of ‘memory’ of the immune
system.
Vaccination
 In vaccination, a preparation of antigenic proteins of pathogen or inactivated/weakened pathogen
(vaccine) are introduced into the body.
 The antibodies produced in the body against these antigens would neutralise the pathogenic agents
during actual infection.
 The vaccines also generate memory – B and T-cells that recognise the pathogen quickly on
subsequent exposure and overwhelm the invaders with a massive production of antibodies.
Immunisation
If a person is infected with some deadly microbes to which quick immune response is required as in
tetanus, we need to directly inject the preformed antibodies, or antitoxin (a preparation containing
antibodies to the toxin). This type of immunisation is called passive immunisation.
Types of vaccines
Inactivated (killed) vaccine These were produced by killing the Salk vaccine (poliomyelitis),
pathogen (bacteria, virus, or other rabies, typhoid, cholera,
pathogens) with chemicals or heat, or hepatitis-B vaccines
radiation.
Live attenuated vaccine They are prepared from a whole MMR vaccine, BCG vaccine,
organism by weakening their Polio (Sabin vaccine),
pathogenicity so they cannot cause Rotavirus, Yellow fever,
disease but can induce an immune Varicella vaccines.
response
Toxoid vaccine These are prepared from inactivated Diphtheria vaccines, tetanus
toxins, by treating the toxins with toxoid vaccines
formalin.
Recombinant DNA technology has allowed the production of antigenic polypeptides of pathogen in
bacteria or yeast. Vaccines produced using this approach allow large scale production and hence greater
availability for immunisation, e.g., hepatitis B vaccine produced from yeast.
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IMMUNE SYSTEM OF THE BODY

Immune system

Lymphoid Lymphoid Soluble

Cells
organs tissues molecules

Primary Secondary T-lymphocytes B-lymphocytes

The human immune system consists of lymphoid organs, tissues, cells and soluble molecules like
antibodies. Immune system is unique in the sense that it recognises foreign antigens, responds to these
and remembers them. The immune system also plays an important role in allergic reactions, auto-
immune diseases and organ transplantation.
LYMPHOID ORGANS
These are the organs where lymphocytes originate, mature, proliferate and differentiation takes place.
They are of two types:
Primary lymphoid organs: These are the organs where immature lymphocytes differentiate into
antigen-sensitive lymphocytes. After maturation, they migrate to secondary lymphoid organs like spleen,
lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s parches of small intestine and appendix. Examples: Bone marrow and
thymus.
 Bone marrow: It is present in the marrow cavities of long
bones. It is the main lymphoid organ where all the blood
corpuscles including lymphocytes are produced. In humans,
B-lymphocytes undergo processing in the liver during foetal
life and in the bone marrow during the late foetal life and after
birth.
 Thymus: It is soft, pinkish and bilobed mass of lymphoid
tissue present just above the heart and beneath the sternum of
the chest. It is large sized during young stage and grows to
maximum size at puberty and then reduces in size gradually
as age increases. It secretes a polypeptide hormone called
thymosin which helps in the development and maturation of
T-lymphocytes.
Note: Both bone marrow and thymus provide micro-
environments for the development and maturation of
T-lymphocytes.

Secondary lymphoid organs: These are those lymphoid organs where the fully differentiated
lymphocytes migrate and interact with specific antigens and then proliferate to form effector cells which
show immune response.
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 Lymph nodes: These are small, oval or bean-like and solid structures located at different points
along the lymphatic system. They serve to trap the microorganisms or other antigens, which happen
to get into the lymph and tissue fluid. Antigens trapped in the lymph nodes are responsible for the
activation of lymphocytes present there and cause the immune response.
 Spleen: It is the largest lymphoid organ of the human body and lies just behind the stomach. It is a
large bean-shaped organ which mainly contains lymphocytes and phagocytes. It acts as a filter of the
blood by trapping blood-borne microorganisms. They are also a large reservoir of erythrocytes.
LYMPHOID TISSUES
Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT): It is formed of masses of lymphoid tissue present in
the mucosa of respiratory, digestive and urinogenital tracts. It constitutes about 50% of the lymphoid
tissue in the human body.
DISORDERS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
ALLERGY
 The exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens present in the environment is
called allergy.
 The substances to which such an immune response is produced are called allergens. Common
examples of allergens are mites in dust, pollens, animal dander, etc.
 Ige antibodies are produced during an allergic response.
 Symptoms of allergic reactions: sneezing, watery eyes, running nose and difficulty in breathing.
 It is caused due to the release of chemicals like histamine and serotonin from the mast cells.
 For determining the cause of allergy, the patient is exposed to or injected with very small doses of
possible allergens, and the reactions studied.
 The use of drugs like anti-histamine, adrenalin and steroids quickly reduce the symptoms of allergy.
 Common examples of allergies: Bronchial asthma, Hay fever, anaphylactic shock, etc.
AUTO IMMUNITY
 It is an abnormal immune response in which the immune system of the body starts rejecting its own
body cells or ‘self’ cells and molecules.
 Examples: Rheumatoid arthritis, Myasthenia gravis, Pernicious anaemia, Hashimoto disease,
Multiple Sclerosis, etc.

NCERT EXEMPLAR QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following are the reason(s) for rheumatoid arthritis? Choose the correct option
I. Lymphocytes become more active
II. Body attacks self-cells
III. More antibodies are produced in the body
IV. The ability to differentiate pathogens or foreign molecules from self-cells is lost
(a) I and II
(b) II and IV
(c) III and IV
(d) I and III
Ans: (b) II and IV
Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease where the body's immune system mistakenly attacks its
own cells, leading to inflammation and damage in the joints.
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The body's ability to differentiate between pathogens or foreign molecules and self-cells is lost in this
condition.
2. The substance produced by a cell in viral infection that can protect other cells from further
infection is:
(a) Serotonin
(b) Colostrum
(c) Interferon
(d) Histamine
Ans: (c) interferon
Interferons are signaling proteins that are released by infected cells to warn neighboring cells and help
them mount a defense against the viral infection. They play a crucial role in the body's antiviral response.
3. Transplantation of tissues/organs to save certain patients often fails due to rejection of such
tissues/organs by the patient. Which type of immune response is responsible for such
rejections?
(a) Auto-immune response
(b) Humoral immune response
(c) Physiological immune response
(d) Cell-mediated immune response
Ans: (d) cell-mediated immune response
Transplantation is the replacement of a diseased organ or tissue of an individual with healthy organ or
tissue of same or another individual. These transplants or graft gets rejected if it is recognised as foreign
antigen by the body‘s immune systems. Cell mediated immune response, mediated by T-lymphocyte in
able to differentiate between self and non-self cell/organ. This type of immune response recognise the
body’s non-cells or other tissue or organs from other individual as foreign antigen and cause rejection
of the graft.
4. Antibodies present in colostrum which protect the new born from certain diseases is of:
(a) Igg type
(b) Iga type
(c) Igd type
(d) Ige type
Ans: (b) iga type
Colostrum, the first milk produced by the mother after childbirth, is rich in immunoglobulin A (iga). Iga
helps to protect the mucous membranes of the infant's respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts from
infections by neutralizing pathogens and preventing their attachment to epithelial cells.
5. Anti-venom against snake poison contains
(a) Antigens
(b) Antigen-antibody interactions
(c) Antibodies
(d) Enzymes
Ans: (c) antibodies
Anti-venom is produced by injecting small amounts of snake venom into animals (such as horses or
sheep) and then collecting and purifying the antibodies produced by the animal's immune system in
response to the venom. These antibodies can neutralize the effects of the venom when administered to a
person bitten by a snake.
6. Which of the following is not a lymphoid tissue?
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(a) Spleen
(b) Tonsils
(c) Appendix
(d) Thymus
Ans: (c) Appendix
Spleen, tonsils and thymus are all lymphoid tissues involved in the immune response.
7. Which of the following glands is large sized at birth but reduces in size with ageing?
(a) Pineal
(b) Pituitary
(c) Thymus
(d) Thyroid
Ans: (c) Thymus
The thymus plays a crucial role in the development of the immune system, particularly in the maturation
of T-cells (a type of white blood cell) during childhood. As a person ages, the thymus gradually shrinks
and becomes less active, a process known as thymic involution.
8. Where are B-cells and T-cells formed? How do they differ from each other?
Ans: B-cells or B-lymphocytes are formed and mature in the bone marrow. T-cells or T-lymphocytes are
formed in the bone marrow but they migrate to thymus for maturation
 B-cells produce antibodies which are proteins that neutralize pathogens or mark them for destruction
by other immune cells. They are responsible for memory B cells, which enable long term immunity.
B-cells are responsible for humoral immunity (antibody-mediated immunity).
 T-cells coordinate the immune response by releasing cytokines which activate other immune cells,
including B-cells. They are responsible for cell-mediated immunity.
9. What would happen to the immune system, if thymus gland is removed from the body of a
person?
Ans: The thymus gland plays a crucial role in the development and maturation of T-cells which are
essential for the immune system. If the thymus gland is removed from the body of a person, the
production of new T-cells would decrease significantly which can impair the body’s ability to mount an
effective immune response against infections. T-cells play a vital role in cell-mediated immunity, which
involves recognizing and attacking infected or abnormal cells. A decrease in T-cell production can
weaken the body's ability to fight off infections, viruses, and cancer cells.
10. Many microbial pathogens enter the gut of humans along with food. What are the preventive
barriers to protect the body from such pathogens? What type of immunity do you observe in
this case?
Ans: Many microbial pathogens enter the gut of humans along with food.
The preventive barriers to protect the body from such pathogens are as follows
 The mucus coating of the epithelium lining of the gut helps in trapping microbes entering the body.
 Saliva in the mouth and hydrochloric acid in gastric juice secreted by stomach prevent microbial
growth.
This type of immunity is innate immunity. It is present from birth and is inherited from parents. The
innate immunity remains throughout life.
11. Why is mother’s milk considered to be the most appropriate food for a new born infant?
Ans: The mother’s milk during the initial days after delivery is called colostrum. It contains abundant
antibodies (iga) which protect the new-born baby against infections and many diseases. Breast milk is
easily digestible and gentle on the baby's digestive system. It helps prevent gastrointestinal issues such
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as constipation, diarrhea, and colic. Breastfeeding provides long-term health benefits for both the mother
and the baby, including reduced risk of certain cancers for the mother and improved overall health for
the baby.
12. What are interferons? How do interferons check infection of new cells?
Ans: In response to viral infections our body produces glycoproteins called interferons. Such type of
barriers of innate immunity is called cytokine barrier. Interferons protect the non-infected cells from
further viral infection.
13. In the figure, structure of an antibody molecule is shown. Name the parts A, B and C.

Ans: A – Antigen binding site, B – Light chain, C – Heavy chain

14. Lymph nodes are secondary lymphoid organs. Explain the role of lymph nodes in our immune
response.
Ans: Lymph nodes acts as filter for lymph, the fluid that circulates through the lymphatic system. They
trap and filter out pathogens, such as bacteria and viruses, as well as foreign particles and debris. Lymph
nodes contain a high concentration of immune cells including B-cells and T-cells and macrophages.
These cells constantly monitor the lymph for signs of infection or foreign antigens. Lymph nodes are
also involved in the formation of memory B-cells and T-cells, which provide long-term immunity by
"remembering" previously encountered pathogens and responding more effectively upon re-exposure.
15. Why is an antibody molecule represented as H2L2?
Ans: An antibody molecule is represented as H2L2 to denote its structural composition, consisting of
two heavy chains (H) and two light chains (L). The arrangement of these chains forms a Y-shaped
structure with two antigen-binding sites at the tips of the Y. The variable regions at the ends of the light
and heavy chains are where the antigen-binding occurs, providing the specificity for recognizing
different antigens. The constant regions of the heavy chains are involved in immune system functions,
such as binding to receptors on immune cells and initiating immune responses.
16. What does the term ‘memory’ of the immune system mean?
Ans: The term "memory" of the immune system refers to the ability of the immune system to recognize
and respond more effectively to pathogens that it has encountered before. This is an essential aspect of
the adaptive immune response, which provides long-lasting protection against specific pathogens.
17. Differentiate between active immunity and passive immunity?
Ans:
ACTIVE IMMUNITY PASSIVE IMMUNITY
Immune response generated by the body Immunity acquired by receiving pre-formed
following exposure to a pathogen or vaccination antibodies from another source.

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Immunity is provided by the body’s immune Immunity is provided from an external source
system itself. (e.g., mother, injection)
It takes time to develop (weeks to months) It shows an immediate effect.
It involves activation of T-cells, B-cells and It involves the direct transfer of antibodies into
production of antibodies by the immune system. the body
Examples: Vaccination (MMR, BCG), Natural Examples: Maternal antibodies passed to the
infection (recovery from chickenpox) newborn through the placenta (igg), colostrum,
the first milk given to new-born babies (iga),
antibody injections (e.g., tetanus antitoxin)

18. In the metropolitan cities of India, many children are suffering from allergy/asthma. What are
the main causes of this problem? Give some symptoms of allergic reactions.
Ans: In the metropolitan cities of India, many children suffer from allergies and asthma due to several
factors:
 High levels of pollutants such as particulate matter, NO2, and SO2 from vehicles, industries and
construction activities contribute to respiratory problems.
 Dust mites, pet dander, mold and cockroach droppings are the common indoor allergens that can
trigger allergic reactions and asthma.
 Urban lifestyles often involve less physical activity and more time spent indoors, leading to reduced
exposure to natural environments and allergens, which can weaken the immune system.
 Children with a family history of allergies or asthma are more likely to develop these conditions.
 Some food allergies can also exacerbate asthmatic symptoms.
 Passive smokers can be affected where the smoke irritates the lungs and increases risk of asthma.
Symptoms of allergic reactions:
 Respiratory symptoms like coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, sneezing, runny or stuffy nose.
 Skin symptoms like itching, rash, eczema etc.
 Itchy and watery eyes.
 Fatigue, headache, and in severe cases, anaphylaxis (a life-threatening allergic reaction).
19. What is the basic principle of vaccination? How do vaccines prevent microbial infections?
Name the organism from which hepatitis-B vaccine is produced?
Ans: The principle of vaccination is based on the ‘memory’ of the immune system.
In vaccination, a preparation of antigenic proteins of pathogens or inactivated/live but weakened
pathogens are introduced into the body. The antigens generate the primary immune response by
producing antibodies. The vaccines also generate the memory B-cells and T-cells. When the vaccinated
person is attacked by the same pathogen, the existing memory B-cells or T-cells recognize the antigen
quickly and overwhelm the invaders with massive production of lymphocytes and antibodies.
Hepatitis-B vaccine is produced using rdna technology in yeast cells.
20. A person shows strong unusual hypersensitive reactions when exposed to certain substances
present in the air. Identify the condition. Name the cells responsible for such reactions. What
precaution should be taken to avoid such reactions?
Ans: The condition is known as allergy which is defined as the exaggerated response of the immune
system in response to certain substances.

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The cells responsible for allergy are mast cells. When an encounter with an allergen takes place, mast
cells secrete chemical substances such as serotonin and histamine which causes the symptoms of
allergies, such as inflammation, itching, runny nose, difficulty in breathing, etc.
Precautions to be taken to avoid allergic reactions:
 Avoid allergens: Identify and avoid exposure to substances that trigger allergic reactions. Common
allergens include pollen, dust mites, pet dander, mold, and certain foods.
 Use medications: Antihistamines, decongestants, and corticosteroids can help manage and reduce
allergy symptoms. In severe cases, an epinephrine auto-injector (epipen) may be necessary.
 Maintain a clean environment: Regularly clean your living space to reduce the presence of
allergens. Use air purifiers, vacuum frequently, and wash bedding in hot water.
 Wear protective gear: If you are allergic to pollen or other airborne allergens, wearing a mask and
sunglasses can help reduce exposure when outdoors.
21. For an organ transplant, it is an advantage to have an identical twin. Why?
Ans: The primary advantage of having an identical twin as an organ donot stems from their virtually
identical genetic makeup.
 The immune system’s primary function is to recognize and attack foreign substances. In organ
transplantation, the recipient’s immune system can identify the transplanted organ as “foreign” and
launch an attack, known as rejection. Identical twins share almost 100% of their DNA, meaning their
tissues and organs are indistinguishable to each other’s immune systems. This drastically reduces the
risk of rejection.
 To prevent rejection, transplant recipients typically require lifelong immunosuppressant medications.
These drugs suppress the immune system, but they also increase the risk of infections and other side
effects. Because of the extremely low risk of rejection in identical twin transplants, recipients may
require significantly lower doses of immunosuppressants, or in rare cases no immunosuppressants at
all, minimizing these risks.
 Reduced risk of rejection and minimized immunosuppression contribute to better long-term
outcomes for transplant recipients who receive organs from their identical twins. The transplanted
organ is more likely to function properly for a longer period.
22. What is Pulse Polio Programme of Government of India? What is OPV? Why is it that India
is yet to eradicate polio?
Ans: Pulse Polio Programme is an immunisation campaign established by the Government of India to
eliminate poliomyelitis (polio) in India by vaccinating all children under the age of 5 years against the
Polio virus. The programme was launched in 1995 following the Global Polio Eradication Initiative of
the WHO. The campaign involves large-scale, pulse vaccination programs and monitoring for
poliomyelitis cases.
Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV) is a live-attenuated Sabin-strain polio vaccine administered orally. It is widely
used because: it is easy to administer, it provides both individual immunity and herd immunity by
interrupting the transmission of the virus, it induces intestinal immunity by reducing the chances of viral
replication.
India has made significant progress in eradicating polio, with the last reported case of wild polio in 2011
and the country being declared polio-free by WHO in 2014. However, India remains at risk due to:
 Polio-endemic neighbours: Countries like Pakistan and Afghanistan still report polio cases,
increasing the risk of reintroduction.

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 Vaccine-derived polio virus: Rare cases of mutation in OPV strains can cause outbreaks,
necessitating constant monitoring.
 Low routine immunization coverage in some regions: Though Pulse Polio drives cover millions,
routine immunization gaps still exist in remote, migrant and underserved populations.
23. What are recombinant DNA vaccines? Give two examples of such vaccines. Discuss their
advantages.
Ans: Recombinant DNA vaccines are a type of vaccine which utilizes recombinant DNA technology to
produce the antigenic components of the pathogen. These vaccines are created by inserting the genetic
material, i.e., DNA encoding an antigen (usually a protein) from a pathogen into a vector, which is then
introduced into a host organism, such as yeast or bacteria, to produce large amounts of the antigen. These
antigens are then purified and used to formulate the vaccine.
Examples: Hepatitis B vaccine: This vaccine contains the surface antigen of the hepatitis B virus
produced using recombinant DNA technology in yeast cells. Human Papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine:
This vaccine contains virus-like particles produced using recombinant DNA technology in yeast or insect
cells.
Advantages of recombinant DNA vaccines:
 Safety: Recombinant DNA vaccines do not contain live pathogens, reducing the risk of causing
disease or adverse reactions. They are composed of purified antigens, ensuring high safety.
 Precision: The use of genetic engineering allows for precise control over the production of the
antigen, ensuring consistency and purity in each vaccine dose.
 Scalability: Recombinant DNA vaccines can be produced in large quantities using microbial or
eukaryotic cell cultures, making them suitable for mass vaccination programs.
 Stability: These vaccines are often more stable than traditional vaccines, allowing for easier storage
and transportation, especially in areas with limited cold chain infrastructure.
 Immunogenicity: Recombinant DNA vaccines can be engineered to include multiple antigens,
enhancing the immune response and providing broader protection against the pathogen.

CAN YOU ANSWER?

1. Name the two types of lymphocytes involved in immunity.
2. Give the common site of formation of formation of the two types of lymphocytes.
3. What do you mean by passive immunity? How is it different from active immunity?
4. Why are the breast-fed babies more immune than the bottle-fed babies?
5. Name the various types of barriers in innate immunity.
6. What are interferons?
7. Which type of antibodies are present in colostrum?
8. What is the principle of vaccination?
9. Name the various cellular barriers of active immunity.
10. Draw a neat labelled diagram of an antibody molecule.
11. What are autoimmune diseases?
12. Give examples for autoimmune diseases.
13. Give the full form of MALT.
14. How is allergy caused? Name the antibodies produced during an allergic response.
15. Give an example each for active and passive immunity.

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16. How do spleen act as a secondary lymphoid organ.
TOPIC 7.6 | DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE
 Any substance, other than food, used in the prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of a disease is called
a drug.
 When drugs are taken for purposes other than medicinal or taken in amounts or frequencies that
impairs physical, physiological or psychological functions, it is called drug abuse.
 Drugs are chemicals which interact with the CNS and bring about nervous and psychological
changes. Based on the source, drugs are of two types, they are natural drugs and synthetic drugs.
The drugs, which are commonly abused are opioids, cannabinoids and coca alkaloids. Majority of
these are obtained from flowering plants. Some are obtained from fungi.
OPIOIDS
 They act as depressant and analgesic and so are commonly called pain killers.
 These bind to their specific opioid receptors present in the CNS and gastrointestinal tract.
 Commonly used natural opioids are opium and morphine.
 Opium is the dried milky latex obtained from the fruits of the poppy plant, Papaver somniferum.
 Morphine is an important natural opioid derived from opium or latex of poppy plant. It is very
useful for patients who have undergone surgery.

 Heroin, commonly called smack, is chemically diacetylmorphine. It is a white, odourless, bitter

crystalline compound. This is obtained by the acetylation of morphine. It is taken generally by
smoking and injection. It is a depressant and slows down the body functions.
CANNABINOIDS
 They are a group of chemicals obtained from the hemp plant, Cannabis sativa.
 They interact with the cannabinoid receptors present principally in the brain.
 Natural cannabinoids are obtained from the inflorescences of the plant Cannabis sativa.
 The flower tops, leaves and the resin of cannabis plant are used in various combinations to produce
marijuana, hashish, charas and ganja.
 It is generally taken by inhalation and oral ingestion.
 They are known for the effects on cardiovascular system of the body.

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COCA ALKALOIDS
 It is obtained from the leaves and young branches of coca plant Erythroxylum coca, native to South
America.
 Mode of intake: By snorting
 Mode of action: It has a potent stimulating action on CNS, producing a sense of euphoria and
increased energy. It interferes with the transport of the neurotransmitter dopamine.
 Excessive dosage causes hallucinations.
The drugs which causes hallucinations are called hallucinogens. They are obtained from Atropa
belladonna and Datura. LSD is obtained from the fungus Claviceps purpurea.
SOME MEDICINES ABUSED
 Some important drugs are used as medicines to help patients in the recovery of mental illnesses like
depression and insomnia. Such drugs are often abused. E.g., Barbiturates, amphetamines, lysergic
acid diethyl amides (LSD), etc.
 Barbiturates are synthetic sedative drugs commonly called sleeping pills.
 Morphine is a very effective sedative and pain killer. It is very useful patients who have undergone
surgery.
Several plants, fruits and seeds having hallucinogenic properties have been used for hundreds of years
in folk-medicine, religious ceremonies and rituals all over the globe.

SMOKING
Tobacco has been used by human beings for more than 400 years which is often smoked, chewed or used
as a snuff. Tobacco is a harmful intoxicant which contains a highly poisonous alkaloid called nicotine.
Harmful effects of smoking
 Nicotine stimulates adrenal gland to release adrenaline and nor-adrenaline into blood circulation and
both of which raise the blood pressure and also increases heart rate.
 Smoking is associated with increased incidence of cancers of lung, urinary bladder and throat,
bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart disease, gastric ulcer, etc.
 Tobacco chewing is associated with increased risk of cancer of the oral cavity.
 Smoking increases carbon monoxide (CO) content in blood and reduces the concentration of haem-
bound oxygen. This causes oxygen deficiency in the body.

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When one buys packets of cigarettes one cannot miss the statutory warning that is present on the packing
which warns against smoking and says how it is injurious to health. Yet, smoking is very prevalent in
society, both among young and old. Knowing the dangers of smoking and chewing tobacco, and its
addictive nature, the youth and old need to avoid these habits. Any addict requires counselling and
medical help to get rid of the habit.
ADOLESCENCE AND DRUG/ALCOHOL ABUSE
Adolescence is the period of rapid growth and physical and mental development between childhood and
adulthood. It extends between 8-18 years for girls and 7-19 years for boys. It is also the period of
development of social and emotional perceptions like ego-centralism, self-identity, self-respect, several
biological and behavioural changes. So, adolescence is the highly vulnerable period of mental and
psychological development.
Causes of alcohol or drug abuse
 Curiosity, need for adventure and excitement, and experimentation, constitute common causes,
which motivate youngsters towards drug and alcohol use.
 Desire to escape from depression and frustration.
 Desire to overcome the hardships of daily life.
 Family’s history and unsupportive family structures.
 Advertisements leading to curiosity. So internet media and movies expose them to alcohol abuse
 False belief of enhanced physical, mental and/or intellectual performance.
Addiction and dependence
 Addiction is a psychological attachment to certain effects such as euphoria and a temporary
feeling of well-being –associated with drugs and alcohol.
 With repeated use of drugs, the tolerance level of the receptors present in our body increases.
Consequently the receptors respond only to higher doses of drugs or alcohol leading to greater intake
and addiction. However, it should be clearly borne in mind that use of these drugs even once, can be
a fore-runner to addiction.
 Thus, the addictive potential of drugs and alcohol, pull the user into a vicious circle leading to their
regular use (abuse) from which he/she may not be able to get out. In the absence of any guidance or
counselling, the person gets addicted and becomes dependent on their use.
 Dependence is the tendency of the body to manifest a characteristic and unpleasant withdrawal
syndrome if regular dose of drugs/alcohol is abruptly discontinued. This is characterised by
anxiety, shakiness, nausea and sweating, which may be relieved when use is resumed again.
 In some cases, withdrawal symptoms can be severe and even life threatening and the person may
need medical supervision.
 Dependence leads the patient to ignore all social norms in order to get sufficient funds to satiate
his/her needs. These result in many social adjustment problems.
Effects of Drug/Alcohol abuse
 Immediate adverse effects include reckless behavior, vandalism and violence.
 Excessive doses of drugs can lead to coma and death due to respiratory failure, heart failure or
cerebral haemorrhage.

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 A combination of drugs or their intake along with alcohol generally results in overdosing and even
deaths.
Warning signs of drug/alcohol abuse
 Drop in academic performance
 Unexplained absence from school/college
 Lack of interest in personal hygiene
 Withdrawal
 Isolation from family and friends.
 Depression
 Fatigue
 Aggressive and rebellious behavior
 Deteriorating relationships with family and friends
 Loss of interest in hobbies
 Change in sleeping and eating habits
 Fluctuations in weight, appetite etc.
 If an abuser is unable to get money to buy drugs/alcohol he/she may turn to stealing. The adverse
effects are just not restricted to the person who is using drugs or alcohol.
 At times, a drug/alcohol addict becomes the cause of mental and financial distress to his/her entire
family and friends.
 Those who take drugs intravenously (direct injection into the vein using a needle and syringe), are
much more likely to acquire serious infections like AIDS and Hepatitis B.
 The viruses, which are responsible for these diseases, are transferred from one person to another by
sharing of infected needles and syringes. Both AIDS and Hepatitis B infections are chronic infections
and ultimately fatal. Both can be transmitted through sexual contact or infected blood.
 The use of alcohol during adolescence may also have long-term effects. It could lead to heavy
drinking in adulthood.
 The chronic use of drugs and alcohol damages nervous system and liver (cirrhosis).
 The use of drugs and alcohol during pregnancy is also known to adversely affect the foetus.
 Another misuse of drugs is what certain sportspersons do to enhance their performance. They misuse
narcotic analgesics, anabolic steroids, diuretics and certain hormones in sports to increase muscle
strength and bulk and to promote aggressiveness and as a result increase athletic performance.
Side effects of the use of anabolic steroids in Side effects of the use of anabolic steroids in
females males
 Masculinization (features like males)  Acne
 Increased aggressiveness  Increased aggressiveness
 Mood swings  Mood swings
 Depression  Depression
 Abnormal menstrual cycles  Reduction in the size of the testicles
 Excessive hair growth on the face and body  Decreased sperm production
 Enlargement of clitoris  Potential for kidney and liver dysfunction
 Deepening of voice  Breast enlargement
 Premature baldness
 Enlargement of the prostate gland

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PREVENTION AND CONTROL

 The age-old adage of ‘prevention is better than cure’ holds true here also. It is also true that habits
such as smoking, taking drug or alcohol are more likely to be taken up at a young age, more during
adolescence.
 Hence, it is best to identify the situations that may push an adolescent towards use of drugs or alcohol,
and to take remedial measures well in time. In this regard, the parents and the teachers have a special
responsibility.
 Parenting that combines with high levels of nurturance and consistent discipline, has been associated
with lowered risk of substance (alcohol/drugs/tobacco) abuse.
Some of the measures mentioned here would be particularly useful for prevention and control of alcohol
and drugs abuse among adolescents:
1. Avoid undue peer pressure: Every child has his/her own choice and personality, which should be
respected and nurtured. A child should not be pushed unduly to perform beyond his/her threshold
limits; be it studies, sports or other activities.
2. Education and counselling: Educating and counselling him/ her to face problems and stresses, and
to accept disappointments and failures as a part of life. It would also be worthwhile to channelize the
child’s energy into healthy pursuits like sports, reading, music, yoga and other extracurricular
activities.
3. Seeking help from parents and peers: Help from parents and peers should be sought immediately
so that they can guide appropriately. Help may even be sought from close and trusted friends. Besides
getting proper advise to sort out their problems, this would help young to vent their feelings of
anxiety and guilt.
4. Looking for danger signs: Alert parents and teachers need to look for and identify the danger signs
discussed above. Even friends, if they find someone using drugs or alcohol, should not hesitate to
bring this to the notice of parents or teacher in the best interests of the person concerned. Appropriate
measures would then be required to diagnose the malady and the underlying causes. This would help
in initiating proper remedial steps or treatment.
5. Seeking professional and medical help: A lot of help is available in the form of highly qualified
psychologists, psychiatrists, and de addiction and rehabilitation programmes to help individuals who
have unfortunately got in the quagmire of drug/alcohol abuse. With such help, the affected individual
with sufficient efforts and will power, can get rid of the problem completely and lead a perfectly
normal and healthy life.

NCERT EXEMPLAR QUESTIONS

1. ‘Smack is a drug obtained from the:
(a) Latex of Papaver somniferum
(b) Leaves of Cannabis sativa
(c) Flowers of Datura
(d) Fruits of Erythroxylum coca
Ans: (a) Latex of Papaver somniferum
Smack, also known as heroin, is a highly addictive opioid drug derived from morphine, which is
extracted from the latex of the opium poppy plant (Papaver somniferum). It is a depressant that affects
the central nervous system, leading to pain relief, euphoria, and addiction.

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2. Tobacco consumption is known to stimulate secretion of adrenaline and nor-adrenaline. The
component causing this could be:
(a) Nicotine
(b) Tannic acid
(c) Curamin
(d) Catechin
Ans: (a) Nicotine
Nicotine is a stimulant that acts on the adrenal glands to release these hormones, leading to increased
heart rate, blood pressure, and energy levels. It is one of the primary addictive substances in tobacco.
3. If a regular dose of drug or alcohol is not provided to an addicted person, he shows some
withdrawal symptoms. List any four such withdrawal symptoms.
Ans: When an addicted person does not receive their regular dose of drugs or alcohol, they experience
withdrawal symptoms as their body struggles to adjust. Four common withdrawal symptoms include:
a. Tremors and shaking – uncontrollable shaking, especially in hands.
b. Anxiety and irritability – the person may feel extremely anxious, restless or easily angered.
c. Nausea and vomiting – many addicts experience digestive issues, including nausea, vomiting or
loss of appetite.
d. Sweating and rapid heartbeat – excessive sweating, palpitations and increased heart rate.
4. Do you consider passive smoking is more dangerous than active smoking? Why?
Ans: Yes, passive smoking can be more dangerous than active smoking because secondhand smoke
contains the same harmful chemicals, including nicotine, tar, and carbon monoxide, but in higher
concentrations. Non-smokers inhale these toxins involuntarily, increasing their risk of lung cancer, heart
disease, and respiratory issues. Infants and pregnant women are particularly vulnerable. Unlike active
smokers, passive smokers do not choose to smoke, making it an unfair health risk to those exposed.
5. The outline structure of a drug is given below:
(a) Which group of drugs does this represent?
(b) What are the modes of consumption of these drugs?
(c) Name the organ of the body which is affected by consumption of these drugs.

Ans:
(a) Cannabinoid molecule
(b) By smoking or oral ingestion
(c) Cannabinoids generally affect the cardiovascular system of the body.
6. Many secondary metabolites of plants have medicinal properties. It is their misuse that creates
problems. Justify the statement with an example.
Ans: Many secondary metabolites of plants have medicinal properties, but their misuse can lead to
serious health issues. These compounds are beneficial when used in controlled doses for treatment but
harmful when abused. Example: Heroin is a secondary metabolite which is obtained from the latex of
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poppy plant Papaver somniferum, generally taken by snorting and injection. Heroin is a depressant and
slows down body functions.
7. Why cannabinoids are banned in sports and games?
Ans: Cannabinoids, anabolic steroids, diuretics and certain hormones are used by sportspersons to
increase their athletic performance. But their misuse is associated with a number of problems in both
sportsmen and sportswomen e.g. These cause masculinisation, increased aggressiveness, mood swings,
abnormal menstrual cycles, enlarged clitoris in sportswomen while their misuse in sportsmen is known
to cause acne, mood swings, reduced testicular size, decreased spermatogenesis, enlarged breasts and
prostate gland, dysfunctioning of liver and kidneys, etc.
8. What is secondary metabolite?
Ans: The metabolite which is produced by the chemical treatment of primary metabolite of the plants is
called secondary metabolite. E.g., Opium is the primary metabolite obtained from the dried latex of
poppy plant (Papaver somniferum), while morphine, codeine are considered as secondary metabolite.
9. Drugs and alcohol give short-term ‘high’ and long term ‘damages’, Discuss.
Ans: Short term effects of drugs and alcohol are euphoria and relaxation, alcohol and certain drugs can
make people feel more confident or socially uninhibited. Some substances dull physical or emotional
pain for a short time. Stimulants like cocaine or methamphetamine can create an illusion of heightened
energy and focus.
Some of the long term effects is that its prolonged use can cause liver damage, lung disease and heart
problems. It can lead to mental health issues like depression, anxiety, and paranoia. Regular consumption
leads to dependence, making it difficult to quit without severe withdrawal symptoms. Substance abuse
can lead to broken relationships, job loss and isolation. Drug use can lead to legal troubles, heavy fines
and financial instability and long term drug and alcohol abuse can impair memory, decision-making and
overall brain function.
10. From which plant cannabinoids are obtained? Name any two cannabinoids. Which part of the
body is effected by consuming these substances?
Ans: Cannabinoids are obtained from the leaves and flowers of hemp plant, i.e., Cannabis sativa.
Two cannabinoids – Marijuana, Charas (Hashish), Bhang, Ganja etc.
They interact with the receptors present in the brain and generally adversely affect the cardiovascular
system of the body.
11. Why do some adolescents start taking drugs? How this can be avoided?
Ans: Reasons why adolescents start taking drugs
Adolescents may start using drugs due to various psychological, social and environmental factors,
including:
 Peer pressure – influence from friends or social groups to fit in.
 Curiosity and experimentation – desire to explore new experiences and excitement
 Stress and emotional problems – coping mechanisms for anxiety, depression, or family issues.
 Lack of parental supervision – poor family bonding, lack of guidance
 Easy availability of drugs – access to substances in the neighbourhood or through social
connections.
 Media influence – glorification of drug use in movies, music, and social media.
 Low self-esteem – using drugs to feel confidence or escape insecurities.
 Academic pressure –using stimulants to stay awake and perform better in exams.
Ways to prevent drug use in adolescents

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 Parental Guidance and Communication – Encouraging open discussions about the dangers of
drug use.
 Educational Programs – Schools should provide awareness sessions on substance abuse.
 Healthy Peer Influence – Encouraging positive friendships and group activities.
 Engagement in Extracurricular Activities – Sports, music, arts, and hobbies can provide a
productive outlet.
 Counseling and Mental Health Support – Providing psychological support for stress, anxiety, and
depression.
 Strict Law Enforcement – Reducing drug availability through strict legal actions.
 Community Awareness Campaigns – Educating both parents and children about drug addiction
and its consequences.
 Developing Self-Confidence – Teaching adolescents how to say "NO" to drugs and resist peer
pressure.
12. In your locality, if a person is addicted to alcohol, what kind of behavioural changes do you
observe in that person? Suggest measures to overcome the problem.
Ans: In my locality, a person addicted to alcohol may exhibit the following behavioural changes:
Mood swings and aggression – frequent irritability, anger and even violent outbursts.
Social withdrawal – avoiding family and friends, preferring to drink alone.
Risky behvaiour – engaging in unsafe activities like drunk driving or reckless decision-making
Neglect of responsibilities – ignoring duties at work, school or home.
Denial and defensiveness – refusing to acknowledge the problem and reacting negatively to
concerns raised by others.
Measures to overcome alcohol addiction
 Counseling and therapy by seeking help from psychologists, counselors or support groups.
 Consulting a doctor for detox programs or medication-assisted treatment.
 Encouraging open conservations and emotional support from loved ones.
 Enrolling in professional rehab programs for structured recovery.
 Engaging in healthy activities like exercise, meditation and hobbies to reduce cravings.
 Staying away from situations, places or people that encourage drinking.
 Educating people about the dangers of alcohol addiction through community programs.
13. Drugs like LSD, barbiturates, amphetamines, etc., are used as medicines to help patients with
mental illness. However, excessive doses and abusive usage are harmful. Enumerate the major
adverse effects of such drugs in humans.
Ans: Drugs like LSD, barbiturates, amphetamines and other psychoactive substances can have serious
adverse effects when used excessively or abused. The major adverse effects of these drugs include:
LSD (hallucinogens)
 Psychological effects: Hallucinations, anxiety, panic attacks, psychosis, etc.
 Physical effects: Increased heart rate, high BP, sweating, tremors and dizziness
 Long term effects: Flashbacks (hallucinogen persisting perception disorder, HPPD), depression and
persistent psychosis.
Barbiturates (sedative-hypnotics)
 Acute effects: Drowsiness, confusion, slurred speech, respiratory depression and loss of coordination
 Chronic abuse: Dependence, memory impairment, mood swings, and liver damage.
 Overdose risk: Coma, severe respiratory depression, and death
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Amphetamines (Stimulants)
 Short-term effects: Increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, insomnia, restlessness and
aggression.
 Long-term effects: Dependence, paranoia, hallucinations, cardiovascular issues (heart attack,
stroke), and severe weight loss.
 Withdrawal symptoms: Depression, fatigue, irritability and cognitive impairment.
General adverse effects of drug abuse
 Neurological damage: Seizures, brain damage, memory loss, cognitive decline
 Cardiovascular issues: Increased risk of heart disease, arrhythmias and stroke.
 Psychiatric disorders: Anxiety, depression, suicidal tendencies
 Social and behavioural issues: Addiction, violent behavior, impaired judgment and legal
consequences.

CAN YOU ANSWER?

1. Differentiate between addiction and dependence.
2. What are hallucinogens? Give an example.
3. Name the plant from which cocaine is obtained.
4. Name the group of chemicals which are known for their effects on the cardiovascular system
of the body.
5. Write a note on Morphine.
6. List down the harmful effects of nicotine present in tobacco smoke.
7. List down the measures for prevention and control of alcohol and drug abuse among
adolescents.
8. List down some common warning signs of drug and alcohol abuse among youth.
9. Write a brief note on opioids.
10. List down the side effects of the use of anabolic steroids in males and females respectively

SUMMARY
 Health is not just the absence of disease. It is a state of complete physical, mental, social and
psychological well-being.
 Diseases like typhoid, cholera, pneumonia, fungal infections of skin, malaria and many others are a
major cause of distress to human beings.
 Vector-borne diseases like malaria especially one caused by Plasmodium falciparum, if not treated,
may prove fatal.
 Besides personal cleanliness and hygiene, public health measures like proper disposal of waste,
decontamination of drinking water, control of vectors like mosquitoes and immunisation are very
helpful in preventing these diseases.
 Our immune system plays the major role in preventing these diseases when we are exposed to
disease-causing agents.
 The innate defences of our body like skin, mucous membranes, antimicrobial substances present in
our tears, saliva and the phagocytic cells help to block the entry of pathogens into our body.

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 If the pathogens succeed in gaining entry to our body, specific antibodies (humoral immune
response) and cells (cell mediated immune response) serve to kill these pathogens. Immune system
has memory.
 On subsequent exposure to same pathogen, the immune response is rapid and more intense. This
forms the basis of protection afforded by vaccination and immunisation.
 Among other diseases, AIDS and cancer kill a large number of individuals worldwide.
 AIDS caused by the human immuno-deficiency virus (HIV) is fatal but can be prevented if certain
precautions are taken.
 Many cancers are curable if detected early and appropriate therapeutic measures are taken.
 Of late, drug and alcohol abuse among youth and adolescents is becoming another cause of concern.
 Because of the addictive nature of alcohol and drugs, and their perceived benefits like relief from
stress, a person may try taking these in the face of peer pressure, examinations-related and
competition-related stresses.
 In doing so, he/she may get addicted to them. Education about their harmful effects, counselling and
seeking immediate professional and medical help would totally relieve the individual from these
evils.

NCERT EXERCISES
1. What are the various public health measures, which you would suggest as safeguard against
infectious diseases?
Ans: Safeguarding against infectious diseases involves a combination of personal and community-based
measures. Here are some key public health strategies that can help prevent the spread of infectious
diseases:
 Vaccination: Immunisation is one of the most effective ways to prevent infectious diseases. Ensure
that you and your family are up-to-date with recommended vaccines.
 Hand hygiene: Regularly wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds, especially
after using the restroom, before eating, and after coughing or sneezing. If soap and water are
unavailable, use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer.
 Respiratory hygiene: Cover your mouth and nose with a tissue or your elbow when you cough or
sneeze. Dispose of tissues properly and wash your hands immediately.
 Vector control: Take measures to reduce exposure to disease-carrying insects, such as mosquitoes.
Use insect repellent, wear long sleeves and pants, and ensure that living spaces are free of stagnant
water.
 Safe food and water practices: Ensure that food is cooked thoroughly and consumed fresh. Drink
clean, safe water and avoid consuming food from unhygienic sources.
 Environmental cleaning: Regularly clean and disinfect frequently-touched surfaces and objects, such
as door knobs, light switches and phones.
2. In which way has the study of biology helped us to control infectious diseases?
Ans: The study of biology has been instrumental in controlling infectious diseases through various ways:
 Understanding Pathogens: Biology helps identify and understand the organisms that cause
diseases, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Knowing their structure, life cycle, and
mode of transmission aids in developing effective treatments and preventive measures.

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 Antibiotics and Antiviral Drugs: Research in microbiology has led to the discovery and
development of antibiotics and antiviral drugs that treat infections by targeting specific pathogens.
This has transformed medicine, making previously deadly diseases treatable
 Diagnostics: Advances in molecular biology have led to the development of diagnostic tools such as
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) and rapid antigen tests. These tools allow for the early detection
and diagnosis of infectious diseases, enabling timely treatment and containment.
 Vector Control: Understanding the biology of vectors, such as mosquitoes that transmit diseases
like malaria and dengue, leads to effective control measures. This includes the use of insecticides,
bed nets, and environmental management to reduce vector populations.
 Public Health Interventions: Knowledge of human biology and behavior informs public health
strategies, such as promoting hand hygiene, safe food practices, and the use of masks and social
distancing during outbreaks.
 Global Health Initiatives: Biological research supports global health programs aimed at controlling
and eliminating infectious diseases through vaccination campaigns, sanitation projects, and health
education.
 Vaccination Development: Immunology, a branch of biology, plays a critical role in developing
vaccines that stimulate the immune system to recognize and fight specific pathogens. Vaccination
has eradicated diseases like smallpox and significantly reduced the incidence of others, such as
measles and polio.
 Antibiotics and Antiviral Drugs: Research in microbiology has led to the discovery and
development of antibiotics and antiviral drugs that treat infections by targeting specific pathogens.
This has transformed medicine, making previously deadly diseases treatable.
3. How does the transmission of each of the following disease take place?
(a) Amoebiasis
(b) Malaria
(c) Ascariasis
(d) Pneumonia
Ans:
Name of disease Mode of transmission
(a) Amoebiasis Houseflies acts as mechanical carriers. It spreads through contaminated food
and water.
(b) Malaria The sporozoites are introduced along with the saliva of vector female Anopheles
mosquito.
(c) Ascariasis Eggs of the parasite excreted along with the faeces of the infected person which
contaminate soil, water and plants.
(d) Pneumonia By droplet or aerosol infection or use of glass or utensils of the infected person.

4. What measure would you take to prevent water-borne diseases?

Ans: Preventing water-borne diseases requires a multi-faceted approach to ensure that water sources
remain clean and safe for consumption. Here are some key measures to consider:
 Water Treatment: Ensure that all drinking water is properly treated to eliminate pathogens. This
can include boiling, chlorination, or the use of filtration systems to remove contaminants.
 Safe Storage: Store water in clean, covered containers to prevent contamination. Use containers
with a narrow mouth to reduce the risk of contact with hands or other sources of contamination.
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 Sanitation Facilities: Promote the use of proper sanitation facilities to prevent the contamination of
water sources with human waste. This includes the construction and maintenance of toilets and
sewage systems.
 Hygiene Practices: Encourage regular hand washing with soap, especially before handling food and
after using the restroom. This helps prevent the transfer of pathogens from hands to food and water.
 Education and Awareness: Educate communities about the importance of safe water practices,
proper sanitation, and hygiene to prevent water-borne diseases. Awareness campaigns can help
reinforce these messages.
 Water Source Protection: Protect water sources from contamination by restricting access to animals
and ensuring that human activities, such as bathing or washing clothes, are conducted away from
drinking water sources.
 Environmental Control: Implement measures to control the presence of vectors, such as
mosquitoes, that can breed in stagnant water. This includes eliminating standing water around homes
and communities.
5. Discuss with your teacher what does ‘a suitable gene’ means, in the context of DNA vaccines.
Ans: “Suitable gene” means that a disease-resistant gene present on the genome of lower organisms. By
the technique of genetic engineering, this “suitable gene” is transferred in a vaccine to inject in human
beings to induce the development of immunity.
6. Name the primary and secondary lymphoid organs.
Ans: Primary lymphoid organs: Bone Marrow and Thymus
Secondary lymphoid organs: Lymph nodes, Spleen, Tonsils, Peyer’s patches.
7. The following are some well-known abbreviations, which have been used in this chapter.
Expand each one its full form:
(a) MALT
(b) CMI
(c) AIDS
(d) NACO
(e) HIV
Ans:
(a) Mucosal-Associated Lymphoid Tissue
(b) Cell Mediated Immunity
(c) Acquired Immuno Deficiceny Syndrome
(d) National AIDS Control Organisation
(e) Human Immunodeficiency Virus -0
8. Differentiate the following and give examples of each:
(a) Innate and acquired immunity
(b) Active and passive immunity
Ans:
(a) Difference between innate and acquired immunity
Innate immunity Acquired immunity
It is present from birth It develops during life time.
The immunity remains throughout life It can be short lived or life long
It does not have a memory It has a special immunological memory

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It provides barriers against the entry of It produces B-lymphocytes and T-
pathogens in the body lymphocytes. It also produces primary and
secondary immune response
(b) Difference between active and passive immunity
Active immunity Passive immunity
It is the long-lasting acquired immunity It is the acquired immunity developed in
developed by the antibodies produced by the bodies by the administration of ready-made
organism’s own cells. antibodies in the plasma of an animal or
human against foreign agents.
It takes time to develop immunity It is used when the immune response has to be
faster
Antibodies are produced by the body in Antibodies are obtained from outside.
response to pathogen or antigen.
It stays for longer period. It stays for shorter period.
Side effects are very few The body reacts after the administration of
antiserum.
Example: Injecting microbes in the body by Example: Transfer of antibodies from milk of
vaccination the mother to the child.

9. Draw a well-labelled diagram of an antibody molecule.

Ans:

Fig. Structure of an antibody molecule

10. What are the various routes by which transmission of human immunodeficiency virus takes
place?
Ans: The various routes by which transmission of HIV takes place are as follows:
 Unprotected sexual contact
 Transfusions of contaminated blood or blood products.
 Sharing needles and syringes
 Infected mother to her baby during pregnancy, childbirth or breastfeeding.
 Direct contact with infected blood while sharing razors or getting tattoos with unsterilized
equipment.
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11. What is the mechanism by which the AIDS virus causes deficiency of immune system of the
infected person?
Ans: HIV attacks the helper-T cells. Inside the host cell, viral RNA synthesizes single stranded DNA on
it in the presence of enzyme reverse transcriptase. Single stranded DNA separates from viral-RNA and
forms its complementary copy to form double stranded DNA which is incorporated into host's cell. DNA.
The viral DNA transcribes large number of RNA particles, each of which gets surrounded by a
proteinaceous capsid to complete viral particles. Finally, the host helper T-cell is lysed and many HIV
viruses are released. Each of these infects new Helper T- cells. So there is progressive decrease in the
number of Helper-T-cells.
12. How is a cancerous cell different from a normal cell?
Ans:
Normal cell Cancerous cell
Grow and divide in a controlled manner, Grow and divide uncontrollably, ignoring
following the body’s regulatory signals. regulatory signals which lead to tumor formation.
Normal cells stop dividing when they touch Cancer cells continue to grow and form tumors.
neighbouring cells.
Normal cells undergo programmed cell death Cancer cells evade this (apoptosis) process,
(apoptosis) if damaged. allowing them to survive longer.
Normal cells maintain genetic stability. Cancer cells have multiple DNA mutations that
causes abnormal behaviour.

13. Explain what is meant by metastasis.

Ans: Metastasis is the process by which cancer cells spread from their original (primary) site to other
parts of the body. This happens when cancer cells break away from the primary tumor, travel through
the bloodstream or lymphatic system, and form new tumors (secondary tumors) in distant organs or
tissues. Metastasis makes cancer more dangerous and harder to treat.
14. List the harmful effects caused by alcohol/drug abuse.
Ans: Alcohol and drug abuse can cause serious harmful effects on the body, mind and society.
 Can cause liver diseases like cirrhosis and hepatitis.
 Increased risk of high blood pressure, heart disease and stroke.
 Impaired memory, cognitive decline and loss of coordination.
 Weakened immune system leading to higher susceptibility to infections.
 Stomach ulcers, pancreatitis and digestive disorders.
 Drugs like tobacco and opioids can cause lung diseases.
 Addiction and dependence leads to compulsive substance use and withdrawal symptoms.
 It can causes conflicts, domestic violence etc.
 Leads to job loss or school dropouts.
 Spending excessively on substances leads to financial instability
15. Do you think that friends can influence one to take alcohol/drugs? If yes, how may one protect
himself/herself from such an influence?
Ans: Yes, friends can significantly influence a person to take alcohol or drugs, especially during
adolescence and young adulthood. Peer pressure, curiosity, and the desire to fit in can lead individuals
to experiment with substances. Friends who drink or use drugs may encourage others to do the same,
either directly (by offering substances) or indirectly (by making it seem normal or socially acceptable).
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Ways to protect yourself from peer influence:
 Surround yourself with supportive and responsible friends who respect your decisions.
 Be confident in refusing alcohol or drugs.
 Stay away from places or parties where drugs and alcohol are common.
 Engage in hobbies, sports that promote a healthy lifestyle.
 Understand the harmful effects of alcohol and drugs so you can make informed choices.
 Talk to parents, teachers, or counsellors, if you feel pressured.
16. Why is that once a person starts taking alcohol or drugs, it is difficult to get rid of this habit?
Discuss it with your teacher
Ans: Once someone starts using drugs or alcohol, it is difficult to stop them because they grow dependent
on them. A psychological link to particular outcomes, such excitement and a fleeting feeling of well-
being, is called addiction. These encourage people to use alcohol and drugs even when they are not
required or when doing so leads to self-destruction. Repeated use causes the body's receptors to become
more tolerant, which leads to higher dosages of drugs and alcohol and addiction. As a result, the addictive
nature of alcohol and drugs can trap users in a vicious cycle of frequent use from which they may never
be able to break free.

17. In your view what motivates youngsters to take to alcohol or drugs and how can this be
avoided?
Ans: In my view, peer pressure, curiosity, stress and emotional problems like academic pressure, family
issues or personal struggles, media influences (movie, music, and social media), lack of parental
supervision, rebellion and independence, easy availability, family influence, low self-esteem and lack of
activities are the ways which motivates youngsters to take to alcohol or drugs.
Ways to Prevent Alcohol and Drug Abuse among Youngsters:
 Education and Awareness – Schools, parents, and communities should educate youth on the
dangers of substance abuse.
 Encouraging Healthy Friendships – Associating with positive and supportive friends reduces peer
pressure.
 Developing Self-Confidence – Teaching youngsters to say "no" and make independent choices helps
them resist negative influences.
 Parental Guidance and Communication – Open discussions between parents and children about
the risks of substance use can discourage experimentation.
 Promoting Hobbies and Activities – Engaging in sports, arts, music, or volunteering keeps youth
occupied in productive ways.
 Strict Laws and Regulations – Enforcing laws against underage drinking and drug use helps limit
access.
 Counseling and Support Programs – Youngsters struggling with stress, peer pressure, or family
issues should have access to guidance and counseling.
 Setting a Good Example – Parents and elders should model responsible behavior regarding alcohol
and drug use.
 Media Awareness – Encouraging critical thinking about how movies and advertisements portray
substance use.
 Creating Drug-Free Environments – Schools, communities, and workplaces should actively
discourage substance abuse.

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DON’T MISS THESE

CASE BASED/PASSAGE-BASED/SOURCE BASED QUESTIONS
1. A 28-year old man named John was found to be HIV-positive during routine screening. John
claimed to be in good health with no symptoms. He mentioned that he had undergone a surgical
procedure few years ago and received a blood transfusion. His medical history did not indicate
any other risk factors for HIV transmission.
(a) Based on John’s case, identify the most likely mode of HIV transmission.
Ans: Blood transfusion he received during the surgical procedure.
(b) Explain why John might be asymptomatic despite being HIV-positive?
Ans: He might be asymptomatic because the incubation period of HIV is 5 to 10 years which gradually
weakens the immune system without causing any immediate symptoms.
(c) Assess the ethical considerations and protocols essential for ensuring safe blood transfusions
in light of John’s case.
Ans: Ethical considerations include:
 Ensuring informed consent
 Ensuring confidentiality
Rigorous testing protocols to ensure safe blood transfusions. This is critical to prevent transmission
of infections like HIV, as seen in John’s case.
OR
Explain the significance of anti-retroviral therapy (ART) for individuals diagnosed with HIV,
such as John.
Ans: ART is a lifesaving treatment for individuals diagnosed with HIV. It helps manage the virus and
improves quality of life. It helps in controlling the virus, maintaining immune function and preventing
progression to AIDS. It reduces the viral load to undetectable levels and reducing the risk of transmission
to others.
2. It was a busy evening at the City Hospital’s emergency ward. Dr. Ava was attending to multiple
patients when a nurse ushered in two young men, both appearing drowsy and disoriented. The
first patient, Jake had reportedly snorted the drug, which he believed might have contained
compound A. The second patient, Liam, had attended a party where he inhaled a vapour
suspected to contain compound B.

A B

(a) How do compounds A and B primarily interact with the human body?

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Ans: Compound A belongs to the class opioids which binds to specific receptors present in the CNS and
GI tract. Compound B belongs to class cannabinoids which interact with the cannabinoid receptors
present in the brain.
(b) Name the products that could be derived from the compound B?
Ans: Products include Marijuana, Hashish, Charas and Ganja.
(c) How can we obtain a drug named heroin? Explain with respect to the compounds given. Also
mention the properties of heroin.
Ans: Heroin (smack) is chemically diacetylmorphine which is a white, odourless, bitter, crystalline
compound which is obtained by the acetylation of compound A (morphine).
OR
Describe the other methods of consumption for compounds A and B, and elucidate their impact on
the user’s body?
Ans: Compound A i.e. Opioids are generally taken by snorting and injection and slows down body
functions. Compound B i.e. Cannabinoids are generally taken by inhalation and oral ingestions and these
are known for their effects on the cardiovascular system of the body.
3. A senior student, sneezing very badly, with watery eyes and having difficulty in breathing was
brought to the school medical room by his fellow friends. The medical room nurse enquired as
to what had happened. One of the students said “after the football match we all were sweating
profusely, one of our friend sprayed deodorant on us. Soon after the deodorant was sprayed
on the senior boy, the symptoms appeared.”
(a) What are the symptoms seen in the student indicative of? Elaborate.
Ans: The symptoms are an indicative of an allergic reaction. Allergies occur when the immune system
produces an exaggerated response to an allergen such as deodorant, pollen, dust or certain foods. In this
case, the student likely had an allergic reaction to the deodorant spray possibly due to strong fragrances
or aerosol particles, triggering respiratory distress.
(b) State how the cause of such responses can be confirmed.
Ans: By analysing the production of ige type of antibodies, by injecting very small doses of possible
allergens and study the reaction.
(c) Name the cells in our body and the chemicals produced by them that are responsible for such
reactions. Name any two drugs used to reduce these symptoms.
Ans: The cells in our body which are responsible for such allergic reactions – Mast cells. The chemicals
produced during the allergic reactions are histamine and serotonin. The drugs which are used to reduce
these symptoms are anti-histamines, adrenalin and steroids.
OR
“In recent times, there is a rise in such reactions amongst urban human population”. Do you
agree? Give three reasons in support of your answer.
Ans: Yes, there has been an increase in allergic reactions among urban populations. The reasons include:
 Increased Air Pollution – Urban areas have high levels of vehicle emissions, industrial pollutants,
and particulate matter, which can trigger respiratory allergies and asthma.
 Excessive Use of Artificial Chemicals – Deodorants, perfumes, air fresheners, and household
cleaners contain strong synthetic chemicals that can cause allergic reactions.
 Reduced Exposure to Natural Allergens during Childhood – The "Hygiene Hypothesis" suggests that
less exposure to natural microbes in childhood weakens the immune system, making people more
prone to allergies later in life.

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4. In 1981, the health workers of United States of America had become aware of the increased
frequency of Kaposi’s sarcoma, cancer of the skin and blood vessels and another disease
pneumocystis pneumonia, a respiratory infection caused by a protozoan. Both these diseases
were very rare in the general population, but occurred frequently in more severely
immunosuppressed individuals. This led to the recognition of the immune system disorder that
was named Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).
In 1983, virologists working in the USA and France had identified a causative agent for ‘AIDS’,
now known as Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). ‘HIV’ follows a set path to attack the
human body to cause the disease.
(a) Name the group of cells the HIV attacks after gaining entry into the human body and write the
various events that occur within this cell.
Ans: HIV attacks macrophages first when it gains entry into a human body. After gaining entry into the
body of the person the virus enters into macrophages where RNA genome of the virus replicates to form
viral DNA with the help of the enzyme reverse transcriptase. The macrophages continue to produce virus
particles which enter the T-lymphocytes replicate and form progeny virus. The progeny viruses are
released in blood and attack other helper T-cells with result their number goes on decreasing infected
person. This fall in the number of T-cells causes immunodeficiency in the body. In such a condition the
infected person is unable to protect himself from any type of infection.
(b) Write the expanded form of the diagnostic test used for detecting AIDS. Write the possible
treatment available for the disease at present.
Ans: ELISA – Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay. The possible treatment available is antiviral
drugs that are only partially effective as they only prolong the life of the patient.
(c) Mention any two steps suggested by WHO for preventing the spread of this disease.
Ans: Making blood HIV free and safe in blood banks, use of only disposable needles and syringes in
hospitals, free distribution of condoms, controlling drug abuse, advocating safe sex, regular check-ups
for HIV susceptible population.
OR
“A patient suffering from AIDS does not die of this disease but some other some infection”. Justify
the statement.
Ans: The reason is because of the drastic reduction of helper T-lymphocytes which are responsible for
infections, as a result, the person become immune deficient and is unable to protect oneself from other
bacterial or viral or fungal or parasitic infection.
5. “Mosquitoes are drastically affecting the human health in almost all the developing tropical
countries. Different species of mosquitoes cause very fatal diseases so much that many humans
lose their life and if they survive, are unable to put in productive hours to sustain their life.
With the result, the health index of the country goes down”.
(a) Name the form in which Plasmodium gains entry into (i) human body (ii) the female Anopheles
body.
Ans: (i) Sporozoites (ii) Gametocytes
(b) Why do the symptoms of malaria not appear in a person immediately after being bitten by an
infected female Anopheles? Give one reason. Explain when and how do these symptoms of the
disease would appear.
Ans: The sporozoites after entering the body need to undergo asexual reproduction in liver and RBC.
RBC burst and haemozoin is released which is responsible for chill and high fever recurring every 3 to
4 days.
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OR
Explain the events which occur within a female Anopheles mosquito after it has sucked blood
from a malaria patient.
Ans: Gametocytes (male and female) enter female mosquito body via blood meal, fertilization in gut or
stomach, sporozoites escape from the gut and migrate to the salivary glands of mosquito.
(c) Name a species of mosquito other than female Anopheles and the disease, for which it carries
the pathogen.
Ans: Aedes – dengue/chikungunya or Culex – filariasis or elephantiasis.
ASSERTION-REASON BASED QUESTIONS
Following questions consists of two statements: Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Answer the questions by
selecting the appropriate option given below:
(a) Both A and R are true, R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true, but R is false.
(d) A is false, but R is true.
1. Assertion (A): Dope test is used to estimate the level of blood alcohol by analysing the breath
of persons drinking alcohol.
Reason (R): A drunken person usually feels tense and less talkative
Ans: (d) A is false, but R is true
Dope test is an official test to detect whether a person taking part in sports has been given any drugs
such as anabolic steroids, etc. To make their performance better or worse which is a type of blood test.
Alcohol consumption typically lowers inhibitions, making people more relaxed or socially active.
2. Assertion (A): Cancerous cells just continue to divide giving rise to masses of cells called
tumors.
Reason (R): Cancer cells appear to have lost the property of contact inhibition.
Ans: (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
Cancerous cells undergo controlled division, forming abnormal cell masses called tumors. Normal cells
stop dividing when they come into contact with neighbouring cells (a property called contact inhibition).
However cancer cells lose this property, leading to continuous, unchecked growth.
3. Assertion (A): A person who has received a cut and is bleeding needs to be given anti-tetanus
treatment.
Reason (R): Anti-tetanus injection provides immunity by producing antibodies for tetanus.
Ans: (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
4. Assertion (A): Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae are responsible for
causing infectious diseases in human beings.
Reason (R): A healthy person acquires the infection by inhaling the droplets or aerosols
released by an infected person.
Ans: (d) A is false, but R is true
Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae are bacteria responsible for the infectious
disease pneumonia, which can be transmitted by aerosols, contact and other means.
5. Assertion (A): There is no chance of transmission of malaria to man on the bite of a male
Anopheles mosquito.
Reason (R): It carries a non-virulent strain of Plasmodium.
Ans: (c) A is true but R is false
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Male mosquitoes do not carry any strain of Plasmodium (virulent or non-virulent). The transmission of
malaria occurs only through female mosquitoes infected with Plasmodium parasites.
6. Assertion (A): T-lymphocytes mediate CMI response
Reason (R): The above response makes it easy to transplant organs.
Ans: (c) A is true and R is false
T-lymphocytes do indeed mediate cell-mediated immune (CMI) responses. These immune cells play a
crucial role in recognizing and attacking infected or abnormal cells in the body. - However, the reason
provided that this response makes it easy to transplant organs is not correct. While T-lymphocytes are
important in the immune response, they can also cause rejection of transplanted organs.
Assertion (A): Innate immunity is non-specific defense.
Reason (R): It consists of four types of barriers.
Ans: (b) Both A and R are true, R is not the correct explanation of A.
Innate immunity refers to non-specific defense mechanism that come into play immediately or within
hours of an antigen’s appearance in the body. Four barriers are physical, physiological, cytokine and
cellular barriers.
7. Assertion (A): An antibody is represented by H2L2.
Reason (R): Each antibody is made up of four peptide chains.
Ans: (a) Both A and R are true, R is the correct explanation of A.
Immuno globulins, also known as antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells
(WBC). The Ig monomer is a Y shaped molecule which consists of four polypeptide chains; two identical
heavy chains and two identical light chains which are connected by disulphide bonds.
8. Assertion (A): Interferons helps in the elimination of viral infections.
Reason (R): Interferons released by infected cells, reach nearby unaffected cells and make
them resistant to viral infection.
Ans: (a) Both A and R are true, R is the correct explanation of A.
Virus infected cells secrete a protein known as interferon which protects the non-infected cells from
further viral infection.
9. Assertion (A): Smoking can raise blood pressure and increase heart rate.
Reason (R): Nicotine stimulates adrenal glands to release adrenaline and nor-adrenaline into
the blood circulation, both of which raise blood pressure and increase heart rate.
Ans: (a) Both A and R are true, R is the correct explanation of A.
Nicotine in cigarettes stimulates the adrenal glands, leading to the release of adrenaline and
noradrenaline (also called epinephrine and norepinephrine). These hormones cause vasoconstriction
(narrowing of blood vessels), which increases blood pressure. They also stimulate the heart to beat faster,
raising the heart rate. Over time, chronic smoking can lead to hypertension, heart disease, and an
increased risk of stroke.
10. Assertion (A): Auto immune diseases occur when the immune system attacks its own cells.
Reason (R): In auto immune diseases, the immune system mistakenly recognizes body cells as
foreign and triggers an immune response against them.
Ans: (a) Both A and R are true, R is the correct explanation of A.
In auto immune diseases, the immune system mistakenly recognises and targets and damages the body’s
own cells and tissues.
11. Assertion (A): Vaccines can help prevent infectious diseases by stimulating the immune system
Reason (R): Vaccines introduce a harmless part of the pathogen, prompting the immune system
to produce antibodies.
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Ans: (a) Both A and R are true, R is the correct explanation of A.
Vaccines work by exposing the body to a non-virulent part of the pathogen which stimulates the immune
system to produce antibodies and memory cells for future protection.
12. Assertion (A): Opioids such as hashish and prescription painkillers, can lead to respiratory
depression.
Reason (R): Opioids binds to the opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord, slowing down
breathing and heart rate.
Ans: (d) A is false, but R is true
Hashish is a cannabinoid, which when interact with its specific receptors affect the cardiovascular system
of the human body. Opioids can cause respiratory depression potentially by binding to opioid receptors
in the CNS, slowing down breathing and heart rate.

MORE QUESTIONS AND PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

TOPIC 1 & 2: INTRODUCTION TO HEALTH AND DISEASE, COMMON
DISEASES IN HUMANS
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Select the pathogen mismatched with the symptoms of disease caused by it from the list given
below: (CBSE 2023)
(a) Entamoeba histolytica: Constipation, abdominal pain
(b) Epidermophyton: Dry scaly lesions on nail
(c) Wuchereria bancrofti: Chronic inflammation of lymphatic vessels of the lower limb.
(d) Haemophilus influenzae: Blockage of the intestinal passage.
Ans: (d) Haemophilus influenzae: Blockage of the intestinal passage.
Haemophilus influenzae causes Pneumonia which infect alveoli of the lungs where the alveoli gets filled
with a fluid resulting in the decrease of respiratory efficiency of the lungs. It is spread by inhaling
droplets/aerosol from infected persons and sharing glasses and utensils with an infected person.
2. What is the main symptom of ringworms, caused by the fungi of genera Microsporum,
Trichophyton and Epidermophyton?
(a) Internal bleeding
(b) Muscular pain
(c) Dry, scaly lesions with intense itching
(d) Fever and anaemia
Ans: (c) Dry, scaly lesions with intense itching
Internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever and anaemia are the symptoms of Ascariasis caused by Ascaris
lumbricoides. Eggs of the parasite are excreted along with the faeces of the infected person, which
contaminates water, soil and plants. Infection takes place through contaminated vegetables, fruits and
water.
3. The disease like malaria and filariasis are transmitted through insect vectors; vectors can be
controlled by introducing fishes like:
(a) Labeo
(b) Gambusia
(c) Hilsa

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(d) Catla
Ans: (b) Gambusia
Gambusia (also called mosquito fish) is known for feeding on mosquito larvae, helping to control vector-
borne diseases like malaria and filariasis. It is commonly used in biological control programs to reduce
mosquito populations in water bodies.
4. _________________ causes a slowly developing chronic inflammation of the organs.
(a) Common round worm
(b) Filarial worm
(c) Ringworm
(d) Ascaris
Ans: (b) Filarial worm
Elephantiasis is a helminthic disease caused by the filarial worm, Wuchereria bancrofti and Wuchereria
malayi. Female Culex mosquito is the vector. Symptoms include inflammation of the organs in which
they live, blockage of lymph vessels of lower limbs resulting in swelling. Lower limbs appear like legs
of elephant, thus the name. Genital organs get deformed.
5. Common cold differs from pneumonia in, that:
(a) Pneumonia is caused by a virus while common cold is caused by the bacterium
Haemophilus influenzae.
(b) Pneumonia pathogen infects alveoli whereas common cold affect nose and respiratory
passage but not the lungs.
(c) Pneumonia is a communicable disease whereas common cold is a nutritional deficiency
disease.
(d) Pneumonia can be prevented by viral vaccine whereas the common cold has no effective
vaccine.
Ans: (b) Pneumonia pathogen infects alveoli whereas common cold affects the nose and respiratory
passage but not the lungs.
Pneumonia is a bacterial disease caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae
whereas common cold is a viral disease caused by Rhinoviruses.
6. The infectious stage of Plasmodium that enters the human body is:
(a) Sporozoites
(b) Female gametocytes
(c) Male gametocytes
(d) Trophozoites
Ans: (a) Sporozoites
Plasmodium is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito. The
infectious stage that enters the human bloodstream is called sporozoites. These sporozoites travel to the
liver, where they mature and multiply before infecting rbcs.
7. Which of the following is not a sexually transmitted disease?
(a) AIDS
(b) Trichomoniasis
(c) Encephalitis
(d) Syphilis
Ans: (c) Encephalitis
 AIDS → Sexually transmitted (caused by HIV)
 Trichomoniasis → Sexually transmitted (caused by Trichomonas vaginalis, a protozoan)
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 Encephalitis → Not sexually transmitted (caused by viruses like Japanese encephalitis virus, herpes
simplex virus, etc.; usually spread by mosquitoes or other means)
 Syphilis → Sexually transmitted (caused by Treponema pallidum, a bacterium)
8. Identify the correct pair representing the causative agent of typhoid fever and confirmatory
test for typhoid:
(a) Plasmodium vivax, UTI test
(b) Streptococcus pneumoniae, Widal test
(c) Salmonella typhi, Antrone test
(d) Salmonella typhi, Widal test
Ans: (d) Salmonella typhi, Widal test
9. Which of the following is not a symptom of typhoid fever?
(a) Sustained high fever (40C - 50C)
(b) Stomach pain
(c) Headache
(d) Loss of appetite
Ans: (a) Sustained high fever (40C - 50C)
Symptoms of typhoid fever: Sustained high fever (39C – 40C), weakness, stomach pain, loss of
appetite, constipation, headache, intestinal perforation and death may occur in severe cases.
10. Out of the following diseases, which are caused due to bacterial infection?
A. Typhoid
B. Elephantiasis
C. Cholera
D. Tuberculosis
(a) A and B only
(b) C and D only
(c) A,C and D only
(d) A, B, C and D
Ans: (c) A, C and D
Elephantiasis is a helminthic disease caused by the filarial worm, Wuchereria bancrofti and Wuchereria
malayi. Female Culex mosquito is the vector. Symptoms include inflammation of the organs in which
they live, blockage of lymph vessels of lower limbs resulting in swelling. Lower limbs appear like legs
of elephant, thus the name. Genital organs get deformed.
11. Health is affected by:
(a) Genetic disorders
(b) Infections
(c) Lifestyle
(d) All of the above
Ans: (d) All of the above
12. Diseases are broadly grouped into infectious and non-infectious diseases. In the list given below,
identify the infectious diseases:
A. Cancer
B. Influenza
C. Allergy
D. Small pox

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(a) A and B
(b) B and C
(c) C and D
(d) B and D
Ans: (d) B and D
Infectious diseases are those which can be transmitted from one person to another, or from an animal to
a person, through various means like direct contact, airborne transmission, or contaminated objects.
Influenza and small pox are examples. Cancer is a non-infectious disease. Allergies are also non-
infectious as they are caused by the exaggerated response of the immune system to a foreign particle.
VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. Define the term ‘health’. Mention any two ways of maintaining it.
Ans: According to WHO, “Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being of a
person and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Two ways to maintain health:

 Balanced diet – eating a nutritious diet rich in vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates, and fats
help maintain overall health and boosts immunity.
 Regular exercise – engaging in physical activities like walking, jogging, yoga or sports improves
cardiovascular health, strengthens muscles and reduce stress.
2. Through filariasis is not fatal, but the disease in humans is responsible for considerable
suffering, gross deformities and disability. Write the scientific name of any two helminth
worms causing the disease and state two chronic manifestations of filariasis.
Ans: Scientific name of any two helminth worms: Wuchereria bancrofti and Wuchereria malayi.

Two chronic manifestations of filariasis: Chronic inflammation of organ in which the pathogen lives,
gross deformities when the genital organs are infected.

3. Write the scientific names of the causal organisms of elephantiasis and ringworm in humans.
Mention the body parts affected by them.
Ans:

Disease Elephantiasis Ringworm

Scientific name Wuchereria bancrofti, Wuchereria malayi Microsporum, Trichophyton,
Epidermophyton
Body part Lymph vessels of lower limbs and genital Skin, nails and scalp
affected organs

4. Identify a, b, c, d in the following table:

S. No. Name of the human Name of the causal Specific organ or its
disease bacteria/virus part affected
1 Typhoid Salmonella typhi A
2 Common cold B C
3 Pneumonia Streptococcus pneumoniae D
Ans: A – Small intestine, B – Rhino virus, C – nose and respiratory passage, D – Alveoli of lungs.

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5. Mention the parts of human body that gets affected by Pneumonia and common cold infections.
Write the causative agents of the two diseases.
Ans:

Disease Pneumonia Common cold

Causative agent Haemophilus influenzae, Rhino viruses
Streptococcus pneumoniae
Part of the body affected Alveoli of the lungs Nose and respiratory passage.

6. Write the biological names of causal organisms of the following diseases. Also mention its any
two symptoms.
(a) Dengue
(b) Chikungunya
Ans:

(a) Dengue
 Causative organism – Flavivirus
 Symptoms – High fever, severe headache, pain behind the eyes, muscle and joint pain, rash
(b) Chikungunya
 Causative organism – Alphavirus (Chikungunya virus)
 Symptoms – Fever upto 104F, severe joint pain, muscle pain, headache, nausea, fatigue and
rash.
7. How does malaria differ from chikungunya with reference to their vectors? How does the
human body respond when haemozoin produced by Plasmodium is released in its blood?
Ans: Vector of malaria – Female Anopheles mosquito, Vector of chikungunya – Aedes aegypti.

Plasmodium inside rbcs feeds on haemoglobin and produces a toxic byproduct called haemozoin. When
infected RBCs rupture, haemozoin is released into the blood stream which is responsible for chills and
high fever recurring at an interval of 3 to 4 days.

8. “Mind and mental status can affect our health”. Justify this statement.
Ans:

 Mental well-being plays a crucial role in overall health.

 Stress, anxiety, and depression can weaken the immune system, making the body more susceptible
to diseases.
 Chronic stress may lead to high blood pressure, heart disease, and digestive issues.
 Positive mental health promotes hormonal balance, better sleep, and a stronger immune response.
 Practices like meditation, social interactions, and a balanced lifestyle improve both mental and
physical health, ensuring overall well-being
9. Mention the characteristic symptoms of chikungunya?
Ans: Symptoms of chikungunya includes: High fever, severe joint pain, muscle pain, headache, nausea,
fatigue and rash.

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10. Name one air-borne and one water-borne disease in humans. List one specific symptom of each
one of them.
Ans:

 Air borne disease – Pneumonia. Symptom of pneumonia: Fluid-filled alveoli leading to severe
problems like breathing.
 Water borne disease – Typhoid. Symptoms of typhoid: Sustained high fever, stomach pain, and loss
of appetite.
11. What is the importance of female Anopheles mosquitoes in the life cycle of a malarial parasite,
Plasmodium?
Ans: When an infected female Anopheles mosquito bites a human, it injects sporozoites (infectious stage
of Plasmodium) into the bloodstream. After feeding on an infected person’s blood, the mosquito ingests
gametocytes, which develop into sporozoites in its gut and salivary glands, ready to infect another
human.

12. How was the ‘good humor’ hypothesis of health disproved?

Ans: Good humor hypothesis was disproved by:

 Discovery of blood circulation by William Harvey showed that bodily functions were controlled by
organs, not humors.
 The demonstration of normal body temperature in persons with black bile using thermometers.
13. During routine inspections, government officials often survey your area and check for stagnant
water in coolers and containers. What could be the reason?
Ans: The reason government officials check for stagnant water during routine inspections is to prevent
the breeding of mosquitoes that spread diseases like dengue, malaria, filariasis, chikungunya.
Mosquitoes are the main cause of vector-borne diseases and removing or treating stagnant water helps
control population of mosquito and reduce the spread of vector-borne diseases.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. We all work towards maintaining good health because ‘health is wealth’. Enlist any six ways
of achieving good health. (CBSE 2023)
Ans: Ways to achieve good health:

 Balanced Diet – Eat a variety of nutritious foods, including fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and
lean proteins. Avoid excessive sugar, salt, and processed foods.
 Adequate Sleep – Ensure 7–9 hours of quality sleep each night to allow the body to rest, repair,
and function optimally.
 Hydration – Drink plenty of water throughout the day to stay hydrated and support overall
bodily functions.
 Regular Exercise – Engage in physical activities like walking, jogging, yoga, or sports for at
least 30 minutes daily to stay fit and active.
 Stress Management – Practice mindfulness, meditation, or hobbies to reduce stress and maintain
mental well-being.

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 Avoid harmful habits – Avoid smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, and drug use. Limit
caffeine intake.
2. Plasmodium enters the human body through the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquito.
Trace its life cycle till the onset of malaria. (CBSE 2022)
Ans:

3. A patient with viral infection is showing symptoms such as cough, nasal congestion, sore throat,
and tiredness and is diagnosed with a disease named X. (CBSE CFPQ 2023)
(a) Identify X.
(b) Mention the causative agent and the mode of spreading of the disease X that could result in the
above symptoms and the disease.
(c) Arrange the respiratory regions from most to least concentration of virus particles and the
infected cells: trachea, bronchioles, and alveoli. Justify your answer.
Ans:

(a) X – Common cold

(b) Causative agent – Rhino virus, Mode of transmission – Contaminated objects like pens, books,
cups etc., cough and sneeze droplets from an infected person.
(c) Trachea > Bronchioles > Alveoli. Rhino virus attaches and infects cells in the upper respiratory
tract and typically does not reach this deep into the respiratory system.
4. Name a human disease, its causal organism, any three symptoms and vector, spread by intake
of water and food contaminated by human fecal matter.

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Ans:

 Disease – Amoebiasis
 Causative organism – Entamoeba histolytica found in the large intestine of humans
 Symptoms – Abdominal pain constipation, cramps, stool with excess mucous and blood clots
 Vector – Housefly
 Mode of transmission – Food and water contaminated by faecal matter.
5. Identify A, B, C, D, E and F in the table given below: (CBSE 2024)
Name of human disease Causative organism Symptoms
Pneumonia Streptococcus A
Typhoid B High fever (39C – 40C), weakness,
headache, stomach pain
Common cold Rhino virus C
Ringworm D Dry scaly lesions on body parts,
redness, itching
Ascariasis Ascaris E
F Entamoeba histolytica Constipation, cramps, stools with
mucus and blood clots
Ans:

 A – Fever, chills, cough, headache, in severe cases, lips and finger nails turn grey to bluish in
colour.
 B – Salmonella typhi
 C – Nasal congestion and discharge, sore throat, hoarseness, cough, headache, tiredness
 D – Microsporum, Trichophyton and Epidermophyton
 E – Abdominal pain, indigestion, internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anaemia, nausea and
head ache, blockage of the intestinal passage.
 F – Amoebiasis (Amoebic dysentery)
6. Name the causative agent of typhoid in humans. Name the test administered to confirm the
disease. How does the pathogen gain entry into the human body? Write the diagnostic
symptoms and mention the body organ that gets affected in severe cases.
Ans:

 Causative agent: Salmonella typhi

 Confirmatory test: Widal test
 Pathogen gain entry through the small intestine through contaminated food and water and then
they migrate to other organs through blood.
7. Name the parasite that causes filariasis in human. Mention its two diagnostic symptoms. How
is this disease transmitted to others?
Ans:

 Causative organism: Wuchereria bancrofti and Wuchereria malayi

 Symptoms: Inflamamtion of organs in which they live, blockage of lymph vessels of lower limbs
resulting in swelling, genital organ deformation also occurs.

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 Mode of transmission: Female Culex mosquito is the vector.
8. Name the causative organism that causes amoebic dysentery in humans. Mention two
diagnostic symptoms of the disease. How is this disease transmitted to others?
Ans:

Causative organism: Entamoeba histolytica

Symptoms: Abdominal pain, constipation, cramps, stool with excess mucous and blood clots
Mode of transmission: Housefly acts as mechanical carrier and transmits the parasite from faeces
of infected person to the food. Infection takes place through food and water contaminated by
faecal matter.
9. Name any two organisms that are responsible for ringworms in humans. Mention two
diagnostic symptoms. Name the specific parts of the human body where these organisms thrive
and explain why?
Ans:

 Causative organism: Microsporum, Trichophyton, Epidermophyton

 Symptoms: Dry and scaly lesions on skin, nails, scalp and accompanied with intense itching.
 Specific body part affected and reason: They thrive in skinfolds like in groin or between toes.
Heat and moisture help these fungi to grow.

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

1.
(a) Name any two air-borne diseases. Give their causative organism and symptoms associated
with it.
(b) Name two food and water-borne diseases. Give their causative organism and symptoms
associated with it.
(c) Name two vector-borne diseases. Give their causative organism and symptoms associated
with it. How can we control or eliminate vector-borne diseases?
Ans:

(a) Air borne diseases: Common cold, pneumonia

Name of disease Common cold Pneumonia
Causative organism Rhino viruses Streptococcus pneumoniae and
Haemophilus influenzae
Symptoms Nasal congestion and discharge, Fever, chills, cough and headache.
sore throat, hoarseness, cough, In severe cases, the lips and finger
headache, tiredness, etc. Which nails may turn gray to bluish in
usually lasts for 3 to 7 days colour.
(b) Food and water borne diseases: Typhoid, Amoebiasis and Ascariasis.
Name of disease Typhoid Amoebiasis
Causative organism Salmonella typhi Entamoeba histolytica
Symptoms Sustained high fever, weakness, stomach Constipation, abdominal
pain, constipation, headache and loss of pain and cramps, stools

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appetite. Intestinal perforation and death with excess mucous and
may occur in severe cases. blood clots.
(c) Vector borne diseases: Dengue, Chikungunya, Malaria, Filariasis
Name of disease Filariasis Malaria
Causative organism Wuchereria bancrofti and Wuchereria Plasmodium vivax
malayi
Symptoms Slowly developing chronic Fever and chills, headache,
inflammation of the organs in which muscle pain and fatigue,
they live for many years, usually the sweating, nausea and
lymphatic vessels of the lower limbs. vomiting, diarrhoea.
The genital organs are also deformed.
Ways to control or eliminate vector-borne diseases:

 Avoid stagnation of water in and around residential areas.

 Regular cleaning of household coolers
 Use of mosquito nets
 Introducing fishes like Gambusia in ponds that feed on mosquito larvae.
 Spraying of insecticides in ditches, drainage areas and swamps, etc.
 Doors and windows should be provided with wire mesh to prevent entry of mosquitoes.

TOPIC 3&4: AIDS, CANCER

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is incorrect about cancer cells?
(a) They exhibit mass proliferation
(b) They exhibit the property of contact inhibition
(c) They are produced when cellular oncogenes of normal cells are activated
(d) They are metastatic.
Ans: (b) They exhibit the property of contact inhibition

Normal cells only exhibit the property of contact inhibition and they stop dividing when they come into
contact with neighbouring cells. Cancer cells lose this property, allowing uncontrolled growth. Cancer
cells also show the property of metastasis, and also exhibit mass proliferation and they are produced
when cellular oncogenes of normal cells are activated.

2. Which one of the following statements is correct with respect to AIDS?

(a) The HIV can be transmitted through eating food together with an infected person.
(b) Drug addicts are least susceptible to HIV infections.
(c) AIDS patients are fully cured with proper care and nutrition
(d) The causative HIV retrovirus enters helper T-lymphocytes thus reducing their numbers.
Ans: (d) The causative HIV retrovirus enters helper T-lymphocytes thus reducing their numbers.

HIV is not transmitted through casual contact such as sharing food or physical contact. Drug addicts
who share needles are at high risk of HIV infection due to contaminated blood exposure. There is
currently no complete cure for AIDS. Proper care and ART can manage this disease but not eradicate it.
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3. At what stage of HIV infection does one usually show symptoms of AIDS?
(a) Within 15 days of sexual contact with an infected person.
(b) When the infected retrovirus enters host cells.
(c) When HIV damages large number of helper T-lymphocytes.
(d) When the viral DNA is produced by reverse transcriptase.
Ans: (c) When HIV damages large number of helper T-lymphocytes.

HIV infection has an incubation period which may vary from few months to 5-10 years. Reverse
transcription is an early step in HIV infection but it does not directly cause AIDS symptoms.

4. ELISA Technique is based on the principle of:

(a) DNA replication
(b) antigen-antibody interaction
(c) pathogen-antigen interaction
(d) antigen-protein interaction
Ans: (b) antigen-antibody interaction

5. AIDS is caused by HIV. Among the following, which one is not a mode of transmission of HIV?
(a) Transfusion of contaminated blood.
(b) Sharing the infected needles.
(c) Shaking hands with infected persons.
(d) Sexual contact with infected persons.
Ans: (c) Shaking hands with infected persons.

6. A person suffering from leukaemia has:

(a) Tumours in adipose tissue.
(b) increased number of plasma cells
(c) increased number of melanocytes
(d) increased number of WBCs.
Ans: (d) increased number of WBCs.

 Tumours in adipose tissue – Lipoma

 Increased number of plasma cells – Multiple myeloma
 Increased number of melanocytes - Melanoma
7. A metastatic cancerous tumor is termed “sarcoma” if the disorder is in
(a) fibroblasts
(b) circulatory system
(c) immune system
(d) epithelial cells
Ans: (a) Fibroblasts

 Sarcoma is a type of malignant tumor which originates in connective tissues such as fibroblasts,
bones, muscles, cartilage, fat, and blood vessels.
 Cancers arising from epithelial cells are called carcinomas.
 Cancer of the immune system are called lymphomas.
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8. A chemical carcinogen present in tobacco smoke is responsible for:
(a) skin cancer
(b) pancreatic cancer
(c) stomach cancer
(d) lung cancer
Ans: (d) lung cancer

Tobacco smoke contains chemical carcinogens like benzopyrene, nitrosamines, and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons, which are major causes of lung cancer.

9. Major factors that causes cancer are:

(a) oncogenes and PMNL
(b) oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes
(c) MHC genes
(d) cellular oncogenes and α-interferons.

Ans: (b) oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes

PMNL is a type of WBC involved in immunity. MHC genes are involved in the immune system and
antigen presentation. α-interferons are actually used in cancer therapy to boost the immune response.

10. Which of the following approaches are used for the treatment of cancer?
(a) Immunotherapy
(b) Surgery
(c) Radiotherapy and chemotherapy
(d) All of the above
Ans: (d) All of the above

11. The substance given to cancer patients in order to activate their immune system and destroy
the tumour is:
(a) Histamine
(b) Interleukin
(c) α-interferon
(d) Morphine.
Ans: (c) α-interferon.

α-interferon is used as a biological response modifier in cancer treatment meaning it helps the body’s
own immune system to fight the cancer. It can stimulate T-cells and other immune cells to attack cancer
cells. It can also reduce the ability of cancer cells to defend themselves from the immune system and
slow down or stop cancer cell division.

VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. Name the two types of cells in which HIV multiplies, after gaining entry into a human body.
Retrovirus have no DNA. However the DNA of the infected host cell does possess viral DNA.
How is it possible? (CBSE 2015)

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Ans: Two types of cells: Macrophages, Helper T-lymphocytes. Retroviruses carry out reverse
transcription as they possess the enzyme reverse transcriptase and the DNA is integrated with the host
DNA.

2. Name four groups of human beings who are at high risk of getting HIV infection.
Ans:

 individuals with multiple sexual partners

 drug addicts, who takes drugs intravenously.
 individuals who require repeated blood transfusion
 children born to HIV-infected mothers.
3. Why is sharing of injection needles between two individuals not recommended? Why does an
AIDS patient suffer from many other infections?
Ans: Sharing of injection needles between two individuals is not recommended in order to prevent the
spread of HIV or hepatitis B through contaminated needles. An AIDS patient suffers from many other
infections due to the reduction in the number of helper T-lymphocytes, the immune system of the person
is weakened. As a result, the person suffers from infections that otherwise could have been overcome.

4. For early detection of cancer, 3D images of tissues are essential. Name the technique and the
basis on which it can generate three-dimensional image of changes in the living tissues.
(CBSE 2021)
Ans: MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) is the technique. It uses strong magnetic fields and non-
ionising radiations to generate 3D-iamges of changes in the living tissues.

5. What are proto-oncogenes and why are they called so? (CBSE 2022)
Ans: Proto-oncogenes are a group of genes which are present in all normal cells of a human being. These
can be activated by carcinogens under certain conditions to cause oncogenic transformation of the cells,
i.e., normal cells into cancer cells, they are called to so.

6. What are interferons? What is their role in cancer? (CBSE 2022)

Ans: Interferons are proteins that are produced by virus-infected cells and they are used to protect the
non-infected cells from viral infection. α – interferon is a biological response modifier which activates
the immune system to detect and destroy the tumour cells, which avoid detection and destruction by the
immune system.

7. Name any two techniques used to detect the cancer of internal organs and write about any one
of them.
Ans: Techniques used to detect the cancer of internal organs: CT (Computed Tomography), MRI
(Magnetic Resonance Imaging). MRI uses strong magnetic fields and ionising radiations to accurately
detect pathological and physiological changes in the living tissues.

8. Immunotherapy these days is one of the most efficient way of treatment of cancer. The therapy
involved activates the immune system and destroys the tumour. Write an example of one such
biological response modifiers used in immunotherapy. Why do patients need such substances
if immune system is already working in the body?
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Ans: Biological response modifier: α – interferon. It activates the immune system and helps in destroying
the tumour which is used in immunotherapy. Tumour cells have been shown to avoid detection and
destruction by the already working immune system of the body. Therefore, the patients are given
substances called biological response modifiers.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1.
(a) Differentiate between malignant and benign tumors.
(b) Name and explain the most feared property of a malignant tumor. (CBSE 2023)
Ans:
(a) Difference between malignant tumor and benign tumor
Malignant tumor Benign tumor
Spread from one organ to other organs of the Remain confined to the organ affected
body.
Growth rate is rapid Growth rate is slow.
Metastasis occurs Metastasis does not take place.
Highly fatal to the body Less fatal to the body.
(b) The most feared property of a malignant tumour is metastasis. Metastasis is the process in which
when the cells sloughed from malignant tumours reach distant sites via blood and wherever they
get lodged in the body, a new tumor will be formed.
2. Name the type of cells the AIDS virus first enters into after getting inside the human body.
Explain the sequence of events that the virus undergoes within these cells to increase their
progeny.
Ans: Cells: Macrophages and helper T-lymphocytes. After entering the body, HIV virus enters into
macrophages, where its RNA genome replicates to form viral DNA with the help of reverse transcriptase
enzyme. This viral DNA is now incorporated into the host cell's DNA and directs the infected cell to
produce more viruses. Simultaneously HIV virus enters into helper T-lymphocytes and replicates there.
This leads to decrease in the number of T-lymphocytes in body and hence the infected person's immune
system gets weakened.

3. “A HIV patient normally does not die of ‘AIDS’ but death is caused due to many other
infections”. Do you agree with the statement? Give explanatory reasons in support of your
answer.
Ans: Yes, I agree with this statement. A person living with HIV does not typically die directly due to
AIDS but rather from opportunistic infections and diseases that arise because of the weakening of the
immune system. After entering the body, HIV virus enters into macrophages, where its RNA genome
replicates to form viral DNA with the help of reverse transcriptase enzyme. This viral DNA is now
incorporated into the host cell's DNA and directs the infected cell to produce more viruses.
Simultaneously HIV virus enters into helper T-lymphocytes and replicates there. This leads to decrease
in the number of T-lymphocytes in body and hence the infected person's immune system gets weakened.
As a result, the infected body is prone to other infections of bacteria, viruses, fungi and even parasites
leading to the death of the infected person. The body's immune system becomes so weak that it is unable
to fight against the mild infections also.
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4. Mention the different types of carcinogens with one example for each.
Ans: The different types of carcinogens include:

 Chemical carcinogens: Benzopyrene (present in tobacco smoke).

 Physical carcinogens: Ionising radiations like X-rays and gamma rays and non-ionising
radiations like UV rays
 Biological carcinogens: oncogenic viruses, HPV (Human papilloma virus).
5. What is contact inhibition in the normal cells of the body? What are the consequences, when
this property is lost by these cells?
Ans: Contact inhibition is a vital property of normal cells in the body. It refers to the phenomenon where
normal cells stop dividing when they come into contact with the neighbouring cells. This ensures that
cells grow in a controlled manner and forms organized tissue structures without overcrowding.

When cells lose this property, they undergo uncontrolled division and thereby leading to the formation
of tumours and if these rapidly dividing cells invade surrounding tissues and spread to other parts of the
body, it can result in cancer (malignancy). The loss of contact inhibition is one of the hallmark of cancer.

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. Describe the life cycle of HIV from the time of its entry into the human body till full blown
AIDS set in. (CBSE 2024)
Ans:

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 HIV enters the human body
and enters the macrophage
cells where the RNA genome
of the virus replicates to form
viral DNA with the help of
reverse transcriptase enzyme.
 This viral DNA gets
incorporated into the host
cell’s DNA and direct the
infected cells to produce virus
particles.
 The macrophages continue to
produce virus and in this way,
it acts like a HIV factory.
 Simultaneously, HIV enters
into helper T-lymphocytes and
then replicates and produces
progeny viruses.
 The progeny viruses releases in
the blood attack other helper T-
lymphocytes. This is repeated
leading to a progressive
decrease in the number of
helper T-lymphocytes in the Figure: Replication of retrovirus
body of the infected person.
 During this period, the person suffers from bouts of fever, diarrhoea and weight loss.
 Due to decrease in the number of helper T-lymphocytes, the person starts suffering from infections
due to bacteria especially Mycobacterium, viruses, fungi and even parasites like Toxoplasma. The
patient becomes so immune-deficient that he/she is unable to protect himself/herself against these
infections and thus AIDS/HIV develops.
2.
(a) Write two differences between malignant tumor and benign tumor.
(b) Explain any three diagnostic techniques for the detection of cancer. (CBSE 2024)
Ans:

(a) Differences between malignant tumor and benign tumor

Malignant tumor Benign tumor
Spread from one organ to other organs of the Remain confined to the organ affected
body.
Growth rate is rapid Growth rate is slow.
Metastasis occurs Metastasis does not take place.
Highly fatal to the body Less fatal to the body.
(b) Diagnostic techniques for the detection of cancer:

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 Biopsy and histopathological studies: In biopsy, a piece of the suspected tissue is cut into
thin sections and examined under microscope by a pathologist
 CT (Computed Tomography) scan: It uses X-rays to generate a three-dimensional image
of the internals of an object.
 MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) scan: MRI uses strong magnetic fields and non-
ionising radiations to accurately detect pathological and physiological changes in the living
tissue.
3.
(a) Name and explain the property present in normal cells but is lost in cancer cells.
(b) All normal human cells have genes that may become cancerous under certain conditions.
Name them and explain how.
(c) State the role of the following techniques in detection and diagnosis of cancer:
a. Biopsy and histopathology
b. Magnetic Resonance Imaging. (CBSE 2024)
Ans:

(a) Contact inhibition: Normal cells exhibit contact inhibition, which means they stop dividing
when they come into contact with the neighbouring cells. This property helps to maintain tissue
structure and prevents overgrowth. In cancerous cells, this property is lost, leading to
uncontrolled cell division and tumor formation.
(b) Cellular oncogenes/Proto-oncogenes: These are normal genes that regulate cell growth and
division. Under certain conditions, such as mutation, they get activated and become oncogenes
and could lead to oncogenic transformation of the cells.
(c) Role of the following techniques in detection and diagnosis of cancer:
a. Biopsy and histopathology: A piece of the suspected tissue is cut into thin sections and then
it is stained and examined under microscope by a pathologist.
b. Magnetic Resonance Imaging: It detects cancer of the internal organs. It uses strong
magnetic fields and non-ionising radiations to accurately detect the pathological and
physiological changes in the living tissue.
4. Explain the following with reference to ‘Cancer’:
a. Contact inhibition
b. All normal cells have proto-oncogenes
c. Name of carcinogens and their role.
d. Difference between malignant and benign tumor. (CBSE 2023)
Ans:

a. Contact inhibition: Normal cells exhibit a phenomenon called contact inhibition where they stop
dividing when they come into contact with the neighbouring cells. This property is lost in
cancerous cells leading to uncontrolled cell division which results in tumor formation and
invasion of surrounding tissues.
b. Proto-oncogenes are normal genes involved in controlling cell growth, division and
differentiation. When proto-oncogenes undergo mutations or are abnormally activated due to the
exposure of carcinogens, they become oncogenes and could lead to oncogenic transformation of
cells.

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c. X-rays, UV rays, Nicotine, Caffeine, Oncogenic viruses. They damage DNA which causes
neoplasmic transformation.
d. Difference between Benign tumors and Malignant tumors
Benign tumors Malignant tumors
Remain confined to their original location Not remain confined to their original location
Does not show metastasis Shows the property of metastasis
Causes little damage Damage surrounding tissue and starve normal
cells by competing for vital nutrients.
5. A patient had tested positive for ELISA test. Identify the disease and the pathogen responsible.
Give reasons for the reduced/weak immunity of the patient and trace the path, spread and
effects of this pathogen in the human body.
Ans:

 Disease: AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome)

 Pathogen: Human Immuno deficiency virus (HIV)
 Reason: Due to decrease in the number of helper T-lymphocytes, the person starts suffering from
infections that could have been otherwise overcome such as those due to bacteria especially
Mycobacterium, viruses, fungi and even parasites like Toxoplasma.
The path of this pathogen and its spread and effect on the human body:

 After getting into the body of the person, the virus enters into macrophages where RNA genome
of the virus replicates to form viral DNA with the help of the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
 This viral DNA gets incorporated into host cell's DNA and directs the infected cells to produce
virus particles.
 The macrophages continue to produce virus and in this way acts like a HIV factory.
 Simultaneously, HIV enters into helper T-lymphocytes (TH), replicates and produce progeny
viruses.
 The progeny viruses released in the blood attack other helper T-lymphocytes. This is repeated
leading to a progressive decrease in the number of helper T lymphocytes in the body of the
infected person.
 During this period, the person suffers from bouts of fever, diarrhoea and weight loss.

TOPIC 5: IMMUNITY
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Find out the incorrect matching with regards to innate immunity:
(a) Physical barriers = Skin, mucosa
(b) Cytokine barriers = Interferons
(c) Cellular barriers = PMNL, neutrophils
(d) Physiological barriers = Epithelial lining
Ans: (d) Physiological barriers = Epithelial lining

2. H2L2 represents ____________ molecule.

(a) Antibody
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(b) Antigen
(c) Pathogen
(d) Both a and b
Ans: (a) Antibody

3. Primary response which is of ____(A)____ intensity. Subsequent encounter with the same
pathogen elicit a ___(B)___ intensified ___(C)___ response, which is based on ___(D)___.
(A) (B) (C) (D)
(a) High Low Anamnestic Specificity
(b) Low High Primary Diversity
(c) Low High Secondary Memory
(d) High Low Primary memory
Ans: (c) A – Low, B – High, C – Secondary, D – Memory

4. Which of the following reasons in mainly responsible for graft rejection in transplantation of
organs?
(a) Inability of recipient to differentiate between self and non-self tissues/cells
(b) Humoral immune response only
(c) Auto-immune response
(d) Cell-mediated response
Ans: (d) Cell-mediated response

5. Chronic autoimmune disorder affecting neuromuscular junction leading to fatigue, weakening

and paralysis of skeletal muscles is called as:
(a) Arthritis
(b) Muscular dystrophy
(c) Myasthenia gravis
(d) Gout
Ans: (c) Myasthenia gravis

6. The yellowish fluid "colostrum" secreted by mammary glands of mother during the initial days
of lactation has abundant antibodies (IgA) to protect the infant. This type of immunity is called
as:
(a) Passive immunity
(b) Active immunity
(c) Acquired immunity
(d) Auto immunity
Ans: (a) Passive immunity

7. In higher vertebrates, the immune system can distinguish self-cells and non-self. If this
property is lost due to genetic abnormality and it attacks self-cells, then it leads to:
(a) Allergic response
(b) Graft rejection
(c) Auto-immune disease
(d) Active immunity
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Ans: (c) Auto-immune disease
Examples of auto-immune disease: Myasthenia gravis, Rheumatoid arthritis.

8. Interferons are proteins. In human, they are secreted by:

(a) Thymus gland
(b) B-lymphocytes
(c) Virus-infected cells
(d) Tonsils
Ans: (c) virus-infected cells

Interferons are produced and released by cells that have been infected by viruses. Their primary role is
to signal to neighboring cells, triggering antiviral defenses.

9. Anti-venom injection contains preformed antibodies while polio drops that are administered
into the body contain:
(a) Activated pathogens
(b) Harvested antibodies
(c) Gamma globulin
(d) Attenuated pathogens
Ans: (d) Attenuated pathogens

Anti-venom provides passive immunity meaning it gives the body preformed antibodies to neutralize a
toxin like snake venom. Polio drops contain weakened live polio viruses. This triggers the body’s
immune system to produce its own antibodies and memory cells, providing active immunity.

VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. Name and explain two physical barriers that provide innate immunity in humans.
Ans: Skin on our body is the main barrier which prevents entry of the micro-organisms. Mucus coating
of the epithelium lining the respiratory, gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts also help in trapping
microbes entering our body.

2. Name the type of acquired immune responses and the special types of lymphocytes involved in
providing them.
Ans: Humoral immune response and cell-mediated immune response are the two types of acquired
immune response. B-lymphocytes mediate humoral immune response and T-lymphocytes mediate cell-
mediated immune response.

3. Explain giving two reasons, how immune response by ‘vaccine’ is different from that by
‘antitoxin’ in humans.
Ans: Vaccine provides active immunity in which antibodies are produced by our B-lymphocytes, in
response to the antigen/pathogen injected in the form of vaccine. The immunity remains for long period,
may be lifetime.

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Antitoxin provides passive immunity as preformed antibodies are injected. It is carried out when a person
is infected by a deadly microbes, to which a quick immune response is required. Passive immunity
remains for shorter period.

4. When and why does a human body elicit an anamnestic response? Suggest a method to ensure
anamnestic response in humans.
Ans: The anamnestic response occurs when the body encounters a previously encountered antigen. It
happens because the immune system retains “memory” of the first encounter in the form of memory B-
cells and memory T-cells. Essentially, the body remembers the pathogen and is able to quickly deploy
the correct antibodies and T-cells.

Method to ensure anamnestic response: Giving a booster dose of the vaccine can induce an anamnestic
response.

5. Why is the structure of an antibody molecule represented as H2L2? Name any two types of
antibodies produced in a human body.
Ans: An antibody molecule is typically represented as H2L2 because it consists of four polypeptide
chains: two heavy (H) chains which are larger in size and two light (L) chain which are smaller in size.
These chains are linked together by disulphide bonds forming a Y-shaped structure.
IgA, IgG, IgE, IgD, IgM are some of the antibodies which are produced in a human body.

6. Explain the role of B and T-lymphocytes in providing immunity to humans.

Ans: B-lymphocytes: These cells secrete an army of proteins called antibodies, in response to pathogen.
These are concerned with humoral immunity.

T-lymphocytes: These cells stimulate the B-lymphocytes to produce antibodies. These are involved in
cell-mediated immunity. These are responsible for rejecting organ transplants.

7. Principle of vaccination is based on the property of memory of the immune system. Taking one
example, justify the statement.
Ans: The principle of vaccination hinges on the immune system's memory. Vaccines introduce weakened
or inactive forms of pathogens (antigens) to stimulate an immune response without causing disease. This
triggers the production of antibodies and memory cells (B and T lymphocytes). When a vaccine
containing heat-killed or attenuated pathogen is introduced into the body to prevent chickenpox or
measles, it produces antibodies against the antigen of the pathogen. This also generates B and T memory
cells that recognise the pathogen quickly on subsequent exposure to produce large amount of antibodies
which inactivate the pathogen causing the disease.

8. What is a vaccine? How do they act to provide long term immunity to an individual, who is
vaccinated?

Ans: A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular
infectious disease. It typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is
often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins. After
vaccination, the immune system detects the antigens and begins producing antibodies against them.
Specialised cells such as B-cells, T-cells are also involved. Some of the immune cells become memory
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cells. These memory cells “remember” the pathogen and remain in the body for years or even a lifetime.
If the vaccinated individual is exposed to the actual pathogen later, these memory cells recognise it
immediately and trigger a rapid, strong immune response. This prevents the disease from developing.

9. State the role of thymus as a lymphoid organ. Name the cells that are released from it and
mention their functions.
Ans: Thymus is a primary lymphoid organ, where immature lymphocytes differentiate into antigen-
sensitive T-lymphocytes. T lymphocytes are the cells released from thymus. They help B-cells to secrete
antibodies. They are involved in cell-mediated immunity (rejection of organ transplants).

10. Name the type of immunity a baby is grown with. How is it different from the one he gets from
the mother’s milk after birth?
Ans: A baby is born with innate immunity, which is non-specific and consists of four types of barriers.
Mother’s milk provides acquired (passive) community as it has antibodies, IgA. Acquired immunity is
pathogen-specific.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. Certain attributes of innate immunity are given in the table given below. Identify A, B, C, D, E
and F respectively in it.
Type of barrier Example of the barrier Function
i. A B Prevent microbial growth
ii. C Polymorphonuclear lymphocytes D
iii. Cytokine E F
Ans:

i. A – Physiological barrier, B – Saliva in the mouth/acid in the stomach/tears in the eyes.

ii. C – Cellular barrier, D – Phagocytose and destroy microbes.
iii. E – Interferons, F – Protects non-infected cells from viral infections.
2.
(a)Name and state the type of immunity that acts as a “biological shield” to the developing
foetus against many infections in the mother’s womb.
(b) A large proportion of infants remain free from potent infections at least three months after
birth, or even longer, if breast fed. Explain, giving suitable reasons. (CBSE 2022)
Ans:

(a) The type of immunity is called passive immunity specifically naturally acquired passive
immunity. The antibodies involved are primarily IgG. These antibodies can cross the placenta
and enter the fetal circulation.
(b) Breast milk, particularly colostrum (first milk produced after birth), contains a high concentration
of IgA antibodies and this milk is given during the initial few days of lactation. It helps the baby
to obtain protection from getting infections and other diseases.
3. Explain the role of the following in providing defence against infection in the human body:
(a) Histamines
(b) Interferons

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(c) B-cells
Ans:

(a) Histamines are chemicals produced by mast cells and basophils in response to allergens or
infections.
(b) Interferons are glycoproteins produced by virus-infected cells which protect non-infected cells
from further viral infection.
(c) B-cells: They are responsible for humoral immunity (antibody-mediated immunity) and they
produce proteins called antibodies in response to pathogens into the blood to fight against the
antigen.
4.
(a) It is generally observed that the children who had suffered from chicken-pox in their
childhood may not contract the same disease in their adulthood. Explain giving reasons the
basis of such an immunity in an individual. Name this kind of immunity.
(b) What are interferons? Mention their role. (CBSE 2016)
Ans:
(a) The first infection of chicken-pox produces a primary response and antibodies are generated
against this virus. Subsequent encounter with the same virus elicits a highly intensified secondary
response because of the presence of memory cells produced during the first encounter. The type
of immunity is acquired immunity which is pathogen-specific.
(b) Interferons are glycoproteins which are produced by virus-infected cells which protect non-
infected cells from further viral infection. It can regulate the overall immune response helping to
control inflammation and prevent excessive tissue damage.
5. A person shows strong unusual hypersensitive reactions when exposed to certain substances
present in the air. Identify the condition. Name the cells responsible for such reactions. What
precautions should be taken to avoid such problems?
Ans: The condition is described as allergy. The cells responsible for such reactions are mast cells.
Precautions to be taken to avoid such problems:

 Use of drugs like antihistamine, adrenalin and steroids which quickly reduces the symptoms.
 Avoid contact with substances to which a person is allergic or hypersensitive.
 Wash bedding and clothes regularly to remove dust mites.
6. On a visit to hill station, one of your friend suddenly become unwell and felt uneasy
(a) List two symptoms you would look for the term it to be due to allergy.
(b) Explain the response of the body to an allergen.
(c) Name two drugs that can be recommended for immediate relief. (CBSE 2016, 2019)
Ans:

(a) Sneezing, water eyes, running nose and difficulty in breathing.

(b) When an allergen enters the body the immune system mistakenly identifies it as harmful. B-
lymphocytes produce IgE antibodies specific to that antigen. These IgE antibodies bind to mast
cells and triggers the mast cells to release histamine, serotonin and other inflammatory reactions.

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(c) Drugs recommended – Antihistamines, adrenalin and steroids quickly reduce the symptoms of
allergy.
7. In humans, there is a primary lymphoid organ which is quite large at the time of birth and
keeps reducing in size with age and by the time puberty is attained, it reduces to a very small
size.
(a) Name the organ, give its exact location and state its functions.
(b) Name any other primary lymphoid organ in humans. (CBSE 2022)
Ans:
(a) Thymus gland – It is located near the heart and beneath the breastbone. It provides the micro-
environment for the maturation of T-lymphocytes. The immature lymphocytes differentiate into
antigen-sensitive lymphocytes.
(b) Another primary lymphoid organ is bone marrow.
8.
(a) How are primary and secondary immune responses carried out by B-lymphocytes and T-
lymphocytes respectively in our body?
(b) Enlist two differences between primary response and secondary response, produced by our
body in response to pathogens. (CBSE 2022)
Ans:

(a) When a pathogen enters the body for the first time, B-lymphocytes recognise the antigen and
gets activated and then they produce an army of proteins called antibodies which is specific to
the antigen. This response is slow. Some B-cells become memory B-cells, which remain in the
body for future encounters. This is called primary immune response. When the same pathogens
infects the body again, memory B-cells quickly recognise the antigen and trigger a faster and
stronger antibody production. T-lymphocytes also play a role by activating helper T-cells which
destroy infected cells. This response is rapid and more effective, providing long-term immunity.
(b) Difference between primary response and secondary response:
Primary immune response Secondary immune response
When the body encounter a pathogen for the During subsequent encounters with the same
first time, it produces primary response. pathogen, the body produces secondary
response.
Low intensity Highly intensified.
Strength of response is weaker Strength of response is stronger and long-
lasting.

9. Differentiate between humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Why is a patient, who has
undergone organ transplant put on immunosuppressants? Explain. (CBSE 2019)
Ans:
Humoral and cell-mediated immunity:

Humoral immunity Cell-mediated immunity

 Consists of antibodies that are circulating in the  Consists of different types of T-
body fluids (humors) lymphocytes.
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 Antibodies are produces by B-lymphocytes  T-lymphocytes stimulate B-cells to
produce antibodies.
 Antibodies neutralise the pathogens/antigens  Responsible for rejecting organ
which enter the body transplants.

When a patient undergoes an organ transplant, the immune system recognizes the transplanted organ as
foreign and may attack it, leading to organ rejection. This happens because the immune system’s T-cells
identify the new organ’s antigens as different from the body’s own cells. To prevent this, doctors
prescribe immunosuppressant drugs, which reduce the activity of the immune system and lower the risk
of rejection. However, these drugs also make the patient more vulnerable to infections due to the
weakened immune response.

10.
(a) Development of recombinant DNA technology has made the expression of protective
protein antigens (to be used as ‘vaccines’) in heterologous system/bacteria or any other
organism. Give an example of a vaccine developed by such a technology and the host used.
(b) Explain how a humoral immune system gets into action, when a foreign antigen enters into
a human body. (CBSE 2022)
Ans:

(a) Vaccine against Hepatitis-B has been developed by using yeast as the host.
(b) When a foreign antigen enters human body, B-lymphocytes produces an army of proteins called
antibodies and they circulate in the body fluids (humors) and neutralise the pathogenic agents.
During subsequent encounters, the memory B-lymphocytes recognise the pathogen and
overwhelm the pathogen by massive production of antibodies.

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate between active and passive immunity. Comment on the role of vaccination and
immunization in keeping human population healthy.
Ans:
Difference between active and passive immunity

Active immunity Passive immunity

Developed due to contact with pathogen or its Developed when readymade antibodies are
antigen. injected into the body directly.
No side effects It may cause a reaction
Antibodies are produced in the host body Antibodies are not produced in the host body
Slow and takes time for effective response Quick immune response is seen
Long term protection Short-lived effect
Role of vaccination and immunization in public health:

 Vaccines prepare the immune system to recognize and combat pathogens, preventing diseases such
as polio, measles, and influenza. This significantly reduces illness-related suffering, disabilities, and
deaths.

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 When a large proportion of the population is immunized, it reduces the spread of infectious diseases,
offering protection even to those who cannot be vaccinated, such as newborns or individuals with
compromised immune systems.
 Immunization programs are highly cost-effective, reducing the financial burden on healthcare
systems by preventing outbreaks and reducing hospitalizations.
 Vaccination has led to the eradication of deadly diseases like smallpox and is helping move closer to
eliminating others, such as polio and measles.
 Vaccination campaigns contribute to global health security by curbing the spread of infectious
diseases, especially during pandemics.
2.
(a) As per your understanding, do T cells have any role in antibody production? Briefly
describe the structure of an antibody molecule.
(b) Compare and contrast B-cells and T-cells in terms of their location of maturation ad
response in which they are involved.
(c) A person named Aravind has been experiencing unexplained joint pain and fatigue. After
several tests, his doctor diagnoses him with an autoimmune disease. Name the disease he
might be suffering from and explain how autoimmune diseases develop.
Ans:

(a) Yes, T-cells helps B-cells to produce antibodies but do not secrete antibodies themselves
An antibody molecule consists of four peptide chains: two small light chains and two longer
heavy chains, which is represented as H2L2.
(b)
B-cells T-cells
Location of Bone marrow Thymus
maturation
Primary response Humoral immunity (production Cell-mediated immunity(direct
involvement of antibodies) attack on infected cells)
(c) Aravind might be suffering from Rheumatoid arthritis. Autoimmune diseases occur when the
immune system mistakenly attacks the body’s own tissues thereby the differentiation from self
and non-self-cells is not seen here. It can be due to genetic factors, environmental factors.
3. When you have gone to a new place and suddenly you start sneezing, wheezing for no explained
reason, and when you went away, the symptoms disappeared. Did this happen to you? Some of
us are sensitive to some particles in the environment.
(a) The above-mentioned reaction could be because of what reasons?
(b) The substances to which such an immune response is produced are called?
(c) During this reaction some of the substances are released from specialized cells. Name the
substances and specialized cells.
(d) Name the antibody produced in this reaction and what are the symptoms of this disease?
(e) Discuss some of the drugs to combat this situation.
(f) Is this condition more prevalent in metropolitan cities? State Yes/No with proper
explanation.
Ans:

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(a) Allergic reaction/allergy
(b) Allergens
(c) Substances – Histamine and serotonin. Specialised cells – Mast cells.
(d) Antibody produced – IgE. Symptoms of allergic reaction: Sneezing, Wheezing, runny nose, itchy,
watery eyes, skin rashes and breathing difficulty.
(e) Drugs like antihistamine, adrenaline and steroids quickly reduce the symptoms of allergy.
(f) Yes, allergies are more common in metropolitan cities due to high pollution levels, increased
pollen exposure, indoor allergens and stress and lifestyle factors which weaken immunity.
4. Define the term innate immunity. How is it accomplished in a human body?
Ans: Innate immunity refers to the non-specific defense mechanism that comes into play immediately
or within hours of an antigen's appearance in the body. It is the body's first line of defense and is present
from birth, offering a rapid, generalized response to a wide range of pathogens.
Innate immunity is accomplished by the following types of barriers:

a) Physical barriers
 Skin is the main barrier to prevent the entry of microorganisms.
 The mucous coating of the epithelial lining of GI tract, respiratory tract, urogenital tract helps in
trapping the microbes entering such sites.
b) Physiological barriers
 Acid in the stomach
 Lysozyme in saliva, tear, sweat
c) Cellular barriers
 Leucocytes like PMNL (neutrophils) and monocytes
 Lymphocytes like natural killer cells
 Macrophages in the tissues; all these types of cells phagocytose and destroy the microbes.
d) Cytokine barriers
 Interferons are the glycoproteins secreted by virus-infected cells.
 They protect the non-infected cells from viral infection.
5. Explain the role of primary and secondary lymphoid organs with the help of suitable examples.
Ans: Primary lymphoid organs: The organs where lymphocytes originate and mature to become
antigen-sensitive are called primary lymphoid organs. Here the immature lymphocytes differentiate into
antigen-sensitive lymphocytes. E.g., Bone marrow and thymus.

a) Bone marrow:
 Primary lymphoid organ where all blood cells including lymphocytes are produced.
 Provides the micro-environment for development and maturation of B-lymphocytes.
b) Thymus:
 Lobed organ situated near the heart and beneath the breastbone,
 Quite large at the time of birth but it reduces with age.
 Provides the micro-environment for development and maturation of T-lymphocytes
Secondary lymphoid organs: After maturation, the lymphocytes migrate to secondary lymphoid
organs. The organs where lymphocytes interact with the antigen and proliferate to become effector cells

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are called secondary lymphoid organs. E.g., Spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s patches of small
intestine and appendix.

a) Spleen:
 It is a large bean-shaped organ and it contains lymphocytes and phagocytes.
 It acts as a filter of the blood by trapping blood-borne microorganisms.
 It has a large reservoir of erythrocytes.
b) Lymph nodes:
 Small solid structures present at different point along the lymphatic system.
 Serve to trap the microorganisms or other antigens which happen to get into the lymph and
tissue fluid.
 Antigens trapped in the lymph nodes are responsible for the activation of lymphocytes
present there and cause the immune response.
c) MALT (Mucosal associated lymphoid tissue)
 It is located within the lining of the major tracts (respiratory, digestive and urogenital tracts).
 Constitutes about 50% of the lymphoid tissue in the human body.

TOPIC 6: DRUGS AND ALCOHOL ABUSE

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Which part of the poppy plant is used to obtain the drug “smack”?
(a) Flowers
(b) Roots
(c) Latex
(d) Leaves
Ans: (c) Latex

2. Drug called heroin is synthesised by:

(a) Methylation of morphine
(b) Acetylation of morphine
(c) Glycosylation of morphine
(d) Nitration of morphine
Ans: (b) acetylation of morphine

3. The diagram shows the skeletal structure of which compound:

(a) Cannabinoids
(b) Depressants

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(c) Stimulants
(d) Opioids
Ans: (a) Cannabinoids

4. Which measure would be particularly useful for the prevention and control of alcohol and drug
abuse among adolescents?
A. Avoid undue peer pressure
B. Seeking professional and medical help
C. Not looking for danger signs
D. Seeking help from parents and peers
E. Education and counselling
(a) A, B, C, D, E
(b) B, C, D, E
(c) A, B, C, E
(d) A, B, D, E
Ans: (d) A, B, D, E

5. A plant, native to South America is a source of a drug of addiction which is a CNS stimulant.
This drug inhibits the transport of_______________
(a) Acetylcholine
(b) Dopamine
(c) Serotonin
(d) Adrenaline
Ans: (b) Dopamine

Coca alkaloid or cocaine is obtained from coca plant Erythroxylum coca, native to South America. It
interferes with the transport of the neuro-transmitter dopamine

6. Choose the correct statements regarding tobacco smoking:

A. Nicotine inhibits secretion of adrenal medulla
B. Smoking is associated with increased incidence of lung cancer and throat cancer.
C. Smoking increases carbon monoxide content in blood and decrease concentration of
haem-bound oxygen.
D. Smoking decreases blood pressure.
(a) A and D
(b) B and D
(c) A and B
(d) B and C
Ans: (d) B and C

 Nicotine stimulates adrenal gland to release adrenaline and nor-adrenaline into blood circulation.
 Smoking increases blood pressure.
7. Withdrawal syndrome is characterised by which of the following?
A. Anxiety
B. Shakiness
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C. Nausea
D. Sweating
(a) A and C
(b) B and C
(c) A, C and D only
(d) A, B, C and D
Ans: (d) A, B, C and D

8. Opioids are the drugs which bind to specific opioid receptors present in our CNS and GIT.
Heroin, commonly called smack is chemically____________, which is white, odourless, bitter
crystalline compound, obtained by _______________of morphine.
(a) Diacetylmorphine, methylation
(b) Diacetylmorphine, acetylation
(c) Benzodiazepines, amination
(d) Amphetamines, acetylation
Ans: (b) Diacetylmorphine, acetylation

9. Coca alkaloid or cocaine is obtained from:

(a) Erythroxylum coca
(b) Papaver somniferum
(c) Atropa belladonna
(d) Datura
Ans: (a) Erythroxylum coca

10. Identify the molecules (a) and (b) shown below and select the right option giving their source
and use:

Molecule Source Use

(a) (b) Cannabinoid Atropa belladonna Produces hallucinations
(b) (a) Morphine Papaver somniferum Sedative and pain killer
(c) (a) Cocaine Erythroxylum coca Accelerates the transport of dopamine
(d) (b) Heroin Cannabis sativa Depressant and slows down body function
Ans:

VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. What is withdrawal syndrome? List any two symptoms it is characterised by.
Ans: Withdrawal syndrome refers to the physical and psychological symptoms that occur when a person
abruptly stops or reduces the use of a substance they have become dependent on. It happens because the

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body and brain have adapted to the drug, and sudden absence causes an imbalance. Two common
symptoms include anxiety, shakiness, nausea and sweating.

2. Write the scientific name of the source plant of the drugs – marijuana and hashish and mention
their effect on human body.
Ans: Plant source – Cannabis sativa. It interacts with the cannabinoid receptors present principally in
the brain and also it has its effects on the cardiovascular system of the body.

3. Name the plant source of the drug popularly called ‘smack’. How does it affect the body of the
abuser?
Ans: Plant source – Papaver somniferum. Heroin is a depressant and it slows down body functions.

4. Name the opioid drug and its source plant. How does the drug affect the human body?
Ans: Opioid drug –Morphine, source plant – Papaver somniferum. Morphine is a very effective sedative
and painkiller and is very useful in patients who have undergone surgery. It binds with the specific opioid
receptors present in the CNS and GI tract.

5. Why is tobacco smoking associated with rise in blood pressure and emphysema?
Ans: Tobacco contains nicotine, a stimulant that affects the cardiovascular system which causes the
narrowing of blood vessels and also it causes damage to arteries thereby causing blood pressure.
Emphysema is a chronic lung disease where the alveoli in the lungs lose their elasticity and lungs become
inflated leading to breathing difficulties.

6. Why is using tobacco in any form injurious to health? Explain

Ans: Tobacco contains a large number of chemical substances including nicotine, an alkaloid. Nicotine
stimulates adrenal gland to release adrenaline and nor-adrenaline into blood circulation, both of which
raise blood pressure and increase heart rate. Smoking is associated with increased incidence of cancers
of lung, urinary bladder and throat, bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart disease, gastric ulcer, etc.
Tobacco chewing is associated with increased risk of cancer of the oral cavity. Smoking increases carbon
monoxide (CO) content in blood and reduces the concentration of haem-bound oxygen. This causes
oxygen deficiency in the body

7. Why do sportspersons often fall a victim to cocaine addiction?

Ans: Sportspersons may fall victim to cocaine addiction due to the drug's stimulant effects, which
provide a temporary boost in energy, alertness, and confidence. The pressure to perform, stress, injuries,
and competitive demands can push athletes toward substance use for pain relief or mental escape.
Additionally, the party culture in some sports circles increases exposure. Over time, cocaine use leads to
dependence, negatively affecting their health, performance, and career.

8. Due to undue peer pressure, a group of adolescents started using opioids intravenously. What
are the serious problems they might face in future?
Ans: Adolescents using opioids intravenously face severe health risks, including addiction and overdose,
which can be fatal. Collapsed veins, infections, and abscesses may occur due to unsafe injections.
Sharing needles increases the risk of HIV, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C. Long-term use leads to brain

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damage, respiratory issues, and liver/kidney problems. Psychological effects include depression, anxiety,
and impaired decision-making, severely affecting their future health, relationships, and career prospects.

9. List four reasons to justify ban on intake of cannabinoids by sportsperson.

Ans: Reasons to justify ban on intake of cannabinoids by sportspersons:

 They are used as performance enhancers.

 Slow down reaction time, impair coordination and reduce focus on athletics and sports.
 Regular cannabinoid use can lead to long-term health issues such as respiratory problems (from
smoking), mental health challenges, and addiction, which may hinder a sportsperson's overall
well-being and career longevity.
 The use of cannabinoids might be seen as an unfair advantage in sports where relaxation or
reduced anxiety could influence performance, undermining the principles of fair competition.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. What are cannabinoids? From which plant cannabinoids are obtained? Which part of the body
is affected by consuming these substances?
Ans: Cannabinoids are a group of chemicals which interact with the cannabinoid receptors present
principally in the brain. The plant from which cannabinoids are obtained are from the inflorescences of
the plant Cannabis sativa. They show effects on the cardiovascular system of the body.

2. Mention any three causes of drug abuse. Suggest some measures for the prevention and control
of drug abuse.
Ans: Causes of drug abuse: curiosity, peer pressure, need for adventure and excitement, experimentation.
Measures for the prevention and control of drug abuse:

 Education and awareness: Conduct school and community programs to educate people about the
dangers of drug abuse. Use media campaigns to spread awareness.
 Parental guidance and support: Parents should maintain an open communication with the
children about the risks of drugs. Encourage healthy activities and monitor peer influence.
 Promotion of healthy lifestyles: Encourage, sports, hobbies and skill development to prevent
drug use. Promote stress management techniques like yoga and meditation.
3. Describe the ill-effects of drug abuse in males and females. Also mention the preventive
measures that has to be taken to reduce such effects.
Ans: Ill-effects of drug abuse in males: Acne, increased aggressiveness, mood swings, depression,
reduction of size of testicles, decreased sperm production, kidney and liver dysfunction, premature
baldness.

Ill-effects of drug abuse in females: masculinisation, increased aggressiveness, mood swings,

depression, abnormal menstrual cycle, excessive hair growth on the face and body, deepening of voice
etc.
The following measures need to be taken to prevent such problems:

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
Education and counselling to face problems or stress, to accept failure as a part of life and to
channelize child’s energy some health promoting activities.
 Avoid undue peer pressure and stop pressurising a child to perform beyond its capabilities.
 Seeking help from parents and peers by sharing the feelings of anxiety and guilt.
 Seeking professional help available in the form of highly qualified psychiatrists and
psychologists etc.
4. Do you support ‘dope’ test being conducted on sports persons participating in a prestigious
meet? Give three reasons in support of your answer.
Ans: Yes, I support dope testing for sports person participating in prestigious meets. Here are the three
reasons:

 Ensuring Fairness and Equal Opportunity: Doping creates an unfair advantage, undermining the
principles of fair play. Athletes who use performance-enhancing drugs gain an artificial edge over
those who compete naturally. Dope testing helps level the playing field, ensuring that victories are
earned through hard work, skill, and natural talent, rather than chemical enhancement.
 Protecting the Health of Athletes: Many performance-enhancing drugs carry significant health
risks, including cardiovascular problems, hormonal imbalances, and organ damage. Regular dope
testing acts as a deterrent, discouraging athletes from using substances that could jeopardize their
long-term health. It also allows medical professionals to identify and address potential health issues
related to drug use.
 Maintaining the Integrity and Credibility of Sports: Doping scandals erode public trust in sports
and damage the reputation of athletic competitions. A robust dope testing program reinforces the
integrity of sports, demonstrating a commitment to clean competition and preserving the credibility
of athletic achievements. This helps maintain the sport as a place of true achievement.
5. Name the drug used (a) as an effective sedative and pain killer (b) for helping patients to cope
with mental illness like depression but often misused. How does moderate and high dosage of
cocaine affect the human body?
Ans:

(a) Morphine
(b) Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) or Barbiturates
 Effect of moderate dosage of cocaine on human body: Euphoria and increased energy,
heightened alertness and confidence, increased heart rate and blood pressure, decreased appetite.
 Effect of high dosage of cocaine on human body: severe agitation, hallucinations, risk of heart
attack, stroke and seizures, respiratory failure and potential death.

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. Analyse the data showing the prevalence of drug and alcohol abuse in different age groups.
Age group Drug abuse (%) Alcohol abuse (%)
12-17 10 15
18-25 25 40
26-35 15 30
36-50 10 20
51+ 5 10
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(a) Given the data, evaluate which group should be the primary focus for drug abuse
prevention programmes.
(b) Create a proposal for a school-based program aimed at reducing alcohol and drug abuse
in the 12-17 age group
(c) Analyse the trend of alcohol abuse across different age groups. What does this trend
suggest?
(d) Suggest reasons for the high prevalence of substance abuse in 18-25 age group.
(e) How can public health interventions target the age group with the highest prevalence of
substance abuse?
Ans:

(a) Age group of 18-25 because it has the high prevalence of 25%
(b) It can include counselling services, interactive workshops and engaging educational materials to
raise awareness regarding the dangers of drug and alcohol abuse.
(c) Alcohol abuse is at a peak level at the age of group of 18-25 which implies higher risk behaviour
associated with alcohol abuse and also as the age increases, the prevalence of alcohol abuse starts
decreasing.
(d) Reasons for high prevalence of substance abuse in 18-25 age group are: peer pressure, stress
from education or employment, experimentation and curiosity, influence of media and films,
greater exposure to substances and also financial crisis.
(e) Public health interventions for the highest-risk age group (18-25):
 University and workplace campaigns: Awareness program in colleges and workplaces
 Accessible mental health services: Affordable counselling for stress and addiction
 Alternative social activities: Promoting alcohol-free social spaces.
2. Drug abuse is a common problem faced by countries around the world today due to its impact
on the health and well-being of an individual.
(a) How is cocaine consumed? What is its impact on the human body?
(b) Some drugs make an individual sleepy while some others make them hyper energetic. Using
appropriate examples, explain this statement.
(c) Why does a regular drug abuser have withdrawal symptoms when consumption of the drug
is suddenly stopped?
Ans:

(a) Cocaine is usually consumed by snorting, injecting, smoking or oral consumption. Cocaine acts
a potent stimulant of CNS which interferes with the reuptake of dopamine, leads to the increased
levels of dopamine in the brain which results in heightened alertness, euphoria and increased
energy.
(b) Heroin is a drug which acts as a depressant in the functioning of the nervous system and so it
slows down the bodily functions and makes an individual sleepy. Cocaine is a drug which
stimulates the nervous system thereby making an individual feel very energetic.
(c) He develops physical and psychological dependence on the drug. When the drug is suddenly
stopped, the body which has adapted to the presence of the drug struggles to function normally
without it leading to withdrawal syndrome such as anxiety, shakiness, nausea and sweating.

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PRACTICE YOURSELF
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1 MARK
1. Which of the following is not a physiological barrier of innate immunity?
(a) Acid in gastric juice
(b) Mucus coating of epithelium of digestive and respiratory tract
(c) Tear in the eyes
(d) Saliva in the mouth
2. Select the pathogen mismatched with the symptoms of disease caused by it from the list given
below:
(a) Entamoeba histolytica: Constipation, abdominal pain
(b) Epidermophyton: Dry scaly lesions on nail.
(c) Wuchereria bancrofti: Chronic inflammation of lymphatic vessels of lower limb
(d) Haemophilus influenzae: Blockage of the intestinal passage.
3. Opioids act as:
(a) Depressants
(b) Pain killers
(c) Euphoria providers
(d) Stimulants

For Question number 4, two statements are given – one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
labelled as Reason (R). Select the correct answer to these questions from the codes (A), (B), (C)
and (D) as given below:
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true, but R is false
(d) A is false, but R is true.
4. Assertion (A): Allergens cause excessive immune response in the body.
Reason (R): Allergy involves IgA antibodies and interferons

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS 2 MARKS

5. Compare and contrast between malignant and benign tumours.
6. Medically it is advised to all young mothers that breastfeeding is the best for their new born
babies. Do you agree? Give reasons in support of your answer.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS 3 MARKS

7. A person is suffering from a high-grade fever. Which symptoms will help to identify if he/she
is suffering from Typhoid, Pneumonia or Malaria?
8. When someone buys a packet of cigarettes, cannot miss the statutory warning that is present
on the packing which warns against smoking, and says how it is injurious to health. Yet,
smoking is very prevalent in our society, both among young and old. Advise the adolescents
about the importance of avoid smoking. (Mention any six points).

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9. A heavily bleeding bruised road accident victim was brought to a nursing home. The doctor
immediately gave him an injection to protect him against a deadly disease.
(a) Write what did the doctor injected into the patient’s body.
(b) How do you think this injection would protect the patient against the disease?
(c) Name the disease against which this injection was given and the kind of immunity it
provides.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS 5 MARKS

10. Malarial parasite Plasmodium completes its life cycle in two hosts. Draw its complete life cycle
and explain the various stages it follows throughout its life.
11.
(a) Explain the roles of primary and secondary lymphoid organs that are responsible for
developing defense to combat the action of pathogens which enter our body.
(b) Doctors generally advise not to undergo surgery of tonsils. Why?

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