TYPES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

What is satellite communication?

 Satellite communication uses radio waves for wireless communication

 Signals are sent between satellites and ground stations on earth

 Ground stations transmit the radio wave to antenna within or connected to a digital devices

 The advantage of satellite communication is that the service is always available

 The disadvantages of satellite communication is that the service can be interrupted by weather
conditions and signals do not pass through solid objects

Satellite television

 Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) is the international standard for broadcasting digital television

 Digital Video Broadcasting-Satellite (DVB-S) is an example of DVB

 A video signal is sent from a broadcaster to a satellite, and sent back to earth to an antenna connected
to a set-top box or directly to a television

 The set-top box or television decodes the signal to make it watchable

What is digital television and radio?

 Digital Video Broadcasting Terrestrial (DVB-T) and Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) are methods
of transmitting video and audio signals from transmitters to an antenna

 Transmitters are based on earth

 Once received by the antenna, signals travel through wires to a television or radio receiver
which decodes the signal and converts it into video and/or audio

 The advantages of digital television and radio are:

o Improved video/audio quality

o Access to more channels/stations

What are wired methods of communication?

 There are a number of wired methods of communication, some are designed to transmit a specific type
of data and some are universal

Type Use

High Definition Multimedia

High definition video and audio signals
Interface (HDMI)

Sony/Phillips Digital Transmit digital audio streams between

Interface Format (S/PDIF) devices
 3.5mm jack commonly used to connect
Mini-jack headphones, speakers and microphones to
devices

Networking standard for connecting devices

Ethernet
to a local area network (LAN)

Connecting and powering various devices

Universal Serial Bus (USB) such as printers, flash drives, keyboards,
mice etc.

Wireless

What are wireless methods of communication?

 There are a number of wireless methods of communication, including:

Type Use

A wireless method of connecting devices to a

Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi)
local area network (LAN)

Allows two devices to connect to each other

Bluetooth
over very short distances

Transmits tiny amounts of data over very

Infra-red (IR)
short distances

Near Field Use close proximity RFID (radio frequency

Communication (NFC) identification)

4G and 5G Provides internet access to mobile devices

What is a local area network?

 A local area network (LAN) is a network which has a small geographical area (under 1 mile)

 All of the hardware is owned by the company/organisation/household using it

 LANs will use unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable, fibre optic cable or wireless connections (Wi-Fi)

Advantages Disadvantages

If hardware fails, the

Allows centralised management of updates,
network may not function
backups and software installations
properly or even at all

Can secure its devices with the use of

Networks are more prone
firewalls, antivirus software and other
to attacks than standalone
security features to prevent unauthorised
computers
access
 Access to data and
Allows users on the network to share
peripherals can be slow
resources such as printers and other
depending on network
peripherals
traffic

Require maintenance to
ensure that software is up
Allows the users of the network
to date, upgrades and
to collaborate and share files and folders
backups which can be
costly

What is a wide area network?

 A wide area network (WAN) is a network which has a large geographical area (over 1 mile)

 They are a collection of LANs joined together

 The computers on a WAN are connected via routers

 The hardware used to connect the networks together is not all owned by the
company/organisation/household using it.

 For example, telephone lines owned by telecommunication companies

 WANs will use fibre optic cable, telephone lines and satellite to connect the LANs together

What is a PAN?

 A personal area network (PAN) is a network that is used for transmission of data between devices in
close proximity

 A PAN has a very short range (10 metres)

 Bluetooth is the most widely used PAN

 Typical examples of devices which make use of a PAN are:

o Wireless headphones

o Mobile phones

o Tablet

o Laptop etc.

What is tethering?

 Tethering is when a host device shares its internet connection with other connected devices

 Commonly used by mobile devices to share its mobile data connection to devices such
as laptops and tablets

 Tethering can be enabled or disabled as part of the mobile contract

 Some network providers charge extra to use this feature

What is Wi-Fi?

 Wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi) is a common standard for wireless networks

 Wi-Fi is common in most homes and offices to connect devices such as laptops, tablets & smart
phones

 Using Wi-Fi, devices communicate with a hotspot or a wireless access point (WAP), which can be a
standalone device or built into a router or switch

 Wi-Fi may be preferred over Bluetooth when:

o High speed data transfer is required

o Long range communication is required

o Many devices are needed to be connected at the same time

Advantages Disadvantages

 Portability - Easy to move  Speed - Slower data

around, location is only transfer than Ethernet
limited by range
 Security - Less secure than
 Cost - Less expensive to Ethernet
setup and add new devices
 Range - Relies on signal
 Compatibility - Most devices strength to the WAP,
are manufactured with a built signals can be obstructed
in Wi-Fi adapter (up to 100m)

Bluetooth

What is Bluetooth?

 Bluetooth is another common standard for wireless networks

 Bluetooth is common in most homes and offices to connect devices such

as headphones, controllers, keyboards & mice

 Bluetooth is used typically for a direct connection between two devices

 When two devices pair, they both exchange a cryptographic key

 The keys are used to generate a secret shared key which is used to encrypt the data between the two
devices and create a Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)

 Connected devices continuously change their transmitting frequency between 79 different channels to
avoid interference and improve the reliability of the connection

 This is known as the frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

 Advantages Disadvantages

 Speed - Very slow

 Compatibility - Ideal for transfer speeds
personal devices and ad-  Security - Data can be
hoc connections intercepted by anyone in
 Power - Very low power range
consumption  Range - Short range
(30m)

What is GPS?

 Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite system used to track the exact location of an object

 GPS uses orbiting satellites to receive, amplify and transmit signals

 Radio frequencies are used to communicate between satellites and ground stations

 GPS requires a direct line of sight

Sat nav in a car

 The position/location of the car is calculated using GPS software

 Data is transmitted every few seconds

 An algorithm calculates the speed/location of the car

 The map is updated every few seconds

Advantages Disadvantages

 Expensive setup and

 Wide coverage area maintenance

 Real-time data  Signal interference due to

transmission weather or obstacles

 Improved communication  Limited bandwidth and

in remote locations capacity

 Accurate location tracking  Privacy concerns and potential

for Surveillance

What is 3G & 4G?

 3G and 4G are references to the 3rd and 4th generation of mobile data networks

 They provide mobile devices with wireless access to the internet

 Each generation has a faster transfer rate and an improved capacity for more users

o 3G - 256 Kbps (kilobits per second)

 o 4G - 100+ Mbps (megabits per second)

 The current generation (5G) has even faster speeds and lower latency

What is infra-red?

 Infra-red is a wireless communication method used to transfer very small amounts of data to a
device in direct line of sight

 Commonly used in remotes to control devices such as:

o Televisions

o Audio receivers

o Home entertainment equipment etc.

 Uses light waves which can cause:

o Walls or obstacles to block the signal

o Sunlight to affect the signal

 It is a reliable and cost effective solution for many short-range wireless communication needs

What is NFC?

 Near field communication (NFC) is a subset of RFID which allows communication between two
devices in very close proximity

 NFC can be either:

o Passive - uses energy from the reader

o Active - has it's own power source

 Smartphones use active NFC to allow contactless payments by tapping a smartphone on a reader

 Smartphones can also exchange data using NFC by tapping together (usually back to back)

Advantages Disadvantages

 Convenient
 Limited range
 Secure
 Slow data transfer rate (not
 Very fast suitable for transferring large files)
 Low  Compatibility
power consumption
Factors influencing digital communication
What is bandwidth?

 Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be carried by a connection in one second

 Measured in bits per second (bit rate)

 A smaller bandwidth means that less data can be sent and the network can slow down, potentially to
the point of becoming unusable

Impact on user experience

 A higher bandwidth means more data can be sent and received in one second

 Higher bandwidth can improve:

o Upload and download speeds

o Online gaming

o Streaming high definition video

 To stream content, enough data to play a few seconds is downloaded and stored in a temporary area
of memory called a buffer

 As the contents of the buffer are played, more data is downloaded at the same time to keep the buffer
full

 If the buffer ever becomes empty playback will pause

 To stream successfully, data must be downloaded to the buffer at a faster rate than it is being emptied

What is latency?

 Latency is the delay between data being sent and received

 If there is a big delay between the two, more data will be on the network causing collisions

 This can lead to even more packets of data being sent as the error rate will increase

Impact on user experience

 Playing games online smoothly, requires a high bandwidth

 A high latency can cause lag and the game will not respond as quickly as a users commands

 This can cause big issues when users are playing fast paced games or playing against other users with
a lower latency (have an advantage due to quicker response times)

 Streaming sport content with a high latency can cause micro-stutters and ruin a users watching
experience
What else can affect the speed & volume of data transfer?

Factor Description

Devices that emit electromagnetic signals such as

Interference
microwaves and fridges can disrupt wireless signals

Transfer Wired connections can carry more frequencies, meaning a

method higher bandwidth compared to wireless connections

Walls and furniture can block wireless signals, lowering

Blockages
the bandwidth available

The strength of a wired and wireless signals reduces as

Distance
data has to travel further

What are the advantages and disadvantages of wired & wireless communication?

Wired Wireless

Speed Fast data transfer Slower than wired

Location is limited by physical

Portability Location only limited by range
cable

Less secure, easier to intercept

Security Better physical security
data

Range Less affected by interference Affected by interference

Cables can be trip hazards,

Safety need routing along walls, None
under floors

Cables are cheap, more No cables required, may require

Cost devices means more cables a wireless access point to be
needed purchased

Broadband, mobile broadband & cellular networks

 Internet Service Providers (ISP) provide access to high speed internet (broadband)

 ISPs use fibre optic or copper cable to create a wide area network (WAN)

What is fibre optic?

 Fibre optic is a type of cable that uses light to transmit data on a wide area network (WAN)

 Fibre transmits data at a much higher speed and has a much higher bandwidth compared to copper
cables

 Fibre optic cable does not suffer from interference which makes them the most secure option to
send sensitive data
  Fibre optic cables can cover a long distance without any degradation, they can span cities and countries

What is copper cable?

 Copper is a type of cable originally used in telecommunication to transmit voice signals, forming the
traditional landline phone network

 The ability to use copper to deliver network traffic on a wide area network (WAN) made the internet
possible

 Copper cables degrade over time which limits their range compared to fibre optic

 Copper cable suffers from interference which can disrupt data quality

 Copper transmits data at a much slower rate, and has a much lower bandwidth compared to fibre optic

Requirements for connecting to a network

What is an IP address?

 An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identifier given to devices which communicate over the
Internet (WAN)

 IP addresses can be allocated by a network administrator or assigned dynamically by a Dynamic Host

Configuration Protocol server (DHCP)

 IP addresses make it possible to deliver data to the right device

 A device connecting to a network will be given an IP address, if it moves to a different network then
the IP address will change

IPv4

 Internet Protocol version 4 is represented as 4 blocks of denary numbers between 0 and 255,
separated by full stops

 Each block is one byte (8 bits), each address is 4 bytes (32 bits)

 IPv4 provides over 4 billion unique addresses (232), however, with over 7 billion people and countless
devices per person, a solution was needed

IPv6

 Internet Protocol version 6 is represented as 8 blocks of 4 hexadecimal digits, separated by colons

 Each block is 2 bytes (16 bits), each address is 16 bytes (128 bits)

 IPv6 could provide over one billion unique addresses for every person on the planet (2128)

What is a MAC address?

 A MAC (Media Access Control) address is a universally unique identifier given to devices which
communicate over a local area network (LAN)

 MAC addresses are static, they can never change

  MAC addresses make it possible for switches to efficiently forward data to the intended recipient

 Any device that contains a Network Interface Card (NIC) has a MAC address assigned during
manufacturing

 A device connecting to a local network already has a MAC address, if it moves to a different network
then the MAC address will stay the same

 A MAC address is represented as 12 hexadecimal digits (48 bits), usually grouped in pairs

 The first three pairs are the manufacturer ID number (OUI) and the last three pairs are the serial
number of the network interface card (NIC)

 There are enough unique MAC addresses for roughly 281 trillion devices

 MAC addresses can be used to:

o Restrict or allow access to a network

o Identify a device on a network

o Track a device

o Assign 'static' or 'fixed' IP addresses

What is a device name?

 A device name is a way for users to describe/name a device so that it is easier to identify on a network

 Device names are not used by devices to communicate as they are not always unique

 Device names are set by users in the devices operating system or from a router

What cables are used in a wired network?

 A wired network is a network where physical cables are used to join devices together and transmit
data

 The most common types of cables in a wired network are:

o Ethernet

o Fibre optic

What is Ethernet?

 Ethernet is a wired networking standard to carry electrical signals between devices on a local area
network (LAN)

 Ethernet is common in most offices and homes to connect devices such a desktop computers & servers

 Ethernet uses twisted pair cables (CAT5) to allow duplex communication

What is fibre optic?

 Fibre optic is a type of cable that uses light to transmit data on a wide area network (WAN)
  Fibre transmits data at a much higher speed and has a much higher bandwidth compared to copper
cables

 Fibre optic cable does not suffer from interference which makes them the most secure option to
send sensitive data

 Fibre optic cables can cover a long distance without any degradation, they can span cities and countries

What is a wireless access point (WAP)?

 The Wireless Access Point (WAP) allows wireless devices to connect to a local area network (LAN)

 The WAP connects to a Switch or Hub via an Ethernet cable

 The WAP range is limited so the use of multiple Wireless Access Points can be used for complete
coverage or a home/business

What is a router?

 The router is responsible for routing data packets between different networks

 An example of data the router can direct is, sending internet traffic to the right devices in your home

 The router manages and prioritise data traffic, which can help to keep connections stable

 The router will assign IP addresses to the devices on the network

 The router acts as a gateway

What is a gateway?

 A gateway is a device that bridges the connection between two different types of network

 Gateways translate between different network protocols

 For example, a local area network (LAN) to a wide area network (WAN)

What is a switch?

 A Switch allows multiple wired devices to connect to a local area network (LAN)

 The Switch is an active device, which means it can inspect network data and route it to the correct
device, thus reducing traffic on the network

 A Switch can contain extra Software to allow administration/configuration

What is a booster?

 A booster is a device used to amplify a network signal in order to extend the normal range

 Boosters can be used with both wired and wireless networks

What is a server?

 A server is a dedicated computer that shares its resources with devices that connect to it

 Devices that connect to a server are known as clients

  Common examples of servers include:

o File

o Web

o Print

o Authentication

o Application

Server Function

File  Allows access to shared and private resources

 Stores the content of websites and processes

Web
requests made via HTTP to access them

 Manages print jobs and organises the queue so

Print
that individual printers are not overloaded

 Stores usernames and passwords that can be

checked when a user logs in
Authentication
 Authenticated users receive a certificate that
allows access to resources

 Allows clients access to applications that run

Application
directly from the server

 A single computer can perform multiple server functions depending on its resources (memory &
processor)

What is a web browser?

 A web browser is a software application used to locate, retrieve, and display content on the World
Wide Web (WWW)

 Web browsers are used to display web pages which include images, videos and other files

 Most web browsers have the following features:

o Home page

o Ability to bookmark favourites

o Keep a history of visited websites

o Hyperlinks which allow users to navigate between pages

What is an ISP?

 An Internet Service Providers (ISP) is a company that provides access to the Internet to users and
businesses
  The ISP provides internet access by leasing equipment and telecommunication lines to users that are
required to access the internet

 IPS generally charge a subscription fee for access to the internet

What are Search Engines?

 Search engines are tools that locate and display web pages related to the search terms entered by
the user

 They are essential for navigating the vast amount of information on the internet

 They index millions of web pages and use algorithms to rank the relevance of each page to the search
terms

How do search engines work?

 Search engines work in several stages:

o Crawling

o Indexing

o Ranking

 Crawling is when web crawlers scour the internet daily to retrieve new websites

 Indexing is how websites are categorised based on the content of their web pages, keywords and
metadata

 Ranking is how websites are ranked and listed on search engine pages - this depends on many factors
to display the most relevant results

What is filter software?

 Filter software uses two lists stored in a database to allow or block access to websites

 URLs entered by a user are compared against both lists

 The two lists are:

o Whitelist - URLs on the whitelist are allowed and the website can be viewed

o Blacklist - URLs on the blacklist are not allowed and the website is blocked

 URLs that cannot be found on either list are allowed

 Filter software is used by schools and parents to protect children from accessing age inappropriate
content

 Administrators can add and remove URLs from the lists

Benefits of using a local area network
What are the benefits of a LAN?

 Users can share peripherals such as printers

 Shared access to the internet

 Users can access their files from any computer on the network

 Communication can be made easier via email and social networks

 Users can share files and folders easily such as central databases and spreadsheets

 Servers can be used to provide centralised backups, updates and security

 Media streaming (movies, music and gaming)

What are the drawbacks of a LAN?

 There is an increased security risk to data

 Malicious software can infiltrate the network and render it unusable

 Servers and switches can provide a central point of failure, resulting in users not being able to
complete tasks using their computer

 Factors can impact the performance of the network such as the number of users and data on the
network at one time

What is a peer-to-peer network?

 A peer is a computer on a network which is equal to all other computers

 Each peer on the network

o Often have their own printer attached

o Will provide access to their own files

o Is responsible for their own backups

o Is responsible for their own security

o Is responsible for carrying out their own backups

 A network with no server providing services is a peer-to-peer network

 Most homes will have a peer-to-peer network model

Advantages Disadvantages

 Very easy to set up and maintain

 Users will need to
 Very cheap to set up because manage their own
there is no expensive hardware backups
to purchase
  No specialist knowledge or staff  Users will need to
are required to run the network manage their own
software updates

 The network can be less

secure

What is a client-server network?

 A client is a computer on the network, these connect to the server via a switch

 A server is a computer on a network which often has a single purpose, for example

o Managing access to the Internet

o Managing printing

o Providing email services

o Providing backups

o Controlling security

 Servers are often more powerful than the client machines

 Servers are seen as more significant than the client machines and can require specialist hardware and
software

 A network which uses a server is called a client-server model

 Most companies, organisations and schools will use a client-server network model

Advantages Disadvantages

 Servers can be expensive to

 Managing backups of the
purchase, setup and maintain
network is easier as it is
done from one central point  A specialist network manager
would be required as servers
 Updating and installing new
require specialist IT
software can be done
knowledge
centrally instead of having
to log on to each machine  Servers can be a single point
of failure, meaning all users
 Security of files can be
would lose access to the
managed easily
network if the server fails
SECURING DATA ON A NETWORK
How does a password help?

 Passwords are a digital lock to prevent unauthorised access to an account

 Passwords are used to authenticate a user to the network

 They are often stored as an encrypted/ciphered text entry in a database, ensuring that even with
unauthorised access to a database, a hacker would not be able to gain access to the individual
passwords of users

 Strong passwords and regular password changes are important to maintain security

What is a firewall?

 A firewall is a barrier between a network and the internet

 A firewall prevents unwanted traffic from entering a network by filtering requests to ensure they
are legitimate

 It can be both hardware and software and they are often used together to provide stronger security to a
network

o Hardware firewalls will protect the whole network and prevent unauthorised traffic

o Software firewalls will protect the individual devices on the network, monitoring the data
going to and from each computer

What is encryption?

 Encryption is a method of scrambling data so that unauthorised users cannot understand it

 Encryption methods use 'keys', which are specialised programs designed

to scramble or unscramble data

 Encryption uses complex mathematical algorithms to scramble the data

 There are two common methods of encryption:

o Symmetric

o Public key

Symmetric encryption

 The sender uses a key to encrypt the data before transmission

 The receiver uses the same key to decrypt the data

 It's usually faster, making it ideal for encrypting large amounts of data

 The significant downside is the challenge of securely sharing this key between the sender and receiver

 If an unauthorised user captures the key, they can decrypt all messages intercepted in transmission

Public key encryption

  Public key encryption uses two keys:

o a public key for encryption

o and a private key for decryption

 Receivers openly share their public key

 Senders use this public key to encrypt the data

 The receiver's private key is the only key that can decrypt the data and is kept locally on their side

 The public and private keys are created at the same time and are designed to work together in this way

 It is typically slower than symmetric encryption

 It is generally used for more secure and smaller data transactions, e.g. passwords, bank details

What is WEP?

 Wireless Encryption Protocol (WEP) is a method of encrypting data being transmitted on

a wireless network

 Each device on the network uses the same key to encrypt and decrypt data

 It is a less secure encryption method due to all devices on the network sharing the same key

 Eavesdropping software (packet sniffers) can be used to intercept data packets and identify the key

What is WPA?

 Wi-fi Protected Access (WPA) is a more secure method of encrypting data being transmitted on
a wireless network

 Each device connected to the network receives a different key

 New keys are used for every packet transmitted on the network

What is a VPN?

 A VPN allows users to remotely connect to private local area networks (LANs)

 All data sent and received using a VPN is encrypted

 Common uses of a VPN include:

o Remotely accessing a companies network (working from home)

o Making secure payments

o Hiding web activities

o Bypassing geolocation rights management or online censorship

What are file access rights?

 File access rights can be set to determine different levels of access to specific files/folders

 Examples of file permissions include:

 o Read - can read the contents of a file only

o Write - can make changes to file contents and/or create new files

o Delete - can delete files

o Execute - can run applications/launch software

What is a transaction log?

 A transaction log is a secure file on a network that keeps a record of every action performed by devices
on a network

 Transactions logs include:

o Device & data access

o Timestamps

o User IDs

o Successful/failed login attempts

 Transaction logs don't directly protect a network, they help administrators monitor any identify any
unusual activity

 Backups are another indirect method of protecting a network

 Keeping copies of data in a secure place on the network in the event of a data breach/loss