Perm anent International Association of Navigation Congresses

P IA N C

International Association o f Ports and Harbors

IAPH

International M aritim e Pilots Association

IMPA

international Association of Lighthouse Authorities

IALA

Final Report o f the Joint PIANC-IAPH

W orking Group 11-30 in cooperation
w ith IMPA and IALA
 6.2.1 General ................................................ .29
6.2.2 Environmental Data ............................. .30
6.2.3 Field Data Collection Techniques,Analysis
and Prediction .30
6.2.4 Monitoring and Marine Information Systems 34
FOREWORD ................................................................. 5
6.3 Channel Alignment ...........................................35
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................. 6 6.3.1 General ................................................ .35
6.3.2 Bend Configuration ............................. .35
2. COMMERCIAL CONSIDERATIONS ................... 6 6.3.3 Bend Marking .........................................35
2.1 Port as Interface ........... * ................................. 6 6.3.4 Bend W idth Assessment ..................... .35
2.2 Pressures on Approach Channel Design .... 7 6.4 Channel W idth ................................................ .36
2.3 Cost/Benefit Analysis ..................................... 7 6.4.1 General ................................................ .36
2.4 Environmental Impact ..................................... 8 6.4.2 Shiphandling and Simulation ................36
3. APPROACH CHANNEL DESIGN METHODOLOGY 8 6.4.3 Use o f Simulation fo r Channel W idth . 36
6.4.3.1 Rea! Time with Mariners; the ‘Panel
3.1 Data Collection, Design Tools and Experience 8
of Experts’ .36
3.2 Basic Definitions ....................................-------- 9
6.4.3.2 Fast Time Simulation ................38
3.3 Stages o f the Design Process ......................... 9
6.5 Channel Depth ................................................ .40
3.4 Physical Environment Data ............................. 9
6.5.1 Introduction ...........................................40
3.5 Alignment,W idth and Depth ......................... 10
6.5.2 Squat .................................................... .40
3.6 Aids to Navigation .......................................... 10
6.5.2.1 Factors Influencing Squat . . . . 40
3.7 Operational Limits .................................... 10
6.5.2.2 Recommendations fo r the Estimation
3.8 Marine Traffic and Risk Analysis ..................... 10
o f Squat ..41
4. THE DESIGN SHIP ............. 6.5.2.3 Calculation o f Squat .............. ..41
4 .1 The ‘Design Ship’ Concept 6.5.2.4 Special Cases o f Squat .......... ..42
4.2 Choice of the Design Ship 6.5.3 Underkeel Clearance in Waves .......... ..42
4.2.1 Basic Philosophy 6.5.3.1 Wave Spectrum .......................42
4.2.2 Ship Type ........... 6.5.3.2 Vertical Motion of the Design Vessel 42
4.2.3 Traffic Analysis ..................., ................ II 6.5.3.3 Allowable Maximum Vertical Motion 43
4.2.4 Design Ship Dimensions ..................... 12 6.5.3.4 Safety Criteria and Decision Rules 43
6.5.4 Channel Depths in Muddy Areas ........ ..43
5. CONCEPT DESIGN .............................................. {4 6.5.4.1 Motivation ............................. ..43
5.1 General .................................................. .. 14 6.5.4.2 Nautical Bottom Approach .. 43
5.2 Channel Design .............................................. 14 6.5.4.3 Mud Characteristics .................44
5.2.1 Alignment,W idth and Depth .............. 14 6.5.4.4 Criteria fo r Determination of
5.2.2 Alignment .............................................. 14 Nautical Bottom ..44
5.2.3 W idth Considerations ......................... 14 6.5.4.5 Behaviour of Ships in Muddy Areas 45
5.2.3.1 Basic Manoeuvrability ............ 15 6.5.4.6 Recommendations fo r Channel
5.2.3.2 Environmental Factors .......... 15 Depth in Muddy Areas ..46
5.2.3.3 Aids to Navigation ................. 16 6.6 Berthing and Swinging Areas ......................... .47
5.2.3.4 Type o f Cargo ......................... 16 6.6.1 Use of Simulations .................................47
5.2.3.5 Passing Distance ..................... 16 6.6.2 Berth Alignment .....................................47
5.2.3.6 Bank Clearance ....................... 16 6.6.3 Tug Sizing and Numbers .......................48
5.2.4 Depth Considerations ......................... 16 6.6.4 Swinging Area Design ......................... ..48
5.2.5 Bends .................................................... 19 6.7 Operational Limits .......................................... ..49
5.3 Channel Concept Design Method ................. 20 6.7. \ Tug and Mooring Boat Operations . . . 49
5.3.1 Introduction .......................................... 20 6.7.2 Pilot Boarding ........................................49
5.3.2 Depth .................................................... 20 6.7.3 Fender Impact Velocities ..................... ..49
5.3.3 W idth: Straight Sections ..................... 20 6.7.4 Astern Manoeuvres ............................. ..49
5.3.4 Bend W idth and Radius ....................... 22 6.7.5 Moored Ship Movements ................... ..49
5.3.5 Alignment .............................................. 22
5.3.6 Definitions and Notes fo r the Tables . 22 7. MARINE RISK A N D SAFETY OF OPERATION . 50
5.3.6.1 Table 5 .1 - Ship Manoeuvrability 22 7.1 Introduction to Marine Risk ............... ..............50
5.3.6.2 Table 5.2 - Channel, Fairway, etc. 23 7 .1.1 Marine Risk .......................................... ..50
5.3.6.3 Table 5.3 - Passing Distance .. 24 7 .1.2 Estimation o f Marine Risk ................... ..50
5.3.6.4 Table 5.4 - Bank Clearance . . . 24 7.1.3 Risk Alleviation Methods ..................... ..51
5.3.6.5 Berthing and Swinging Areas . 24 7.2 Alleviation of Marine Risk ............................. ..51
5.4 Worked Examples .......................................... 24 7.2.1 Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) ...................51
7.2.2 Operating Limits ....................................52
5.5 Data on Existing Approach Channels ............ 28
7.2.3 Rules o f Operation ............................. ..52
6. DETAILED DESIGN .............................................. 29 7.2.4 Aids to Navigation ............................. 52
6.1 General Methodology ................................... 29 7.2.5 Traffic Separation Schemes ...................53
6.2 Assessment of the Environment ................... 29 7.3 Collection of Data .......................................... ..53
 7.4 Traffic Planning and Traffic S im ulation.............. .53
7.4.1 Introduction ......................................... .53
7.4.2 Traffic Flow Simulation Models .......... .53
7.4.3 Procedure fo r the Development of a Traffic
Flow Model .54
7.4.4 Boundary Conditions and Input Data . 54
7.4.5 O utput ...................................................56
7.4.6 Evaluation o f Simulation Results ........ .56
7.5 Pilotage Considerations ..................................57
7.5.1 General ............................................... .57
7.5.2 Pilot Variability ......................................57
7.5.3 Pilot BoardingAreas ............................57
7.5.4 Anchoring Areas and Lay-by Berths .. 57
7.5.5 Pilot Numbers ..................................... .57
7.5.6 Safety Aspects ..................................... .58
7.6 Safety Criteria ...................................................58
7.6.1 General ............................................... .58
7.6.2 Primary and Secondary Criteria ..........58
7.6.3 Risk C riteria ...........................................58
7.6.4 Rudder Activity Criteria .................... .58
7.6.5 W idth C riteria ..................................... .59
7.6.6 Depth C riteria ..................................... .60
7.6.7 Alignment C riteria ............................... .60

8. METHODOLOGY OVERVIEW:THE MARINE IMPACT

ASSESSMENT ........................................................ .61
8 .1 General Overview ......................................... ..61
8.2 The Marine Impact Assessment .......... ...........6!

9. TERMS OF REFERENCE ....................................... .62

10. REFERENCES ........................................................ .63

11.GLOSSARY ..64

12..LIST OF SYMBOLS ................................................ ..65

APPENDIX A .....................................................................66
Analysis o f Existing Approach Channel Widths

APPENDIX B .....................................................................71
Typical Ship Dimensions

APPENDIX C .....................................................................73
Prediction o f Squat

APPENDIX D ...................................................................90
W ater Depths in Muddy Areas:The Nautical Bottom
Approach
 FOREWORD The members of Working Group No, 30 were:

P.M. Fraenkei IAPH

Chairman
Consulting Engineer, Peter Fraenkei Maritime Ltd
Modem design of approach channels came into existence as (United Kingdom)
a separate discipline in the I960’s, particularly fo r the
development of deepwater ports. I. W . Dand* PIANC
British Maritime Technology Ltd
The design of channel dimensions was first considered by (United Kingdom)
Working Group 2 of the Permanent International Association
o f Navigation Congresses (PIANC) International Oil Tankers W . D ietze* PIANC
Commission (IOTC) and the re p o rt was published in 1973. Formerly Wasser-und Schiffahrtsdirektion
The IOTC w ork was then reviewed some years later by Nordwest
Working Group A of the PIANC International Commission (Germany)
fo r the Reception of Large Ships (ICORELS), whose report
was published in 1980.The ICORELS Report contained a J. Barber* IAPH
detailed review, but the Commission concluded that in the Consulting Engineer
state of knowledge as it then stood, its general (United Kingdom)
recommendations would have to be conservative, but it left M, Hoctor IAPH
open the possibility that its recommendations might be Formerly Managing Director, P ort o f Limerick
capable of refinement as knowledge developed.
(Ireland)
Since the ICORELS Report, there have been considerable Capt. A.R. Boddy IMPA
developments, not only in knowledge, but also in International Maritime Pilots Association
technology and analytical techniques:
(United Kingdom)
• firstly, in research as to ship behaviour and in the
development of guidance systems R. Buchanan** IAPH
Formerly Department of Marine and Harbours
• secondly, in computer technology and in mathematical (South Australia)
and physical modelling systems (using the research on
ship behaviour), enabling vessel tracking to be predicted Prof. K. d’Angremond PIANC
taking account o f human factors Technische Universiteit Delft
(The Netherlands)
• thirdly, in experience of large ships transiting port
approach channels over a number o f years, including C . D e e ie n PIANC
some channels which have lower width/design ship beam Port o f Rotterdam
ratios than the ICORELS general recommendation. (The Netherlands)
Recognising the need fo r a review o f the recommendations R. Groenveld PIANC
presented in previous reports, PIANC and the International Technische Universiteit Delft
Association of Ports & Harbors (IAPH) set up a joint (The Netherlands)
Working Group (No. 30) and invited the participation of the
International Maritime Pilots Association (IMPA) and the F.R. Kalff IAPH
International Association o f Lighthouse Authorities (IALA) to Haskoning Consulting Engineers
assess and, if necessary, update existing reports, to provide (The Netherlands)
practical guidelines fo r the design o f approach channels and
Y. Okuyama IAPH
fairways. Central to this w ork were the results collected by
Port & H arbour Research Institute
an earlier PIANC Working Group (No. 7) and these have
(japan)
been combined with recent developments in design
techniques to form the basis o f this re p o rt N. Matthews IALA
Its intention Is to provide practising engineers with guidelines Formerly Secretary General - IALA
and data which will allow them to design a channel for a given K. Naval i** PIANC
ship o r mix of ship types or, alternatively, enable assessment Australian Construction Services
of the suitability of an existing channel fo r a proposed change (Australia)
In ship type o r operation.The intention has been to provide
practical guidelines which are readily usable and easy to O. Piet PIANC
understand and justify. Ministere de L’Equtpment, des Transports et du
Tourisme, Service Technique Central des Ports
In accordance with the Terms o f Reference which are given Maritimes et desVoies Navigables, Compiegne
in Chapter 9, a preliminary Report was prepared dealing
(France)
With aspects of Concept Design, and this Report was
published jointly by PIANC/IAPH in A pril I99S. However, J. Read IAPH
the present report covers all aspects o f Channel Design Formerly Maunsell Consulting Engineers
(Concept and Detailed Design). (United Kingdom)
 T. Rekonen PIANC Developments in sea transport are continually stimulated
National Board o f Navigation by technological improvements and changes in transport
(Finland) demand. !f a p o rt and its facilities are not ready to respond
to these developments, then delays, congestion, incidents
V.K.Shah PIANC and accidents will result; in short, it will function
Formerly Marine Works, A & E Services inadequately. The resultant penalty fo r the regional and
(Canada) national economy is always heavy.
J.C.K. van Toorenburg PIANC As already observed, adapting an existing p o rt to new
Rijkswaterstaat maritime requirements is often a difficult, time-consuming
(The Netherlands) and expensive affair, especially if insufficient flexibility was
incorporated in the original design.Therefore in the
M .Vantorre PIANC
development o f new ports, a thorough evaluation has to be
Universiteit Gent
made at the outset o f the type, size, loading and number o f
(Belgium) vessels that w ill use it both now and in the future.Then,
* Members of the editing sub-committee because o f the inherent inadequacies and errors in these
** Corresponding Members evaluations and forecasts, a maximum degree of future
adaptability to new types o f ships in the p o rt’s approach
channels and manoeuvring areas must be incorporated.

All of the above considerations lead naturally to a

requirement fo r a logical and rationally-based design process
which will allow, among other things, for the determination o f
1. INTRODUCTION the horizontal and vertical dimensions of the port’s approach
channels and manoeuvring areas.

The design process is presented as tw o stages:

The design of an approach channel encompasses a number
* a Concept Design study, based on initial physical
o f disciplines including ship handling and maritime
environment data, a design ship and other requirements
engineering in order to design waterways to a desired level
derived from commercial considerations and forecasts.
o f navigability and safety.This requires the assessment of a
This leads on to
number of key elements, including vessel size and
behaviour, human factors in ship handling and effects of the • a Detailed Design study, involving development and
physical environment. validation o f particular aspects.

Approach channel design involves designing the layout and In this report the more complex areas of Detailed Design are
dimensions of a p o rt’s main water area with reference to: discussed in some depth and the computer-based techniques
which they use are described. However, rather than just dwell
• the alignment and width of approach channels and port
on the detail o f such techniques, particular attention is given
entrances to the steps which have to be taken by the designer to
• the depth o f approach channels prepare for their use and interpret the results.
the size and shape o f manoeuvring spaces within the Particular attention is drawn to Appendices C and D dealing
port, with particular reference to the stopping and with squat and the determination of depth in muddy areas.
swinging areas.

The layout and dimensions are o f great importance, firstly

because in some instances the creation o f the water areas
and related protection works constitute the biggest
investment by far in p o rt infrastructure, and secondly
because factors such as entrance width, manoeuvring space
2. COMMERCIAL
and breakwater alignment are very difficult to change or CONSIDERATIONS
adapt once the p o rt has been built.

For deepwater ports which must receive large ships, in

excess of 50,000 dw t say, an important problem to be
faced is the feet that the actual track o f these ships may
deviate considerably from the ideal.This is a consequence 2.1 PORT AS INTERFACE
o f the slow response o f large ships to rudder action or
engine movements.This characteristic may require the
introduction o f different operational limits fo r such ships in A p o rt functions as a vital link in a transport chain, forming
p o rt approaches and other navigational areas and. as a an interface between modes o f transport as part o f
result, the provisions to be made fo r safe navigation may international o r domestic trade o r carriage o f passengers
have to be more extensive than those fo r ports catering and/or cars. The p o rt is an interface between ships on the
only fo r small vessels. marine side and transport o r storage on the land side.
 \ /(A n p th e r possibility, o f course, is transfer from ship to forecasts, quantities o f goods may be translated into
,/ .QtJijer waterborne transport). numbers o f ships of various types, all o f which must be
* a' f catered fo r by the marine side of the p o rt operation.
logistics o f handling goods, passengers, cars o r trucks
on the land side o f the p o rt is a vast and im portant subject From these forecasts, the design ship size w ill be derived,
w hen the commercial viability o f a p o rt is considered. But as described in Chapter 4, but the increase in numbers o f
so 'fe the design o f the marine side o f die p o rt - that area ships also imposes pressures on the approach channel
- tpseaward of the quays, jetties o r anchorages which allows design as it increases the frequency o f ship/ship encounters
' the safe passage, stopping, turning, berthing and unberthing (see Table 5.3 and Chapter 7).
< o f ships using the p o rt
Changes in the nature o f cargoes handled (fo r example, by
' 'The design methods discussed below relate entirely to the the introduction o f more hazardous cargoes) also affect
marine side o f p o rt design; the land-side operations are not the channel design, as shown in Table 5.2(i) and Chapter 7.
mentioned. However, in reality, the tw o aspects will co­
- e x i s t Adequate and effective land-side infrastructure and
: J‘ o p e r a t i o n s are essential to the performance o f the marine-
operation - fo r example, in enabling ships to be turned 2.3 COST/BENEFIT ANALYSIS
- % o u n d quickly and efficiently, and have access to berths
■/without waiting.This should be borne in mind at all times
V & y th e marine-side designer, who may occasionally be The commercial stimuli are always at w ork in p o rt design
(^presented with, fo r example, lengths o f quay o r reclamation and operation and, although they do not form the focus o f
. i / , . w hjch may be determined more by land-side this re p o rt (and wiil be touched on only briefly), it is they
requirements than those o f the marine side.The ingenuity who drive the design techniques discussed below.
i f o f the marine-side designer w iil be called upon to ensure
- that such situations do not prevent the safe and efficient The overall economic justification fo r a p o rt approach
' operation of ships. channel is normally assessed as part of the cost/benefit
analysis fo r the total transport chain through the p o rt
(together w ith any associated inland waterway
infrastructure).The significance o f the channel cost in the
2.2 PRESSURES ON total cost/benefit analysis will vary, depending on the length
APPROACH CHANNEL o f the channel and the extent o f any natural o r pre-existing
DESIQN artificial channel.

Channel costs include the following components:

There are often moves to optimise the economics o f * construction - normally capital dredging, and/or
.individual links o r stages in the transport chain, but p o rt reconstruction through widening and/or deepening
planners generally seek to optimise the economics of the * maintenance - normally maintenance dredging, to cope
: transport chain overall, subject to the necessary w ith accretion and siltation
investment in p o rt infrastructure and equipment being
• - Justified by an acceptable return, and any environmental * operation - tugs, pilotage and aids to navigation
criteria being satisfied. (including capita! costs)
■ environmental impact mitigation o r requirements.
The pressure on p o rt authorities to provide approach
; channels fo r large ships, o r to allow larger ships to use As part of the initial overall cost/benefit analysis, the effects
; ' existing channels, is a result o f the economics o f shipping. o f adjusting variables, such as maximum permissible ship
The costs per tonne-km of cargo, in respect o f fuel, size, tidal restrictions o r other rules of operation, and
manning and capital value fo r a laden ship at sea, decrease standards o f aids to navigation, can be calculated quickfy
as ship size increases.
using the Concept Design Method given in Chapter 5 to
The increase in ship size, once accepted, then puts a derive initial channel dimensions which can also be used in
premium on minimizing time in port, which leads to further trade-off studies.
^ pressures on the approach channel design:
It is implicit in this process that the Concept Design
■• » to minimise ship transit tim e in the approach channel Method should provide adequate navigational safety in
to provide accessibility at all stages o f tide and in all accordance w ith good modern practice. It contains w ithin
weathers, o r at least to minimise restrictions. it the implied safety margins used in many ports
■,V'
throughout the world. (See Appendix A).
v^he development of a successful p o rt is an on-going
•process, dependent on variations in both w orld trade and A thorough analysis o f ship accidents shows that only a
|!|»arkets, and on trends in shipping and cargo-handling small percentage of accidents and marine casualties in
practice. It is necessary fo r the p o rt authority, therefore, approach channels and ports is due to channel design, but
Anticipate demand and trends, and forecast the it is essential, w ith future commercial, economic and
quantities of goods likely to pass through the p o rt in years environmental pressures placed on p o rt operators, that
tp ’ come, and the ships that w ill be used. Combining the this percentage remains low.
 In the evaluation o f proposed marginal adjustments o r
refinements to the channel design, as part o f Detailed 3. APPROACH
Design, cost/benefit analysis may also be applied to justify
the cost o f such adjustments relative to the effect on the
CHANNEL DESIQN
risk o f ship accidents, and the benefit of saving the costs METHODOLOQY
and consequences o f ship accidents. These costs include
ship salvage and repair costs, loss o f freight o r hire, loss o r
damage to cargo, injury o r death to persons, closure or
obstruction o f the channel, loss o f p o rt reputation,
property damage, and environmental damage.
3.1 DATA COLLECTION,
The magnitude of the risk in terms o f costs depends both
on the risk in terms o f likelihood o f accidents and the
DESIQN TOOLS A N D
environmental consequences of each accidentThe EXPERIENCE
consequences of, say, a grounding accident could be
expected to be proportional to the size of vessel fo r a
particular cargo type, while certain cargoes will have much The design methodology presented in this report makes
greater potential consequences. In Chapter 7, methods o f use of a range o f data collection methods and design tools
assessing the effect o f channel design on marine risk are now available to the designer o f approach channels. All
described. should be applied in conjunction with experience.The
methods shown are necessarily based on the current state
It is particularly im portant to establish that a proper match- o f technology, techniques and knowledge. However, they
between safety and cost has been obtained, especially are intended to allow and encourage designers to keep up
where the channel cost is high. For a short channel to date with, and make use of, future developments, so long
through which ships pass carrying only harmless bulk as the limitations and underlying assumptions or
materials, a conservative channel design, w ith limited design simplifications o f any method o r model are appreciated.
effort, may be perfectly acceptable. However, fo r a long
high-density channel and/or one carrying hazardous cargo, The design tools available may be classified broadly as:
a special design effort is necessary. * analytical
• numerical
physical.
2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL
Analytical tools are models which allow fo r the analysis of
IMPACT
wind, waves and currents as well as some o f the
probabilistic aspects o f marine traffic and risk. Examples are
The development o f a new channel o r the extension of an the elementary analysis o f waves, and the frequency
existing one will often affect the marine environment in the distributions used fo r the arrivals o f ships at a p o rt o r at a
vicinity.As a result it is nowadays necessary to carry out an position along a channel.
environmental impact assessment (EIA). Analytical models are supplemented (and in some cases
On the marine side the p o rt and its approach channel may superseded) by numerical models based on the use of
affect local flora and fauna due to the reclamation of, or digital computers.These have revolutionised approach
damage to, their natural habitats. In addition, changes in channel design; examples are models of water flow, ship
the w ater movements in the locality may have an effect on manoeuvring and traffic flow.
local marine life. Analytical and numerical models can only be as good as the
On land the environment may be affected by the visual understanding o f their physical processes allows. In some
impact o f the port, its noise and any emissions (such as instances o f p o rt design this knowledge may be sparse and
dust o r fumes) caused by its operation o r during its the mathematical models need to be supplemented by
construction.Additionally, land-based flora and fauna may physical models, e.g. laboratory models to investigate wave
be disturbed (or eliminated) by the proposed changes. propagation in a port, o r ship models passing over a
complex seabed topography.
The EIA w ill follow what are now well-established guide­
All these design tools can and should be supplemented by
lines which are beyond the scope o f this re p o rt However
experience.This may comprise the personal and corporate
it must be remembered that the design o f an approach
experience o f the designer, based on previous involvement
channel will interact w ith the EIA and changes may have to
with other channels and ports, but it must also include the
be made if the environmental impact is unacceptable.This
in turn may well affect the environmental conditions o f the practical experience o f the mariners who use (or, fo r a new
port, w ill have to use) the results o f the designer’s efforts.
channel design as well as the design itself.
It is essential that this and other relevant experience be
sought, and brought to bear as early in the design process
as possible, w ith a multi-disciplinary approach being a great
advantage.The way in which such experience can be
integrated into design will be indicated below.
 3.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS
^ >- Rdales to cbajSCTia main report.

Before considering the various stages in the design

process, it is necessary to define some basic terms. Most
important o f these is the “ approach channel".

An approach channel is defined as any stretch o f waterway

linking the berths o f a p o rt and the open sea.There are
tw o main types:
• the seaway o r outer channel, in open water,
•. the main approach o r inner channel which lies in
. relatively sheltered waters.

The channel normally terminates at its inner end in a

swinging and/or berthing area which allows stopping and
turning manoeuvres to be made.

All sizes o f approach channel are considered in this report;

the problems of catering fo r small coasters in a small port
may be as great as those fo r a large tanker at an oil terminal.

Definitions o f other common terms are included in the

Glossary in Chapter 11.

3.3 STAQES OF THE

DESIQN PROCESS

In this report approach channel design is considered to be

. a two-stage process consisting o f :
• Concept Design
Figure J. I:Approach channel design method
• Detailed Design.

As explained below, the methodology is based on the initial

'premise o f a Design Ship, specified to represent the most
testing ship expected to use the channel. In some cases, The overall logic o f the methodology is shown in Figure
M x ^ o re than one Design Ship may be specified. 3 .1.together w ith an indication o f the main sections o f the
report in which the various steps are described.
Concept Design stage, initial estimates of the overall
;■f ^ £ fephysical parameters of the proposed channel - width, depth
1 alignment - are determined from physical environment
3.4 PHYSICAL
execution ENVIRONMENT DATA
J not require excessive input data, so that alternative
:j. (f°r trade-off studies) can be evaluated rapidly.The
g l ^ l p u t physical parameters will be combined with proposals Physical environment data refers to data on existing
a umptions on operational limits and aids to navigation. bathymetry and seabed features, winds, waves, tides,
1^6'ftiled Design is a more elaborate process intended to currents, visibility, channel bottom conditions etc. In most
ports, sufficient data w ill already be available to enable
Concept Design, but some surveys, preliminary
i commonly rely on computer models and therefore investigations and approximate calculations may be
/ more extensive and detailed input as well as required.
f ' proper judgement and experience in the
Since the prediction o f winds, waves, tides, currents, and
^ i^ lM ^ ^ n p re ta tio n o f their output.
visibility depends on long-term statistics, the earlier
^ outputs o f the Detailed Design may be subjected to identification of the need fo r additional data collection is
ie r checking fo r acceptability by means o f marine important. In the context of channel design as distinct
analysis, risk analysis, and cost estimates.The results from other civil engineering aspects, however, the major
6 checks may lead to adjustments and a further interest is in the prevalence o f physical conditions, rather
° f detailed design. than extremes.

Sfflr.T,-:- £:r--
 3.5 AUQNMENT, addition, the designer may need to make allowance fo r
any existing operational limits. If the operational limits
WIDTH A N D DEPTH
are particularly restrictive, they could have a significant
commercial impact on p o rt operations, and it may be
Much o f this re p o rt is concerned w ith the geometry o f decided to modify the design to allow greater freedom.
approach channels. By this is meant their w idth, depth If, fo r example, a fe rry service were restricted to high
and alignment. Although fo r convenience, these three water berthings only, due to insufficient channel depth, it
aspects are treated separately, it w ill be seen that they would be impossible to adhere to any s o rt o f timetable
are to some extent interdependent, w ith the linking and the channel depth would have to be increased.
element being the speed o f the ship, as well as the overall Operational limits on activities at berths also need to be
channel cost. considered: on the one hand, there is no benefit in
enabling access if the ship cannot load o r discharge o r be
Ship speed will play an im portant part in the design
moored at the quay; on the o th e r hand, the design o f the
process; fo r example, it must not be to o slow (which will
affect manoeuvrability and may make the passage tim e mooring may be based on giving the ship the ability to
along the channel so long that the tidal window is leave when storms are approaching.
exceeded), and it must n o t be so fast that safety is
Vessel speed limits, both minimum and maximum, are
compromised.
also regarded as operational limits. In some cases tidal
and speed limits may interact, fo r example, where a
vessel is passing down a long channel on a falling tide.
3.6 AIDS TO NAVIGATION

As mentioned in Chapter 2, considerations o f 3.8 MARINE TRAFFIC AND

navigational safety play an im portant role in the design RISK ANALYSIS
process. Although the w idth, depth and alignment o f the
channel w ill be chosen to optimise safety, it must not be
forgotten that the navigator w ill only have evidence o f In that the object o f approach channel design is safety
the w idth and alignment by the way it is presented to and navigability fo r the shipping traffic which w ill use the
him.This w ill be in tw o ways: p o rt, a final stage, particularly in a busy port, w ill be-to
• on a chart o f the area, either printed o r ECDIS carry o u t a marine traffic analysis and risk analysis.
Marine risk embraces the risk to life, damage to the
• by the navigation marks.
marine environment and occasionally the potential
He may be able to proceed along the channel purely commercial loss to a p o rt in the event o f an accident.
from the chart if his on-board instrumentation gives him
position, depth and heading information to the required Overall risk is determined from the frequency w ith
degree o f accuracy, but it would be highly unlikely to find which a particular type o f accident may occur combined
a channel that is unmarked in some way by aids to w ith some measure o f its consequence. Consequence
navigation which are visible to the naked eye o r to radar. may be measured as the number o f casualties (if risk to
These marks define the w idth and alignment o f the life is under consideration), damage to the environment
channel, and the correct type and position o f the marks o r potential loss o f revenue.
is o f crucial im portance to its safe operation.They
therefore feature in the design process and w ill be A t the heart o f such estimates is a knowledge of the
considered in the guidelines given below. frequency w ith w hich a particular type o f accident may
occur. Although m aritim e accidents may be classified
under various headings, there are some (notably
collisions) which lend themselves to analysis by means o f
3.7 OPERATIONAL LIMITS computer models. One o f the most useful of these is the
marine traffic simulation model which is able to
represent present and future traffic streams and their
Handling a ship in all conditions o f tide and weather is
interactions.
not always possible in the confined waters and low
speeds associated w ith p o rt operations. If the underkeel This allows the likelihood o f the vessel-to-vesse(
clearance is to o low, the waves to o high, the current to o encounters to be estimated, and this in turn helps in
strong o r the w ind speed to o great, the ship may be estimating the probable frequency o f collision. Once this
endangered.The p ilo t may n o t be able to control the
is known, marine risk may, in principle, be calculated. In
vessel safely, tug operations may be compromised o r
practice such computations are often used for
berthing may not be possible.
comparative rather than absolute assessments-of risk. In
There are certain limits beyond which operations this way the benefits (o r dis-benefits) o f the channel
become unsafe and it is im portant that the designer be design in terms of risk may be determined, and any
able to estimate these lim its at the design stage. In necessary design changes may be made.
 4.2.2 Ship Type
4. THE DESIQN SHIP
The type o f design ship may be specified at the outset by
the client. It may be a bulk carrier (for an oil o r ore
terminal), a container ship (fo ra container terminal),a
cruise liner, a ferry o r any one o f a range o f other types. A
4.1 THE 'DESIQN SHIP' typical classification o f types is given in Table 4.1.
CONCEPT A further categorisation occurs fo r channels used by many
ship types and fo r which Rules o f Operation must be
imposed which may vary from one type to another. In such
The widch o f a channel is conveniently expressed as a cases, the information readily available to p o rt authorities
multiple o f the beam o f a ship, w ith bend radii expressed as must be taken into consideration and, as this is most
multiples o f its length. Moreover the depth o f the channel commonly the Gross Tonnage, categorisations based on
is related to ship draught. If the channel is to be designed this measure o f ship size and type are often used. As an
for only one ship, then the choice of length, beam and example, the following classification has been used in a p o rt
draught is simple. Seldom w ill this be the case, and so the in the Far East (Table 4.2).
concept o f the Design Ship must be used.
The adequacy of gross o r deadweight tonnage to define the
The Design Ship is therefore that fo r which the channel is design ship is poor. Ships may be broadly classified into those
designed. It should be chosen to ensure that the channel whose cargoes have a high density and are heavy (the ‘weight’
design allows It, and all other ships using the channel, to carriers) and those whose cargo is o f low density (the
navigate in safety. It will have to satisfy certain criteria and ‘volume’ carriers) such as passenger ships, gas carriers and
it may well be appropriate to consider more than one container vessels.The principal dimensions (length, beam and
design ship in the early part o f the design process to draught) as well as the above-water shape (and hence
determine channel width and depth. windage) will be determined by whether the ship is a ‘weight’
o r ‘volume’ carrier.The former will be characterised by a
deep draught and lo\y windage, the latter by a light draught
and high windage. Deadweight tonnage is a reasonable
4,2 CH OICE OF THE measure fo r the former,gross tonnage fo r the latter.
DESIQN SHIP Further classification (for the numbers o f tugs needed, say)
may be based on length and beam (for Panamax ships) o r
beam and draught (fo r Suezmax) ships.

4.2.1 Basic Philosophy W ithin all these classifications o f ship type and size a range
o f length, beam and draught combinations may be found, all
o f which must be considered when choosing a design ship.
; The choice o f the design ship is governed by a number of
considerations:
* It must be o f the right type.
4.2.3 Traffic Analysis
I Its choice must ensure that all other ships likely to use
On some occasions it may not be obvious which vessel
£V the channel can do so safely.
should be chosen as the design ship.This occurs when the
; A ft may not be the largest ship to use the channel, fo r large channel is to serve a mix o f traffic containing both deep-
^ ships are often accorded the greatest attention and are draughted ships and those with high windage. As mentioned
^,5 yb je ct to special rules of operation when arriving at o r in section 4.2.1 the form er may be used to determine
^.leaving p o rt and may not therefore pose the greatest channel depth while the fatter may determine channel width.
^^ tfire a t to safety. Choice of the design ship might therefore Analysis o f present and future traffic may then be needed to
^ b a s e d on one o r more o f the following criteria: determine the ship types likely to be present and, from this
^ may have poor inherent manoeuvrability. analysis, a suitable design ship (or ships) may be chosen.
Analysis o f existing traffic flows may be carried out using:
- k ma^ very large in the context of p o rt operations.
p o rt radar and other records
' k may have excessive windage.
• visual observations.
&§£;. k may carry a particularly hazardous cargo.
In the form er it may be possible to obtain records from
the channel is to cater fo r a wide range of ship the Port Vessel Traffic Services (VTS) which may provide
it is possible that more than one design ship may be ship data in terms o f deadweight, gross tonnage and
iegessary. In such a case a deep-draughted design ship principal dimensions.With the latter it may be necessary to
be used to determine channel depth while a shallow- observe the ships passing through a ‘gate’, and noting their
jjghted ship with a large windage might be used for names so that dimensions, etc. can be found later from
fief width. reference publications.
 T ankers: Oil crude/product
crude
product
undassifiab!e

Chemical IMO classes /, 1 and 3

IMO classes A, B and C
not classified

LNG integral tanks

independent atm ospheric tanks
independent pressurised tanks

LPG integral tanks

independent atmospheric tanks
independent pressurised tanks

D ry b u lk carriers Cape Size, Panamax

O BO ships

C o n t a in e r ships First to sixth generation. Panamax and post Panamax.

B reak b u lk , general c a r g o ships

Ro-Ro V essels

V ehicle C arriers

Ferries

C ruise liners

T ugs , service vessels, e tc .

Barges , push t o w s , e t c .

Table 4.1

Class Gross Tonnage * Jane’s Publications

AA > 120 000 Fairplay Publications
A 80 001 - 120 000
From these, plots such as length against deadweight,
B 30 001 - 80 000
beam against length and draught against beam may be
C 15 001 -3 0 000
produced. If, fo r example, only deadweight is known, then
D 3 0 0 - 15 000
use o f these plots in succession enable length, beam and
draught to be obtained. Figure 4.1 shows an example of
Table 4.2 the variation o f overall length w ith deadweight fo r dry
bulk carriers over 100 000 d w t taken from Clarkson’s
Bulk C arrier Guide. Figure 4.2 shows the variation o f
4.2.4 Design Ship Dimensions length overall w ith beam from the same source.

As can be seen, there is some scatter, and judgement is

For the design process, the principal dimensions o f the
needed to provide a realistic combination o f length, beam
design ship are needed. If oniy the deadweight o r gross
and draught. Appendix B provides additional information.
tonnage has been specified, then they must be deduced.

To do this, it is usually necessary to provide trend plots of

dimensions fo r ship types in the w orld fleet from reference
conventional o r electronic publications.The main sources
of such information are:
• Lloyds Register o f Ships
• Clarkson’s Guides
230.0 250.0 270.0 290.0 S10.0 350J3 J50.0
L e n g th O v o ra ll ( m )

Figure 4.2 ~ Dry Bulk Carrier Data

 5. CONCEPT DESIQN Straight channel legs are preferable to curved ones and
the designer should strive fo r an alignment consisting of
a series o f straight legs connected by smooth bends and
n o t abrupt angles. Individual legs may have different
widths and depths and be navigated at different speeds.
For more details, see Figure 5 .I.

5.1 QENERAL

W ith the type and dimensions of the design ship chosen, the
preliminary design o f the channel may be undertaken. In this,
one o r more concepts o f width, depth and alignment may be
developed, to enable initial decisions (usually based on
economic considerations) to be made as to the most likely
candidate (or candidates) to be chosen for more detailed
consideration.

in this section, a method fo r Concept Design is presented.

5.2 CHANNEL DESIQN

The Concept Design method given here uses information

gathered worldwide which is representative of good modern
practice. It will be satisfactory fo r the preliminary design o f
most channels but it is accepted that some occasions will
arise when such a technique will be inappropriate and the
more elaborate methods o f Detailed Design will have to be
employed, even for preliminary design.

5.2.1 Alignment, Width and Depth

The key parameters o f alignment, width and depth are all

interlinked. Additional width can compensate for reduced
depth, and alignment can be changed to allow for reduced
width o r depth. However, with some exceptions (discussed in Figure 5. t - Suggested Bend Markings
Section 5.2.3 below) the linking is not strong and, at the & Definitions
Concept Design stage, some aspects o f width and alignment
can, to a certain extent, be decoupled from those of depth.
It is preferable to have the prevailing currents aligned with
Parts of this report will therefore consider width and the channel to minimise cross-currents.The same applies
alignment in isolation from depth. Depth has been considered to wind and waves although these may come from any
in previous PIANC reports (References 5.1 and 5.2 (see direction. Usually the prevailing wind and wave direction is
Chapter 10) and is considered in more detail in this report in used in design with a judgement having to be made as to
Appendices C and D in relation to channels through hard or whether possible downtimes due to strong winds o r high
soft seabed materials. waves from other directions are acceptable.

Finally, it is advisable, (and important in the case of channels

5.2.2 Alignment navigated by ships carrying dangerous goods) that the
channel be aligned in such a way as to prevent the ship
heading directly at the quay o r jetty during its approach. Any
Channel alignment should be assessed with regard to:
channel whose direction is perpendicular to the berthing fece
• the shortest channel length; should be aligned to one side of the quay o r jetty, so that the
• conditions/basins, etc. at either end of the channel; ship must turn (or be swung) to arrive at the berth.This
minimises the risk o f ships demolishing the jetty o r quay in
• the need to avoid obstacles o r areas of accretion which
the event o f losing all controf on the approach.
are difficult o r expensive to remove o r require
excessive (and hence costly) maintenance dredging;
• prevailing winds, currents and waves; 5.2.3 Width Considerations
• avoiding bends close to p o rt entrances;
• the edge o f the channel should be such that ships in channel width design, some o r all o f the following should
passing along it do n o t cause disturbance o r damage. be considered:
 5.2.3.1 Basic Manoeuvrability low speeds in a cross wind, the ship-handier having to offer
the ship up to the wind, resulting in a slightly oscillatory
. '-i'/f he dynamics o f ships are such that, when under manual course (Figure 5.3).
-control (as is usually the case in approach channels) they
; /sweep a path, in the absence o f all external perturbations
■ wind, waves, current, etc., which exceeds their
- b read th by a certain amount (Figure 5.2).This is due to the
I speed o f response o f both the ship-handier in interpreting
the visual cues indicating position, and that o f the ship in
iVr^acting to the rudder. Clearly the width of the swept path,
V ^ h ic h is the basic manoeuvring lane, will depend on a
■: number o f factors, but the key elements are:
the inherent manoeuvrability o f the ship (which will
•>s£.
vary with water depth/draught ratio);
* the ability of the ship-handier;
• ' the visual cues available to the ship-handier;
K.'i* the overall visibility.

BASIC MANOEUVRING LANE

Figure 5.3 -Hand/ing in a Strong Wind
(Exaggerated for Clarity)

Cross wind effects depend on:

• the windage of the vessel;
• the depth/draught ratio (because a ship’s resistance to
REAL COURSE lateral motion changes as the depth/draught ratio
approaches unity.Wind causes less d rift at small
underkeel clearances);
• the wind speed and direction relative to the ship.

Some width allowance must be made therefore fo r wind

effects over and above that needed fo r basic manoeuvring.
In order to compute this, information on wind speeds and
directions fo r the area under consideration is needed.The
collection o f this data is dealt with in Section 6.2 below; in
Figure 5.2 - Width o f Manoeuvring Lane allows for: this section it is simply assumed that such information is
- Ship-Handier’s Ability & Response available.
- Ship Manoeuvrability & Response
C urrent
the first tw o are the most important, fo r the
Cross currents affect a ship’s ability to maintain a course,
tWO can <^ea*t w it^ by suitable aids to navigation
Outside (e.g. buoys) and navigational aids inside the longitudinal currents affect its ability to manoeuvre and
. ; V ^ » ; ( e , g. radar). stop. As w ill be shown, the manoeuvrability of a ship
changes as its depth/ draught ratio approaches unity.As a
5.2,3.2 Environmenlal Factors result, its ability to cope w ith currents will also change as
the water depth reduces.
r f | ^ Wlnd
In some ports, the currents may be to o strong at certain
w’n<^ affect the ship at all speeds, but will have its states o f the tide to allow certain ships to navigate with
^ c t at low ship speeds. It will cause the ship to safety.This may cause their arrivals and sailings to be
o r to UP an angle of leeway, both o f restricted to certain time periods (o r ‘current windows’) in
*|p?'ihcrease the width required fo r manoeuvring. the tidal cycle.This implies times (downtime) fo r which the
pfr w ill the ship be able to maintain a steady course at channel w ill not be available fo r such ships and the decision
 regarding acceptable downtime levels wiil be based mainly w ill depend on ship speed (the higher the speed, the
on economic considerations. greater the bank interaction), bank height and slope, and
depth/draught ratio.A t and early stage in design it is
Collection o f current data is considered in Section 6.2.
probably adequate to cater fo r only the first two.
W aves

Waves will naturally have an effect on channel depth, but, if

MANOEUVRING LANES
the wave fronts move across the channel then they wili
also have an effect on manoeuvring and hence channel
width. Waves can cause transient effects on yaw (‘knocking’
the ship’s head off course) which can be corrected by the
shiphandler, and they can also cause a mean drift in the
direction o f the wave.

Wave scatter tables fo r the area (using local information

obtained as discussed in Section 6.2 o r information in
publications such as Reference 5.3) should be obtained and
a judgement, based on experience, made as to what wave
height and period (length) should be used fo r design.

5.2.3.3 Aids to Navigation

The importance o f aids to navigation lies in the cues they

give to the ship-handler.They w ill usually be visual although
radar reflectors may be used. Electronic means are being
developed in which a combination o f DGPS and electronic
charts may be used.A well-marked channel will require less
w idth than one that is poorly marked. For Concept Design
a judgement must be made regarding the adequacy o f the
available aids to navigation in accordance w ith compulsory P a s s i n g OISTANCS. wp , LARGE ENOUGH 10 REDUCE
S H lP -S H iP iWERACIfOH TO A CONTROLLAQlC VlHlMUU
carriage requirements. Suitable types and positions o f
Figure 5.4 - Passing Distance
channel markers can be determined at the Detailed Design
stage by the use of manoeuvring simulation as discussed in
Sections 6.3 and 6A. Reference 5.5 gives useful information.
5.2.4 Depth Considerations
5.2,3.4 Type of Cargo
It is apparent that depth/draught effects have to be allowed
If the cargo being carried by the Design Ship is hazardous fo r in some considerations of channel width and some o f
in nature, then an additional width allowance is required to
them are considered here. These are:
reduce the risk o f grounding and to ensure that such
vessels are well clear o f other waterway users. Speed/Depth Relationship

5.2.3.5 Passing Distance The hydrodynamic resistance to motion of a ship in

shallow water is governed by the Froude Depth Number
If a two-way channel is proposed then some arrangement Fn[l which is broadly a non-dimensional ratio between
must be made to allow vessels to pass safely. Such a speed and depth. It is defined as:
distance must ensure th a t ship-ship interaction is reduced
to an acceptable minimum and it is usual to allow fo r a F* = V /(.M ) ( I)
central ‘strip’, equal to a multiple o f the beam o f the larger
passing ship, between the overall manoeuvring lanes o f the where: V is the speed through the water in
passing vessel (Figure 5.4). metres/second

h is the undisturbed water depth in metres

The width required fo r passing will also depend on the
traffic density in the tw o lanes - the greater the density, the g is the acceleration due to gravity (about
greater the width required. 9.81 m/sec2).

5.2.3.6 Bank Clearance W hen Fnh approaches o r equals unity, the resistance to
m otion reaches very high values which most displacement
Bank interaction can cause a ship to sheer uncontrollably ships have insufficient power to overcome. In fact such
(Figure 5.5).To avoid this in a channel w ith underwater ships are unlikely to be able to exceed values of 0.6 or
banks it is necessary to allow additional channel width 0.7 (the form er fo r tankers, the latter fo r container ships)
outside the manoeuvring lanes (Figures 5.6 and 5.1 i).This which results in an effective speed barrier.
 and maintain
manoeuvrability.

Squat may be
estimated in many
ways and is discussed
in detail in Section
ONE FLOODED BANK
6.5.2 below. For a
quick firs t estimate,
N V ^ W N N W S X ^ N V ^v \ n s \ s \-V ^ \ \ \ ^ N N \ \ n v v \ N
the ICORELS
expression (Reference
5.4) may be used fo r
■V=vV'v^ '. y '. v ^ss ^ T r 1^ s~r< X W s s S"^ vsr-<r<r^; vv ss <■'vx v v v.'v.-^-<.^vv vv open w ater:
TWO PARALLEL FLOODED BANKS

■ . W W V W V ^ V s S \ \ \ V 'X V s X \ N \ \ W \ \ \ N W

CANAL BANKS

Figure 5.5 - Computed Sheers due to Bank Effects

nfi
Squat (m ) = 2.4- (2)
PP nhl)

SLOPING CHANNEL EDGES AND SHOALS where V ~ volume o f displacement (m3) - Ce.Lpp.B.T
Lpp = length of ship between perpendiculars (m)
B ~ ship beam (m)
T = ship draught (m)
C B = block coefficient
Fnh “ Froude Depth Number
(See also Section 6.S.2.3)

The graphical method o f Figure 5.7 can also be used to give

values o f squat adequate fo r Concept Design.

. STEEP AND HARD EMBANKMENTS AND STRUCTURES A simpler way to allow fo r squat, draught and sounding
. v uncertainties (and also to give a margin fo r safety) is to set a
. -i ; . F/gure 5.6 - Bonk Clearance minimum value on water depth/draught ratio. In many parts
ly^ppnk Clearance Wg to be great enough to reduce o f the world a value o f 1.10 has become accepted although a
Bank Effects to a Controllable Minimum value o f 1.15 can be found.These values are fo r calm water
only and greater values would be necessary if the channel is
subjected to wave action, where figures of 1.3 o r more may
before deciding on the speed with which to carry be used.The closer the ratio is to unity, the more
.........annel width calculations,it is advisable to check directionally stable is the ship and, consequently, die more
sluggish its response. It is usual to allow fo r this by increasing
J|!$jfompatib!e with the depth under consideration.
channel w idth - another occasion when width and depth are
' the limiting Froude Number can be used with a
linked.
w to set a minimum depth lim it)
Tide Height
fes and Depth/Draught Ratio
If the waterway is subjected to tidal action a decision
}$ tendency o f a vessel to sink and trim when may have to be made as to whether it must be usable
eby reducing its underkeel clearance. throughout the tidal cycle. If n o t then a suitable tidal
$ds strongly on speed and is accentuated (and w indow must be chosen bearing in mind the commercial
consequences o f any downtime.The window must be
...^ critical) in shallow water.Therefore it is
compatible w ith depth, speed and squat. Shortening the
^..K that the depth o f the channel is sufficient w indow may require an increase in transit speed,
0 W squat engendered by the necessary resulting in problems o f squat, resistance and additional
Jbship in transit to negotiate the tidal window width allowance.
INSTRUCTIONS

t t H T l f c SH<F SPCCO « KM OTl (p & N T A ')

> £>«AW LINK A B TO t X U A lt C Y AW AW M ATl

V A t( » > < K M H COHTOU* AT B

y DRAW L I H t B C n « F ( N t ) I C U t . A f t TO A D TO 1 H T C A U C T
C O m to u * r o » t o w o * it c a m a p » * O p im a tc t o t k c
A T - M I T I K I U OF T M I M i l * ( fC H H t C )

i, 0 * 0 r P t M IH O H C U tA * C 0 TO IH T C AJC C T A * * K O » A tA T f
* « ► kCMCTN COHTOU ft AT D

I . DA Aw t t x t D E K U P lH O lC U L A A TO C 0 TO CIVC
• O v /ltt* M tlH K A G f t * U C TA C S ( r O IH T t )

CO NVtR SION S
1 MCTAt - J.liOl rttT
i roo; «* O J04« h itri

} to K> 40*0X» 300 *00

_Li V / n ^ i —
J45 » » » t o 100 9 0 0 4 0 0 IO O O fK T

«o« o* srcftN
StKCACC (H
UtVAZ}

Figure 5.7 - Squat Estimation Chart for Full-Bodied Ships

 ■H id k l fnformati°n fo r the area in question should be about 30% - 40%, at a depth/draught ratio o f 1. i 0, to 100% •
Collected* paying particular attention to the way high water 160% in deep w ater (Reference 5.6) o f the beam
■^niay^vove’ along a lengthy waterway. It is usual to set tidal depending on the depth o f water.
^ftidow s so that ships transit an approach channel on a
Therefore the way a ship turns depends very much on the
Arising ride.This may not always be possible and if a ship
depth/draught ratio. This affects both the radius o f turn
navigate a channel on a felling tide, a stepped depth
and the width o f swept track, showing that, at the lowest
•Vprofife may be necessary.
depth/draught ratios the radius will be at its greatest and
Nautical Bottom the additional w idth needed at its smallest (see Figures 5.8
and 5.9). In determining bend radius and width, it is
. it f t h e solid bottom o f the waterway is covered w ith a inadvisable to design bends which require hard-over
^o n -co n so lid a te d , liquid layer o f silt o r mud, a clear rudder angles.This would give no ‘reserve* rudder angle to
. definition o f the depth o f the channel does not exist. In counter wind, wave o r current and would therefore
'.'this case, the concept o f nautical bottom is appropriate compromise safety.
:'v<see Section 6.5.4).

5.2.5 Bends

% ^ m o m e n t it is assumed that the ship navigates

" by tugs and therefore any bend connecting straight
channel must take account o f the ability o f a ship
In calm water with no wind a hard-over turn may
^accom plished by a ship having average-to-good
yt'^biwaHoeuvrability with an initial radius o f about 2.0 to 3.0
^ iff^ ]p ;fe n g th s in deep water, increasing to perhaps 5 o r more
g p l e n g t h s at a depth/draught ratio o f 1.10 (Reference 5.6

WATER O E P M /O R A U G H T RATIO

SI

For Concept Design therefore, it is suggested that turning

radii and swept track w idth o f the design ship at a steady
rudder angle less than hard-over be used as a guide. Often
ship-handlers are happy to use 15% to 20% rudder in a
bend; greater values give to o little margin fo r safety and
r a d iu s (ova? to s t go0 « w » C CHANGE) lesser values (implying a large radius) make turning difficult
“ M 5 « a M IP S£Tvn» PEWEWnftluJlS
due to the length o f the track and the handling problems of
keeping a ship accurately on track in a gentle bend.
50
1 1 ^ - . " f 30
' RUDDER ANGLE ( d e g ) Keeping position in any bend requires that it be well
" fuming Radius as a Function o f marked. In a one-way channel, marks on the inside o f the
’'"' t1- '■■■- Rudder Angle and Water Depth bend are better visual cues and a minimum o f three - one
ipn Single Screw/Single Rudder Container Ship) at the apex and one at entry and exit - are recommended
with, if possible, one marking the outer apex (see Figure
5.1). If more markers are available then gated pairs o f
rJ ^ e^ 1Ps> as it: turns and so sweeps o u t a path buoys at apex entry and exit are recommended. W ith o u t
^ an *ts beam.This excess can vary from proper marking, the ship-handier can become disorientated
k Ss
# § e ■
m tts ti& r /iM '.'i-: - -■1
 in a bend (especially a long one) and so extra width is
required to allow fo r this.

Bends subject to cross currents, winds and waves require W = WBA1+ + (3)
additional width. ' "~ i= !

and fo r a two-way channel by:

5,3 CHANNEL CONCEPT
DESIQN METHOD
w = 2 wbm + 2 + + (4)

5,3.1 Introduction

In this section a Concept Design method fo r approach where, as shown in Figure 5 .11, w Br and w Bg are the bank
channels is introduced. It is meant fo r use in early design clearances on the ‘red’ and ‘green’ sides of the channel,
and trade-off studies. It represents good modern practice Zw Pis passing distance (comprising the sum of a separation
and channels designed to this method should result in an distance based on ship speed and an additional distance
based on traffic density) and the w { are given in Table 5.2.
adequate level o f navigational safety.
The basic manoeuvring width w8M, as a multiple o f the
Although it can be applied to channels w orld-wide, local beam B o f the design ship, is given in Table 5 .1.This basic
conditions may require dimensions o r alignment which manoeuvring width is that required by the design ship to
differ, in part, from those derived from the information sail safely in very favourable environmental and operational
given below. Detailed Design, which would follow conditions (see Figure 5.2).
Concept Design, would address the particular features o f
a given site and is discussed in Chapter 6. Table 5.1
Basic Manoeuvring Lane
The Concept Design method deals w ith the width and
depth o f straight sections and gives guidelines fo r
bends. It is accompanied by some notes and definitions Ship Manoeuvrability good moderate poor
and is followed by a few worked examples to illustrate
its use.
Basic Manoeuvring Lane,WBM f .38 ‘ 1.5B 1.8B

5.3.2 Depth
To the basic manoeuvring lane width w BM are added
additional widths (to allow fo r the effects of wind, current,
Depth is estimated from:
etc.) which gives the manoeuvring lane w M. The additional
at-rest draught of design ship; widths are given in Table 5.2.
• tide height throughout transit o f channel;
• squat (from Figure 5.7, equation (2) or, fo r detailed
discussion, Sections 6.5.2 and 6.5.4);
• wave-induced motion;
• a margin depending on type o f bottom;
• water density and its effect on draught.

All the above values fo r draught, squat, wave action and

margin are additive.

In the absence o f other information minimum values of

k b * it - v
depth/draught ratio should be taken as (.10 in sheltered
waters, 1.3 in waves up to one metre in height and 1.5 in
higher waves with unfavourable periods and directions. )' I 'Z / ( f hr ^
Froude Depth Number, Fnh, must be less than 0.7.
«2. | v a

5.3.3 Width: Straight Sections

The bottom width w of the waterway (Figure 5.1 I), is given

fo r a one-way channel by:
 Table 5.2 - Additional W idths for Straight Channel Sections

^ U ly y iD T H Vessel O uter Channel exposed Inner Channel

Wi Speed to open w ater protected water

'■(knots)
0.1 B 0.1 B
12 o.o 0.0
o.o 0.0
“ -|fng sross wind (knots)
Beaufort 4) all 0.0 0.0
. =>15-33 fast 0.3 B
f i l i i b r t 4 - Beaufort 7) mod 0.4 B 0.4 B
slow 0.5 B 0.5 B
;33 - 48 fast 0.6 B

. 1...
l^ iB ^ iU fb r t 7 - Beaufort 9)
W -''
mod
slow
0.8 B
1.0 B
0.8 B
LOB
Ip la iiiftg cross current (knots)
p iftg fc te < 0.2 all 0.0 0.0
■'*"'0.5 fast 0.1 B
mod 0.2 B 0.1 B
,^ . . V 0 p 1 ^ r slow 0.3 B 0.2 B
f e d e r a t e > 0.5 - 1.5 fast 0.5 B
mod 0.7 B 0.5 B
slow 1.0 B 0.8 B
'|pj$tjpng> 1.5 - 2.0 fast 0.7 B
mod LOB
#&sl\rSvf > — ----------
slow 1.3 B
Pr^ailing longitudinal current (knots)
alf 0.0 0.0
>1.5-3 fast 0.0
flfc - mod 0.1 B 0.1 B
IP .' slow 0.2 B 0.2 B
filin g > 3 fast 0.1 B
"p c mod 0.2 B 0.2 B
slow 0.4 B 0.4 B
wfJP^Wicant wave height H s and
;,v w rtg th X ( m ) ..
ss \ and X £ L all 0.0 0.0

fast >2.0 B
>' - 3 > Hs > I and k - L mod ■1.0 B
slow 0.5 B

fast 3.0 B
- H* > 3 and X > L mod 2.2 B
slow 1.5 B
;!AWs.to N a v ig a tio n
v excellent with shore traffic control o.o 0.0
-good 0.1 B 0.1 B
» moderate with infrequent poor visibility 0.2 B 0.2 B
«-moderate with frequent poor visibility a 0.5 B & 0,5 B
B o tto m surface
? - i f depth a I.5T 0.0 0.0
, - i f depth < I.5T then
■■ « smooth and soft O.i B 0.1 B
* - smooth o r sloping and hard 0.! B 0.1 B
rough and hard 0.2 B 0.2 B
) D e p th o f w a te rw a y
^r.5T 0.0 sl.S T 0.0
i.S T - I.25T 0.1 B < L 5 T -L I5 T 0.2 B
'< *- <K25T 0.2 B < L i 5T 0.4 B
C a rg o hazard ievel
£ low 0.0 0.0
11 f medium ~ 0.5 B - 0.4 B
> }^ rg h ~ LOB ~ 0.8 B
 Table 5.3 ’•AdditionalW idth for Passing Distance
5.3.6 Definitions and Nofef
in Two-Way Traffic
for the Tabled
O u te r Channel In ner Channel
W idth for passing distance,Wp exposed to protected
open w ater w a te r The following definitions apply to the various boxes in
Tables 5.1 to 5.4. W here necessary, some notes for
Vessel speed (knots)
clarification are also given.
- fast > 12 2.0 B
- moderate > 8 - 1 2 (.6 B MB
- slow S - 8 1.2 B 1.0 B 5.3.6.1 Table 5.1 - Ship Manoeuvrabflijjpf,

Encounter traffic density The rational classification of ship manoeuvrability is not r l l

- light 0.0 easy and often a considerable amount o f judgement must f | f
0.0
- moderate 0.2 B 0.2 B be used. In the open ocean a ship which possesses good
- heavy 0.5 B 0.4 B
manoeuvrability is one that is course-stable at its design or
service speed. However the very qualities which make it
course-stable do not help it in rapid manoeuvring or
navigating around tight bends
Table 5.4 - Additional W id th for Bank Clearance which may be thought o f as ‘good
manoeuvrability’ in the
W id th for bank clearance Vessel O u te r Inner
( W 0 ro r W Bg) Speed Channel Channel approaches to a port.
exposed to protected
As mentioned above, the
open w a te r w a te r
manoeuvrability of a ship also
Sloping channel edges and shoals: changes noticeably in shallow
fast 0.7 B water.As depth/draught ratio
moderate 0.5 B 0.5 B reduces to about L3 to i.5,the
slow 0.3 B 0.3 B ship may become slightly less
directionally stable and more
Steep and hard embankments, structures:
‘twitchy’.As the depth/draught
fast i .3 ■sSl
1.0 B
ratio reduces still further the
moderate 1.0 B
slow 0.5 B 0.5 B vessel may become more
directionally stable until, at very
N o te : Referring to the design ship: B = Beam low underkeel clearances
L = Length (depth/draught ratios of 1.05 to
T ~ Draught 1. 10), it turns v
indeed.This improvement in
directional stability (illustrated fo r turning in Figure 5.8) is
5.3.4 Betid Width and Radius an advantage in a straight channel if the ship is not
deflected from its proper course. But if it is, its sluggish
response may give handling problems, and therefore
Bend width and radius can be estimated from the ship
require additional room to manoeuvre.
turning data in Figures 5.8 and 5.9.A mean rudder angle fo r
the bend should be chosen and the appropriate radius and Therefore a general classification of the inherent
w idth read off fo r a given depth/draught ratio. manoeuvrability of ships is difficult, because it depends very
much on context. As a rough guide, the following may be
if, in traffic studies, it becomes apparent that passing on
used:
bend is unavoidable, then a separate, detailed, study w ill be
required fo r each bend so affected. 1. Long slender ships (L/B > 6.5) are more directionally
stable than short fat ones (L/B < 6).The latter will be
Cross wind and current allowances in bends should be able to manoeuvre around tight bends more easily,
made in Detailed Design phase, but as a guide, the width o f
2. In shallow water (h/T £ L5) all ships will turn less
navigable channel in the bend shoufd be no less than that of
readily.
the straight.
3. Low speed manoeuvrability may be quite different from
Additional width is preferably placed on die inside rather that at the service speed fo r which the ship was
than the outside o f the bend. designed.
4. Single screw / single rudder ships will manoeuvre quite
5.3.5 Alignment well, but w ill experience screw bias (an offset due to
lateral movement o f the stern induced by the propeller
Alignment should follow the guidelines given in Section necessitating counter rudder).
5.2.2 above. 5. Ships w ith single controllable-pitch screws may
experience screw bias, even when the propeller pitch is
set fo r low o r zero thrust.

$
 udder ships generally have good Inner and O uter Channel
b ll^ ^ n c i contral a t all speeds.
An O u te r Channel is one exposed to wave action which is
I l^ s ln g le rudder ships may have good such as to produce important vessel motions. Usually these
l^ b iJ ity at service speed, but poor will be o f pitch, heave and roll and w ill be o f a magnitude to
low speeds. reduce underkeel clearance by a significant amount.
^Jf&itjfradequate bow o r other thrusters may
An Inner Channel is one which is not subject to wave
y ^ood low speed manoeuvrability. Ships with
action o f any significance and Is generally sheltered.
' ^ticjoal thrusters w ill generally have excellent
[ jni^ibeuvrability. Box (b) : Prevailing Cross W in d

S.3.6.2 Table 5.2 - Channel, Fairway elc. This should be taken from the wind records appropriate to
the site o f the channel and should be o f the dominant one
ity /a f are defined in Figure 5 .10. In many hour mean value.
impels the aids to navigation will be close to
As mentioned above, the behaviour o f a ship in wind
e channel to indicate the limits of safe depends very much on its windage.Therefore, if a channel
It. dn those with a range o f traffic, the fairway is used frequently by high-sided vessels, it would be
positioned to allow the passage o f smaller advisable, fo r Concept Design, to classify them as having
^ f p ^ . s l d e o f the dredged channel. In yet other
‘poor manoeuvrability’ in Table 5.1.
j&%e';deep water channel and the outer lanes fo r
•{nay be marked. Box (c) and (d) : Current

This is taken from the actual o r predicted current

records fo r the channel site. If the current varies along
a long channel, it may be necessary to carry out width
calculations at various key points along its length.

Although cross current magnitudes o f up to 2.0 knots

are shown in theTaljIe, it is best to align the channel, if
at all possible, to avoid such high cross-current
velocities. O n occasions high cross currents over a
sh o rt section o f the channel may be unavoidable, and in
such circumstances the ship may have to pass through
them as rapidly as possible to avoid deviating from its
course. However, as a simple rule, cross currents
greater than ! .5 knots across significant lengths o f the
channel should be avoided by re-alignment if possible.

Box ( e ) :Waves

This section gives rough indications only and should be

used w ith a degree o f judgement. Scatter tables will give
the most likely significant wave heights
(Hs) and periods (Tw) fo r the area.The
general relationship between wave length
X and wave period Tw in water o f
depth h is:

X — tanh ( 2 n h / X) (5)

In shallow water as h —> 0 equation (5)

becomes

(6)

while in deep water, as h - * °° equation

(5) assumes the form

X = g T \ / (2tc) ( 7)
 Wave height and length are not related in a simple manner It should be noted that in box (i) approximate values are
(hence the use o f scatter tables) and so some judgement given.This is because cargo hazard and its effect on the
local area will vary from place to place and often a rational
must be used w ith regard to the height/length
judgement o f the overall hazard must be made once all
combinations used in this section. issues have been considered (Reference 5.8). On the other
hand recent progress in legislation to increase the safety o f
Also care should be taken to take account o f whether the
marine traffic in fairways should be taken into account.
waves are heading, beam o r foiiowing.The first and last
affect the encounter period (and hence pitch and heave) 53.6.3 Table 5.3 - Passing Distance
while beam seas mainly excite roll and heave.Alf reduce
underkeel clearance. In this section the beam o f the largest passing ship should
be used whether o r not it is the design ship. The values
Box (g) : Bottom Surface given assume that passing occurs only due to two-way
traffic, resulting in head-on passing. When overtaking at a
Smooth and soft seabed materials include silt and mud, fo r low relative velocity, there is more chance o f interaction
which the concept o f nautical bottom is appropriate (see affecting either ship and so the passing distance should be
Section 6.5.4). Silt and mud can impede both the increased by 50%.
manoeuvrability and propulsion o f a ship. Encounter traffic density is defined as in Table 5.6, where
the vessels considered exclude small craft such as pleasure
The effect o f bottom surface is only o f importance in
and fishing vessels.
shallow waterways. If the water depth is more than 1.5
times the draught o f the design ship, no additional width is
needed. Table 5.6
Box (h) : Depth of W aterway C a te g o ry T ra ffic d e n s ity (vessels/hour)

This should be checked against speed (Froude Depth Light 0 - 1.0

Number limit) and minimum depth/draught ratio (see Moderate > 1.0 -3.0
Heavy > 3 .0
Section 5.2.4 above). The additional width at low
underkeel clearance (for which directional stability is
improved) recognises the sluggish response that this S.3.6.4 Table 5.4 - Bank Clearance
implies should the ship be deflected o ff course fo r any
reason. Bank clearance is defined in Figure 5.6 for the tw o main
types o f bank given in Table 5.4. It is defined so that a ship,
Box (i) : Cargo Hazard when close to the edge of its manoeuvring lane, will
experience bank effects which are at a controllable
Cargo hazard is defined in terms o f its: minimum.

* toxicity 5.3.G.5 Berthing and Swinging Areas f

► explosive potential
* pollution potential Berthing and swinging areas are usually sized according to
* combustion potential the manoeuvres to be carried out. If these (as they often
* corrosive potential. do) involve swinging the ship through 180%, then the ‘■'4
swinging area is sized as a circle having a diameter of
Hazard classifications fo r cargo are given in reference 5.7 between 1.8 and 2.0 times the length o f the ship.
and Table 5.5 gives a brief summary to indicate those o f More accurate assessments o f the swinging and berthing
low, medium and high risk. area may be made at the Detailed Design stage when
manoeuvring simulation is used as described in Section 6.6 j
below.

Table 5.5

C a te g o ry C argo i.4 WORKED EXAMPLES:,

Low D ry bulk, break bulk, containers,
passengers, general freight, trailer freight In this section worked examples are given to illustrate the |
use o f the data given in the Tables. Although having no .||
Medium O il in bulk
connection with any existing channel, they are
High Aviation spirit, LPG, LNG, chemicals o f ail representative o f the approach which may have to be take>|
classes in Concept Design and illustrate a number o f points. .|
*
' Although the working is shown in full, the method lends Ship Manoeuvrability
Itself well to use on a computer. A FORTRAN program has
iri fact been w ritten fo r this purpose and was used to Laden single screw bulk carriers handle reasonably well at
cross-check the examples given below. low speeds compared to, say, twin screw/single rudder
container ships. However there will be variations and it is
£x<?mp/e / : Straight One-W ay Channel prudent initially to assign ‘moderate’ manoeuvrability to
such a vessel. Therefore we have, from Table 5 .1:
: A straight one-way outer approach channel 10 nautical miles
■Tong is to be provided for laden single screw ore carriers up to Basic Manoeuvring Lane — 1.5 B ..
the following maximum size:
Vessel Speed
./ Length overall Sc 0 3 15 metres
Length between perpendiculars 300 metres Speed, depth and tide are linked and, as depth has not at
Beam u 0 50 metres this stage been determined, we choose an initial speed,
Laden Draught ( ^ 20 metres bearing in mind that it may have to be changed later.

■iT/ie prevailing wind reaches a maximum value o f 25. knots A speed o f 10 knots is chosen which means th a t the ship
{across the channel.Waves are small with a significant height less w ill take I hour to transit the channel. From the tidal
ithan a metre and prevail over the whole length o f the channel, inform ation this means that if the vessel starts the
channel transit at high water, the w ater level w ill have
'■■{The channel will be marked by gated pairs o f buoys spaced dropped by 0.3 metre by the time it reaches the end (see
jjpne nautical mile apart and visibility is generally good. The Figure 5 .12). For the moment it is assumed that this is
Ijfcfjannel is dedicated to ore carriers, and aids to navigation are acceptable.
:moderate.
I i
Addition for speed (Table 5.2, box (a)) 0.0 B
[The channel is to be dredged thrqugh a smooth, soft, flat plain
iwhose overall depth is about 12 pietres below chart datum.The- Channel Depth i. '/■
jtidal cycle is semi-diurnal with cosinusoidal characteristic having
high water o f 5 metres and a low o f 0.5 metres above chart As the draught o f the ship exceeds the maximum water
depth available ( 12.0 + 5.0 “ 17 metres) at high water, a
;fdatum (see Figure 5.12). Currents are due solely to tidal
dredged channel is required. For a minimum depth/draught
’ /streams, ore directed at 45° to the channel axis and have the
ratio o f 1. 10 a water depth at high water of 1. 10 x 20 = 22
’■uvelocity magnitudes shown in Figure 5.12.
metres is needed giving a channel
dredged depth o f 22 - 17 = 5
metres below the sea bed plain.

Speed check:
Fnh ~ 10 x 0.515/^ (g x 22) = 0.35
- acceptable

Squat check:
from Figure 5.6, bow
squat - 0.72 metres

A reduction in underkeel
clearance due to squat o f 0.72
metres gives 2.0 - 0.72 = 1.28
metres at high water and 2.0 - 0.3
- 0.72 = 0.98 metres one hour
either side o f high water.This
latter value is a little to o small fo r
safety and it would seem prudent
to increase the channel dredged
depth to give a depth/draught
ratio o f 1. 15. This gives:

W ater depth 23 metres at H W

Dredged channel depth 6 metres below plain
Froude Depth Number 0.34
Squat at bow 0.7 metres
Underkeel clearance - H W 2.3 metres
Underkeel clearance - H W + 1 hour 2.0 metres
 These values are all judged to be acceptable. beneath the sea bed the allowance o f the bottom surface
(Table 5.2, box (g)) is:
it may be noted that the channel would have insufficient
depth fo r the design ship at about H W ± 3 hours at which Addition for Bottom Surface 0. i B J
time the current velocity would be at its maximum value.
W id th Addition : Depth of W aterway J
Safe working would generally be restricted to H W ± 1
hour fo r which currents are small and depth is adequate. The depth/draught ratio is 1.15 which is less than 1.25 so, •I
from Table 5.2, box (h):
This will have implications fo r the number of ships of this
type which can be accepted on a given ttde.This would Addition for W aterway Depth 0.2 B a
have to be compared w ith the required traffic flow and
adjustments made to channel depth as necessary. For W id th Addition : Cargo Hazard Level
example, operation throughout the whole tidal cycle,
As ore constitutes a low level o f hazard, it is apparent from
would require the dredged depth to be increased to 10.5
Table 5.2, box (i), that: •' 1
metres below the surrounding seabed plane. In addition,
because the full half-tide current would be encountered, Addition for Cargo Hazard 0.0 B
additional channel w idth would be required (seeTable 5.2,
boxes (c) and (d)). Bank Clearance

There are therefore considerable dredging savings to be The channel will be dredged in a sea bed already under 12
metres o f water. It will therefore have sloping edges and
made by operating the channel around high water only. If
this is unacceptable from a commercial point of view, then shoals so, from Table 5.4:
the commercial advantage to be gained from full-tide Aliowance for Bank Clearance 0.5 B
working should be balanced against the increased dredging
cost. This is applied on both sides of the channel.

For the present design, it is assumed in what follows that Summary

operation around high water is the only acceptable option.
The channel as designed can be used fo r a window which
1
W id th Addition : Cross W ind

The maximum prevailing cross wind of 25 knots gives, fo r

extends one hour either side o f high water and requires a
transit speed of 10 knots.lt is dredged in the surrounding
seabed plain with banks 6 metres high.
m l

P,
£
the moderate speed o f 10 knots through the water, an
addition to the basic lane o f 0.4 B (Table 5,2, box (b)). Its navigable width is given by:
I
Addition for cross wind 0.4 B

W idth A ddition; Current

Basic Manoeuvring lane
The maximum cross current to.be encountered will be Addition fo r speed
one hour before o r after high water. Reference to Figure Addition fo r cross wind
5.12 shows the current velocity to be 1.5 knots at this Addition fo r cross current
time, with a cross-current magnitude of 1.5 sin 45° =1.1 Addition fo r longitudinal current
knots. From Table 5.2, box (c): Addition fo r waves
Addition fo r aids to navigation
Addition for cross current 0.7 B
Addition fo r bottom surface
Longitudinal current has the same velocity so that: Addition fo r waterway depth
Addition fo r cargo hazard
Addition for longitudinal current 0.0 B Bank clearance
W id th A ddition: Waves

Waves are less than 1.0 metre in height so:

Addition for waves 0.0 B w m

This gives a w idth requirement of 4.1 x 50 ~ 205 metreS/
W idth Addition :Aids to Navigation
Example 2 :Two Straight Legs Joined by a Bend /" vi
Aids to navigation are moderate and from Table 5.2, box (f),
this would mean an addition o f 0.2 B: The straight channel leg o f Example I is to be joined to
another leg 5 nautical miles in length, aligned at 45 to it,
Addition for Aids to Navigation 0.2 B by a bend. Estimate the radius o f the bend and the channel
width in the curved portion. Determine the width o f the
W idth Addition : Bottom Surface
second straight channel leg. Dredged depths, sea bed depths
The plain through which the channel is dredged is smooth and transit speeds remain the same as those determined in
and soft. Assuming surveys indicate no hard material Example I.
 "Hie schematic fo r the channel is shown in Figure 5 .13 from implies a drop in water level by 0.8 metres rather than the
'which it is seen that the second leg o f the channel 0.3 o f Example I.
experiences the tidal stream at right angles to its axis.The
t prevailing wind, which was 25 knots across the first leg, is
Depth
now at an angle to the second leg. Both imply that the As the dredged depth is to remain the same as in Example
' wUtth o f the second leg may differ from that o f the first. 1, the minimum water depth encountered w ill be 23 - 0.8
= 22.2 metres, giving a depth/draught ratio o f 1. 11 and a
Froude Depth Number of 0.349.The underkeel clearance
at H W + 1.6 will be (assuming squat to be 0 .7 1 metres at
the bow) 23 - 20 - 0.8 - 0 .71 = i .49 metres.This is low,
and while it might be just acceptable in some instances, it
would clearly be preferable to transit in the H W ± 0.8
hour window if possible.

W id th Additions : Second Channel Leg

The second channel leg, having a different orientation to

the prevailing wind and current, will have different width
additions. These are calculated as in Example 1 and are
summarised as:

Basic Manoeuvring lane

A ddition fo r speed
A ddition fo r cross wind y
~ -
Addition fo r cross current (@ H W f 1.6) ;
Addition fo r longitudinal current
Addition fo r waves
Addition fo r aids to navigation
Addition fo r bottom surface
A ddition fo r waterway depth
A ddition fo r cargo hazard
Bank clearance

This gives a width requirement of 4.4 x SO.O = 220

metres, indicating a slight widening o f the channel in the
second leg.The additional width is so small however (7%)
that it would probably be wiser to set the navigable width
# 5 .1 3 - Schematic and Bend Design for Example 2 fo r the whole channel at 220 metres.

Bend W id th and Radius.

6<ond leg is 5 nautical miles in length and this, The bend w ill require a 45° change o f heading and a mean
W with the length o f the bend, may require some rudder angle o f 20° w ill be used. Figures 5.8 and 5.9 thus
it to transit speed if sufficient water is to be give the following values fo r width of swept track and turn
|id after transit o f the channel and dredged depths radius at 10 knots, a depth/draught ratio o f 1.15 and a
tjto be increased. mean rudder angle o f 20°.

W idth o f Swept Track ?? 1.26 K26 x 50 - 63 metres

Radius o f Turn - 6.8 . L p p ~ ‘6.8 x 300 = 2040 metres
^ transit speed o f 10 knots is maintained, the ship
^ ^ours to transit the channel, assuming The prevailing wind will tend to help the turn (because an
r bend to be about one nautical mile. This ore carrier, having its accommodation aft w ill tend to try to
I vessel should have enough water to pass turn into the wind) so no additional width is added fo r
p ^ p n e l if it starts at H W - 0.8. if, however, it wind. Allowances fo r current, aids to navigation, bank
transit at H W on a falling tide (o r at H W clearance, etc. remain as fo r the straight legs, it being
ft have a minimum height of tide assumed that bank rejection would not be used by pilots to
l^ m e tr e s to contend w ith (Figure 5 .12).This aid turning as is sometimes the case in inland waterways
f£gC
m b **
and ship canals.
 This gives the following values fo r bend width Table 5.7
and radius:
Ship 58
Bend width : 3.36B 168 metres required W idth Allowance for:
width ( Panamax Container lnc T ^ ’
Manoeuvrability 2 x 1.5 B 2 x 1.8 B 2 x T ilP 5
Bend radius : 2040 metres.
Speed 2 x 0 .0 2 x 0 .0 2 x 0.0
As the required width in the bend is less than Cross wind 2 x 0.4 B 2 x 0.4 B 2 x 0.4 B
the 220 metres allowed fo r the straight legs, the Cross current 2 x 0 .0 2 x 0 .0 2 x 0 .0
width in the bend w ill be set to 220 metres. Longitudinal current 2 x 0 .0 2 x 0 .0 2 x0 .0
Waves 2 x 0 .0 2 x 0 .0 2 x 0 .0 '
Example 3 : M ultiple Choice Design Ship Aids to navigation 2x 0. 1 B 2x 0. 1 B 2x0. 1 B <
Bottom surface 2x 0. 1 B 2x0. 1 B 2x0. 1 B
A straight approach outer channel is required for Depth 2 x 0.2 B 2 x 0.2 B 2x 0. 0
two-way operation involving mixed traffic.Typical ship Cargo hazard 2 x 0.6 B 2x0.0 2 x L5B \
types to use the channel arc: Passing distance (fight traffic) 1.6 B 1.6 B 1.6 S H
Bank clearance 2 x 0;5 B 2 x 0.5 B 2 x 0,5 B « 1
Panamax Oil Tanker: length 250 m, beam 32.25 m,
draught 13 m Totals 8.4 B 7.8 B 10.4 B 1 \
ContainerVessel: length 280 m, beam 32.25 m,
draught 12 m
LNG Carrier ; length 180 m, beam 30 m, draught 8 m. 5.5 D M A O N EXISTINf
Transit speed is to be 10 knots and cross currents are to be APPROACH CHANNEL^
assumed to be low during the transit Longitudinal currents are
about I knot, and cross winds o f up to 25 knots must not
disrupt transits. The terms o f reference of the Working Group required a I

Wa/es are negligible and aids to navigation are good.The questionnaire to be distributed to Port Authorities H
bottom surface is smooth and soft and the channel is to be worldwide.This was to elicit information on the width of
dredged in a flat seabed plain with a mean depth o f 8 metres, existing approach channels and the basis of their design.
Traffic density is about 1.0 vessels/hour. The aim was to obtain a compendium of information on
The problem here lies mainly with the choice of design approach channels which would not only be of interest of m
ship.The container ship is the largest, and the Panamax the itself, but would also provide useful data against which to
deepest, but the LNG carrier has the most hazardous compare predictions made using the guidelines given in
cargo. Furthermore, the inherent manoeuvrability of the Section 5.3.
Panamax vessel wiil be moderate to good, that of the HI
container ship at low speed and in a strong cross wind Accordingly a questionnaire was developed by the W o rk in g ^
moderate to poor and that o f the LNG ship in a cross Group and forwarded to the Port Authorities worldwide
wind could be poor. It is therefore necessary to carry out a
by the Secretary o f lAPH.After an initial response, a
preliminary design exercise with all three vessels to find
which determines the channel dimensions. follow-up questionnaire was produced to provide
additional information and clarification of replies from the
To simplify matters it is assumed that the channel depth is
earlier response. A fte r this process was complete, data
set at 1.10 times the draught o f the deepest-draughted
vessel (the Panamax) to give a water depth of 14,3 metres. from 45 ports was available fo r reliable comparisons to be
made between existing channel widths and those
W idth allowances are summarised in Table 5.7.
computed using Tables 5.1 to 5.6.
Using the beam widths of the three vessels, the following ii
widths emerge: The results are presented in Appendix A together with a
critical discussion o f the comparison between calculation |
W idth f o r : Panamax 8.4 x 32.25 = 271 m
and actuality. In general, the comparison between the
Container Ship 7.8 x 32.25 = 251 m
dimensions derived using the Concept Design Guidelines ;|
LNG C arrier 10.4 x 30 = 3 12 m
and the dimensions o f the actual channels showed a good^i
From this it is apparent that the channel width fo r the correlation, having regard to the range of local conditions Jp
LNG vessel should be suitable fo r the other two.Therefore
which have to be taken into account when estimating
the smallest ship o f the three should be taken as the design
vessel due to the hazardous nature o f its cargo combined channel w idth. However, it must be borne in mind that
with its poor manoeuvrability. However, channel depth the Concept Design guidelines are general rather than
would be determined by the deep draught o f the oil tanker. particular. Each new channel is unique and requires the
general estimates from Concept Design to be followed
by th e particular requirements to be studied by D e ta ile d

Design.
'II
 Other detailed design aspects involve die number, type and
6. DETAILED DESIQN positioning o f navigational aids, consideration o f detailed
navigational aspects (such as navigation through bridges) o r
localised channel problems for which the recommended width
requirements cannot be satisfied, and die channel cannot be re­
aligned. Examples of the former occur in many parts of Europe,
while a notable example of the latter case occurs in the
6.1 QENERALapproach to Helsinki described in Reference 6.1.
METHODOLOQY
In this section the Detailed Design process is outlined.The
basic methodology involves the use o f computer models
W hile the Concept Design method can be used to arrive whose type, purpose and working are simply outlined, but
rapidly at a candidate channel design, it is frequently their use is discussed in more detail. Consideration o f
necessary to carry out a more detailed assessment o f this. marine risk follows naturally from this and the
The purpose o f this may simply be to provide additional incorporation o f risk into design is discussed in Chapter 7.
information to satisfy the client, his representatives and the In this section the Detailed Design o f channel width, depth
mariners who have to use the channel that it is in fact and alignment is considered using techniques which
satisfactory, o r it may be to provide fu rth e r input to the
represent good present-day practice.As in Concept
design. Design, width, depth and alignment are considered
separately although, as already pointed out (and as will
become obvious) they are all interlinked.The
basic design methodology is shown
diagrammatically in Figure 6 .1.

6.2 ASSESSMENT OF
THE ENVIRONMENT

6.2.1 Cjeneral

W hile detailed civil engineering aspects o f

approach channel construction are beyond
the scope o f this report, it is im portant to
obtain as much information as possible
about the environment in which the channel
will be placed so that its width, depth and
alignment may be determined properly. In
addition, it is o f vital importance that the
effects o f the channel, swinging areas and
jetty/berth on the environment be
accurately assessed as the design progresses.

In some cases only sparse information may

be available and it is with this that key
decisions relating to the channel design may
have to be made. A design originally based
on sparse environmental data is, o f necessity,
based on extrapolation o f existing
knowledge and the use o f assumed
frequencies o f occurrence o f environmental
effects.A good designer tends to be
conservative when the environmental
situation is n o t fully known to him and he is
therefore forced to make assumptions. His
original design can therefore be refined, and,
possibly, savings effected, if the environment
is subject to continuous monitoring. '
This process involves both the collection, analysis and Seabed Bathymetry
Interpretation o f existing data and the prediction o f the
Bathymetry will clearly be changed by the presence of a
changes in this picture brought about by the proposed
channel and/or swinging area. However, it is o f some
design.These predictions w ill have an im portant bearing
importance to know how the channel bathymetry itself will
on the design itself and also on the behaviour o f ships
change over time by siltation, both natural and ship-
which have to operate in the existing, o r modified,
induced (Reference 6.3).
environment.

The techniques fo r the collection and analysis of this data 6.2.3 Field Data Collecti
are indicated briefly, as are the various methods to predict Techniques, Analysis and Prediction
changes which may occur as a result o f the proposed
design.
A new approach channel, swinging area, berths and their
associated infrastructure may have an effect on the
6.2.2 Environmental Data environmental conditions.As the design ship must operate
in such conditions, it is im portant that accurate and reliable
predictions be made using data collected at the site
For a channel and swinging area design, information is
combined w ith prediction models.
required for:
wind In order to collect environmental data on site, the
• waves techniques listed below are commonly used:
• currents and tidal streams W ind
• tide cycles and elevations
• seabed bathymetry Conventional wind anemometers measure wind strength
seabed geotechnics and direction. Ideally wind data over one o r a number of
• siltation years should be collected so that long-term statistics are
• salt water/fresh water effects available. Moreover, various time-averaged data (over one,
» visibility. three o r more minutes o r hours) should be available so
that some impression o f mean wind speeds and gusts can
O f these, the following are most likely to be directly be obtained.
affected by the channel design.
Al! velocities should be corrected to 10 metres height
Waves above sea level and any changes in velocity and direction
(due, perhaps, to local topographical features) should be
The provision o f a lengthy channel may cause changes in determined.
local wave height and direction (Reference 6.2) because
wave fronts generally tend to refract and move along a Results can be obtained from stations mounted on land
flooded channel. For a channel whose banks are (or (nearby airports o r airstrips, can often provide long-term
become at certain states o f the tide) exposed, waves which statistics in the absence o f other data) or, less accurately,
affect ships will be uni-directional and may be wind-driven, from ship observations made in the vicinity. Results can be
solitary waves o r surges. presented most conveniently as wind roses (Figure 6.2) or
as statistical tables (Figure 6.3).
Tide Cycles and Elevation
Steady mean wind speeds and gust spectra are required.
In a long channel, dredged through an estuary with an The steady mean wind speed should be that appropriate to
adjacent tidal river, it is possible that the tidal cycles and the manoeuvre in question. For example if breasting into a
elevations may be changed by the increased velocities o f berth takes 30 minutes, then the half-hourly mean wind
the high and low w ater peaks together with a reduction in speed should be used. For channel design, a one-hourly
low water and increase o f high water levels.To predict mean wind speed is appropriate.
these changes, mathematical models o f the area involved
Although numerical models (using, fo r example,
are necessary in order to compare conditions “ w ith” and Computational Fluid Dynamics - CFD - techniques) can be
“ w itho u t" the new o r improved channel. used to predict the wind environment, physical models
Currents and Tidal Streams using wind tunnels probably give the most reliable and
detailed predictions. Sheltering effects, so important to
W here a channel is oblique to the currents over the some ship-handling and berthing manoeuvres, can be
shallows to its sides, the current crossing the channel is determined and localised wind shifts (due to new harbour
locally inclined towards the direction of the channel and buildings o r nearby land masses, fo r example) can be
the current speed may increase o r decrease.The changes predicted.
in direction and speed of the currents depend primarily on
Waves
the orientation o f the current relative to the channel and
the depth and w idth o f the channel in relation to the water Significant wave height Hs and a wave spectrum will be
depth over the shallows.Where currents may be of required. Wave scatter tables give a useful source of heigh*
concern, specialist advice should be sought. and period, but fo r most ship simulation w ork a wave
 If measured local wave spectra are
20 30 not available, then approximations
_J__ may be made by using one o f the
PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY
following:

2 -5 2 13 - JO 31 - 51 >51 K m /h
• Pierson-Moskowitz (for deep
0. 5 - 3.0 3.5 - 8.0 8.5- K.O >K.O m/s water)
1-2 3- £ 5-6 >6 Beoufort • Darbyshire (for coastal waters)
fore*
• JONSWAP (with suitable tuning
factor fo r local conditions)
• Bretschneider.

Information on these and other

spectra can be found in References
6.4 and 6.5.

Wave data is normally collected by:

• wave buoys
• bottom-mounted pressure
transducers
• shore-based radar
• wave probes
• satellite-based systems
Figure 6,2 - Typical Wind Rose

These devices provide information on wave height and

period, but wave direction is produced by the radar and
0D8 HO. LOCATION:
wave buoy methods only.The form er does this by the
> ■
SPEED-0IRECTION PERCENTAGE OCCURRENCE HATRIX
wim*v'-ikBsp Mt*••aa»mitviiiw-Av,- visual display while the latter does it using an array of wave
r’ tATlTUOE i IONGITUOE :
,5l£V AK&: 10.0
10.0 H.H. ELEV ACLi iS.fl M. buoys.
PERIOD; 1 . 9 .8 0 - 3 0 . 9 .8 0
Wave data should be collected fo r as long a period as
WIND SPEED IM/S) possible so that adequate statistics (and estimates fo r
}ry- . 0.1 2.1 4.1 6.1 8 .2 10.1 12.1 14.1 TOTALS maximum values) can be obtained. Global wave statistics
TO TO TO TO TO TO TO AMD
2.0 4.a G.B 8.0 10.0 52,0 14.0 OVER are available from satellite observations o r data collections
a 1.2 1.1 .1 .4 2.9 such as those in References 6.4 and 6.5. However, these
ilE l. l 5.4 4.0 .1 10.7 tend to be fo r offshore sea areas where information is
&• •
e -.7 6.5 3.9 .3 .1 •LAt5. often not sufficiently detailed fo r approach channel design
SE .8 4.9 3. S 2.2 .1 11.5 w ork. O utput from such systems comes in the form of
CA
.s 1.2 2.8 2.1 1.7 1.8 .6 10.1 scatter diagrams (Figure 6.4), exceedence curves, or
..<•
v';«; • ku 3.6 4.0 3.7 3.9 3.1 3.7 1.2 24.3 forecasting curves. An example o f the last fo r a JONSWAP
u .6 3.5 .4 1.1 2.9 5.3 1.7 .4 15.8 spectrum is shown in Figure 6.5.
,»w .3 1.7 1.7 2.9 2.6 3.5 .4 13.1 Wave models must be able to predict the effect on wave
■Ic^STAlS 4.4 20.1 Z1.4 12.6 11.8 13.6 6.4 1.7 climate o f the channel, swinging area, etc. and should also
*, <3CCUtoCTC£ OF CALMS .SX be able to deal w ith wave reflections from reclamations,
berthing faces, etc. In many ports wave action should be
^;<&W'1?TICal summary
comparatively insignificant fo r the larger ships, but may still
be significant fo r service vessels such as tugs and mooring
MAX S.O. boats.The wave model should therefore be able to deal
e.s U.s 5.1
1.6 12.8 4.5 n o t only with changes to the larger waves in the measured
WtBQ 6.S 16.3 3.5
spectrum, but also to the smaller waves.
|g|orgv •
Numerical wave models are o f the following type:
’M SPFFn?T »« OCCURRENCE IS < 0 .0 S X
i ' p s s f c n o * K 2 K S , . * '1 T0 z -s i m p l i e s s . s < s <>= z . B . t t c
* wave spectral formulations
J y
- 0A7A SAHPv? iN teD?,?.*S , ° EG E I ™ ER SIDE OF SPECIFIED DIRECTION
< f r . « i COH» t l IH 7 ERVA1- *S fi£r MINUTES
W IS ♦ VE EAST, V - COHP IS +'V E NORTH * wave hind-cast models
ft,, r- - f
♦ wave climate
• wave refraction and diffraction models
figure 6.3 - Typical Wind Statistics ♦ ray and finite difference models fo r transformation
modes of waves as they approach and enter a harbour
from deeper water.
im will be needed.The period given in the wave
tables should therefore be defined and properly In addition to mathematical models, it may well be
feted before it can be used with a spectrum. necessary (or indeed essential) to use a physical harbour
 draught) o f the design ship are
required. If spatial variations in
current are great, then values at
bow and stern (at least) must be
found. Usually a vector plot over
the area in question is
satisfactory, with a grid spacing as
close as practicable, and about
one third to one half of the
design ship length in regions
where currents vary rapidly.

An alternative to the vector plot

type o f presentation is a disk
containing current vector data on
spatial and temporal bases,
provided these are compatible
w ith the manoeuvring simulator
input data requirements.

Figure 6.4 - Wave Scatter Diagram

2 3 U 5 6 7 a 9 10 20 30 W 50 60 70 00 100 1000

---------------------- Significant height (m) Fetch length (km )

- --- ---------------min. duration |h)

~ ---------------- period at which peak occurs in JONSWAP spectrum (s)

Significant wave height and peal< period fo r wave spectra

Figure 6.5 - Wave Height Estimator

wave model to determine the wave climate o f any new Currents and tidal streams are measured using current
developments. The model w iil be calibrated by the field meters o f the following types:
measurements of the existing situation.
• Acoustic Doppler C urrent Profiler (ADCP)
Currents and Tidal Streams • Acoustic Doppler C urrent M eter (ADCM)
• Direct Reading C urrent M eter (DRCM)
C urrent velocities and directions (from tidal streams and Recording C urrent M eter (RCM)
other currents) at half draught (or averaged over the • OSCR - Radar-Based C urrent Meter
 ». Float Tracking In the absence o f any other information, Admiralty Tidal
• Log Ship Observations. Stream maps can be used.

Current velocities and directions should be measured through Tidal Elevations

the water column to give an indication o f the current vectors
acting on the design ship. Ideal!/, integrated mean values over Tide gauges will already be in place in an existing p o rt and
the d r a u g h t of the vessel should be used, but values obtained at its approach so that daily, monthly and annual data should
h a lf-d ra u g h t will be an adequate alternative.
be available on tidal elevations. Information should be
obtained from as many locations as possible because the
Current information should be collected over at least a high w a te r‘wave’ will take time to travel from place to place
month to determine both the tidal variation and any and this w ill affect depth determination on a long channel.
residual currents (due to wind, w ater density variations o r
other effects) w ith adequate accuracy. In the absence of existing tide gauges, ultrasonic gauges,
bottom-mounted pressure gauges o r wave probes can be
Longer periods of time may need to be allowed for used to measure the underlying changes in tidal elevation.
collection, but it should be remembered that no prediction Measurements should be carried o u t fo r an adequate time
can take place until all existing tidal stream and current period which should be no less than a month and, ideally,
data is collected and analysed. about 12 months.

Prediction o f currents in the p o rt and at the approach Tidai elevations, which vary with time and position, are best
channel is crucial to any channel design. Measurements o f represented on a grid over the area in question.Altematively
the existing situation will allow a numerical o r physical the temporal tidal cycle may be given and assumed to vary
water movement model to be calibrated and developed. over the whole area of the channel.The tidal cycle may then
Once developed, it can be used to predict changes to simply be digitised and used as input to Detailed Design.
water movements due to the presence o f the channel,
swinging area and new p o rt structure. Further Prediction o f tidal height variation w ith time follows
confirmation of this model can be obtained once standard practice, as described, fo r example, in Reference
construction is complete after which the model can form 6.6. However, the possible effect o f channel design on tidal
the basis of a Digital Tidal Atlas (DTA) to be used in future heights and cycles, as mentioned in Section 6.2.2 must be
port operations (Figure 6.6). taken into account.

Seabed Bathymetry

W ater depths below a recognised

datum are measured using
conventional surveying
techniques. The datum may be:
• chart datum
• principal datum
• a local datum.

Care should be taken to ensure

that all water depth and tidal
height measurements are to a
common datum, this being
especially im portant when water
depths are being taken from a
nautical chart and tide elevations
from local measurements.

The definition o f water depth in

muddy areas is discussed in more
detail in Section 6.5.4 below and
Appendix D where measurement
and interpretation techniques in
such areas are discussed.

Figure 6.6 - Typical Tidal Atlas Output Pre- and post-dredge water
depth measurements w ill have
Numerical water flow models treat the w ater column as certain levels o f accuracy
one or more ‘layers’ o f fluid, the flow equations being solved attached to them and these may be improved by the
numerically to satisfy known, measured, boundary strategic placing of tide gauges in the area. Care should be
conditions.The boundaries should be remote from the area taken when interpreting post-dredge depth measurements
of interest so that no flow distortion can occur and suitable to ensure that the design depth has been properly m e t In
allowances should be made fo r changes in seabed contours. complex cases a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) may be
necessary to determine the seabed topography.
 W ater depths are best presented on a chart o r soundings and deposition patterns in certain areas w ith moderate
plot. They may then be digitised, on a grid basis, fo r use in accuracy.
Detailed Design, usually after interpretation and
simplification. Use o f a complete set o f soundings in ship Different models are used fo r cohesive and non-cohesive
manoeuvring simulation is generally not practicable (and sediments.
too expensive in term s o f computer time) so that Salt/Fresh W a te r Effects
simplifications must be introduced.
In some p o rt locations, fresh water from a river may
Seabed Geotechnics discharge into the salt water o f the p o rtT h is may cause a
The data required fo r design will consist o f bottom type, salt/fresh w a te r‘wedge’ to pass through the area with
angles of repose fo r bank material, etc. Bank slopes have an associated effects on ship behaviour. N o t only will the
effect on ship behaviour as well as bank proximity. manoeuvring behaviour o f the ship be affected, but so also
w ill its draught due to the changes in water density.
The geotechnical properties of the seabed materia! will be Draught increases roughly in the ratio p seawater/p where
measured using conventional techniques.The importance p is the density o f the fresh o r brackish water. Density
o f such measurements lies not only in their inherent value varies with water temperature as indicated in Figure 6.7.
for the determination o f dredging methods and
costs, seabed stability, etc., but also in determining
the margin to be left when computing the correct
depth to ensure safe passage fo r the design ship.

The techniques used to determine seabed

geotechnics are:
* borehole sampling
* sidescan sonar
ultrasonic sensors (for mud - see Section 6.5.4
below).

It will of course, be part o f the design process to

ensure that the channel alignment does not, if
possible, cause it to pass through seabed material
that is difficult o r expensive to dredge and maintain.
In addition existing underwater entities (such as
pipelines o r cables) must not be disturbed and
should be suitably protected from physical contact
with ships and the scouring effects induced by their
passage.

Sedimentation

Estimates o f the types and rates of sedimentation

will be required so that some idea o f the effective
reduction in channel depth with time can be
Figure 6.1 - Water Density in Terms o f Salinity and Temperature >|
determined.The effect this has on ship behaviour,
squat, etc, will determine maintenance dredging
requirements. Measurements o f salt/fresh w ater effects can be made by,;'||
the use of salinity meters and prediction o f salt/fresh watfe||
Siltation is measured by: interface effects can be accomplished by the use of physical!
and numerical models, the latter modelling the effects o f ,
* analysis o f dredging records and monitoring of
salinity by inclusion o f the appropriate water density into'
operations
the flow (current) model.
* local, anecdotal information
* back-scatter methods fo r sediment in suspension
* sediment tracer studies 6.2.4 Monitoring and Mar||j
* sand flux measurements Information 5yste$|
* settling velocity measurements using video techniques
* in-situ density measurements il®
* analysis o f bore-hole sediments. Once the new channel and its associated p o rt
developments are complete, their environment will be ^
Prediction o f the siltation rates in the new channel o r p o rt monitored as an aid to p o rt operation. Many o f the
approach can be carried o u t by morphological studies measurements made and models developed fo r the
making use o f the predicted wave and current activity in design can be used in this later role. .. ||§
the p o rt together w ith an appropriate sedimentation ■ •il
model or formula. Computer models can predict erosion Tide height predictions will be a standard aid for port J ||
operations, but a Digital Tidal Atlas can be a powerful .f|||
/ \ v operational tool, especially if the p o rt operational rules are five ship lengths as in Figure 5 .1.Transitions shorter than
' Related to acceptable current velocities rather than states this must be the subject o f a manoeuvring simulation study.
? ' o f the tide. In some ports the tidal behaviour can be so
A bend may have banks o r no banks.The form er may
V ^complex that it cannot be assumed that known current become afmost like a canal at low water, the latter w ill
r ' velocity will coincide with certain parts o f the tidal cycle.
simply indicate a turning manoeuvre from one channel leg
!n such a case, currents in (or near) the channel must be
to another. Ship behaviour and, as a result, bend marking,
' monitored continually to provide a real time calibration to
will differ fo r each type.The bend with banks could cause
the DTA, the predictions of which provide information fo r the ship to change its behaviour due to bank effects so that
pilots orVTS operators who may then decide on suitable their presence will need to be indicated.
operational windows fo r safe ship passage.
Bend radius and bend angle will have been chosen in
Certain channel markers may have current meters Concept Design following the suggestions made in Section
attached to help in this operation; it may be possible for 5.2.5 above. Use o f the simulator w ill determine whether
pilots to interrogate them by radio from other parts of the the particular configuration is suitable o r not. It w ill soon
channel in order to gain a picture o f the present current become apparent if the ship-handier is comfortable when
structure and the way it is changing. navigating a bend.The problems of to o long a bend at too
great a radius will be manifest in disorientation and
Wave height and period information may be fed
excessive use o f the rudder.The problems o f to o small a
continuously to Port Control to aid pilots if the channel is
bend radius w ill be obvious and, in such a situation, it may
depth-limited for certain ships.Wind information will also
be necessary to explore the use of tugs to aid the ship if
be available continuously.All such information forms part o f the radius cannot be increased.
a Marine Information System which may be sophisticated
to a greater o r lesser degree, and whose size and
complexity will be intimately linked to the design and 6.3.3 Bend Marking
operation of the p o rt approach channel and its associated
features. The advice given in Section 5.2.5 should provide an
adequate minimum. Bends with high banks may need more
gated buoy pairs fo r better definition.

6.3 CHANNEL ALIGNMENT The light rhythms on the aids to navigation must be chosen
to be in conformity with:
a) The IALA Maritime Buoyage System (Ref. 6.7)

6.3.1 Qenerat b) The fALA Recommendations fo r the Rhythmic

Characters of Lights on Ards to Navigation - April 1982
(Ref. 6.8)
If the channel has been aligned according to the principles
of Section 5.2.2, there should be few problems o f W ithin the constraints o f these recommendations, long
navigation requiring re-design. Simulation studies carried periods o f eclipse should be avoided because o f the
out for the straight legs o f the channel (see Section 6.4 importance o f the marks as visual cues, especially at night.
below) will be used to investigate the bends, if there are The IALA system offers a range of flashing o r quick flashing
any, so that the adequacy o f the bend radii and width can light rhythms to choose from.
be checked. However, the question o f the proper marking
Care should be taken to ensure that these lights are clearly
of bends is important and a ship simulator will provide
visible against any background shore-based lights.
valuable information on this. Some basic principles can be
observed and these are discussed below after a brief For bends w ithout banks which have a suitable radius, an
consideration of bend configuration. alternative means of marking is to place a radar-
conspicuous mark at the centre o f the circle o f which the
bend is a part.The ship-handier, if he knows the range from
6.3,2 Bend Configuration this buoy to the centreline o f the channel in the bend, can
use parallel indexing techniques on the radar to navigate.
A bend will normally join tw o straight channel legs.This is This requires a knowledge o f the technique by the pilot
not an invariable rule, fo r tw o bends could occur and bridge team and should be used w ith caution if any
sequentially, although such features should be avoided, if member o f the bridge party is unfamiliar with it. An excess
possible, in good design. o f information provided by an officer m onitoring the radar
can confuse the ship handler.
in some cases concatenated bends w ill be unavoidable, and
manoeuvring simulation provides the only technique to
determine their adequacy. O f particular importance will be 6.3.4 Bend Width Assessment
the positioning of the vessel in the firs t bend.This must be
correct (usually with little margin fo r error) if succeeding Use o f fast time (and, to a lesser extent, real time)
bend(s) are to be navigated successfully. If possible the simulation in bends over a range of tidal and wind
distance between successive bends should be greater than conditions w ill provide a number of tracks. An envelope of
 these tracks can be compared w ith the bend design and In such waters the depth is generally limited, there will be
modifications made if necessary. In particular, it will become more traffic near at hand than in the open ocean and there
apparent whether an increased w idth in the bend and the will be other moored ships, banks and obstructions to
associated transition legs are necessary. pass.The ship will have to slow, stop, swing and berth,
Appeal will be made to the criteria o f Section 7.6 to possibly by itself o r possibly with the aid o f tugs. Berthing
determine whether changes are required. must be done accurately with the ship having as low a 0
velocity as possible when meeting the fenders. 4

To be o f use in channel and p o rt design, ship simulation

6.4 CH A N NEL WIDTH models must be able to reproduce all these ‘low speed’ 3
manoeuvres; a simulation which can deal only with the
‘cruising speed’ situation is of little use. It must allow the
ship to stop and move sideways as well as ahead o r astern^
6.4.1 Genera!
and must cater for: ^

W idth will have been determined fo r safe passage, but its • shallow-water effects (and the changes in v
adequacy may have to be demonstrated to a client and, manoeuvrability which result), j
most importantly, to the mariners who must use the interaction with other ships (both moored and moving)!
channel.This exercise may indicate Detailed Design ship-bank interaction
changes and w ill almost certainly indicate any practical fixed-pitch o r controllable-pitch propellers
operational problems which are likely to arise.These may tugs
be related to matters o f perception, human reaction and wind, waves and currents
ship-handling techniques, all o f which include the behaviour
effect of thrusters o r other manoeuvring devices.
and reaction o f the human being (o r ‘human factors’) in the
design process. It must also allow human operators (designer and
mariners) to interact with and ‘handle’ the simulation.
If the incorporation o f human factors is one crucial
element of the Detailed Design process, another is that o f Even though ‘handling’ a simulation is not the same as
marine risk (discussed fu rth e r in Chapter 7),The aim o f all
handling the ship, the use o f such a model provides a usefu»r
design and operation is the safe and efficient movement of
stimulus to the design team and allows the many different^
ships to and from a p o rt and fo r this the safety (or risk) of
the operation may, at times, have to be balanced against its disciplines needed in design to w o rk together toward a M
cost in economic and commercial terms. Clients may wish common goal.The simulation model therefore acts as a
to have the safety and risk demonstrated in a tangible and catalyst and this perhaps is its greatest strength as a desfg$
measurable way so that they can be satisfied that the width tool.
(and alignment) o f the channel and associated swinging and
berthing areas are satisfactory.
6,4.3 l/se of Simulation!^
The design to o l which w ill assist in satisfying these Channel Widj
requirements in Detailed Design is the ship manoeuvring
simulation model. It is in the determination o f channel
width (and alignment) that it provides a powerful tool. Simulation may be used in a number o f ways to assess tftr
width o f a channel. In what follows tw o techniques ^
(perhaps the most common methods presently in use)
6.4.2 Shiphandling and Simulation presented and discussed.The techniques involve the
real-time and fast-time simulation and Figure 6.8 in d ica t^
A ship manoeuvring simulation is a mathematical model, how these alternative methods are used to arrive a t a | | | |
installed on a computer, which reproduces, as accurately as design. Each technique is now considered in more detaif|||
possible, the manoeuvring behaviour o f a ship. Details of
such simulation models are given in References 6.9 and 6.4.3.1 Heal Time with MariRjjj
6. lO.They are not discussed here. Instead attention is Jhe 'Panel of
concentrated instead on their use and value to the
designer.
W ith this technique a real time simulator, generally ° * $ | | |
Shiphandling is a skill which, fo r merchant ships, is called full mission type (i.e. a fully-equipped wheelhouse mocfc|||
upon most frequently as the ship is moving at with realistic visual scene) is used with mariners as
comparatively low speeds in o r near a port. A t sea and at participants in, and advisors to, the design t e a m .T h e
‘cruising’ speed, the ship will generally be under the control
proposed channel is incorporated in the simulation
of an Autopilot whereas in a port, it w ill be under human
mariners con the ‘ship’ along it. Using their e x p e r i e n c & | | | |
control, the shtphandler generally being a marine pilot, or
someone whose local knowledge o f the p o rt and the ship real ships in similar situations, they ctimment on the ^® ||P
(through frequent use) allows him exemption from which can, if necessary, be modified on the s im u la to r
pilotage. it is satisfactory.This procedure usually consists oft
 N o ‘measurement’ runs should be carried
o u t during acclimatisation; they should only
begin once the mariners are familiar w ith the
environment (both inside and outside the
simulator) and the ship model.

Simulator Runs

Once acclimatisation is complete, actual runs

can begin. Often the mariners will be
enthusiastic in their use o f the simulator and
this enthusiasm should be properly
channelled by the project leader.The agreed
programme should be adhered to as closely
as possible, although a flexible approach will
be needed when, and if, channel parameters
are being changed. Care should be taken that
only one parameter is changed at a time.

During each run, the performance o f the

bridge team should be observed by the
project team and an event log maintained.

Finally, it should be recognised by the project

team that ‘handling* a simulator in the
confines o f a ‘channel’ can be mentally tiring.
In reality a pilot may do this only once every
other day o r longer; on the simulator he
may be asked to do repeat runs once every
half hour. If, at the end of the day mistakes
due to fatigue are appearing, runs should be
stopped, o r a larger pane! o f mariners used.
O f course, if the effects o f fatigue are under
investigation, then this advice no longer
holds.

De-briefing

The de-briefing should be a thorough,

Figure 6.8 ~ Use o f Real and Fast Time Simulation unconstrained discussion o f each run,
preferably with a peer group, but led by a
initial acclimatisation mariner in, o r working closely with, the design team.
• simulator runs with one o r a number o f mariners Members o f the design team should also be present and
manoeuvring the design (or similar) ship take part, if appropriate, so that a multi-disciplinary, focused
• de-briefing sessions after every run discussion takes place. It is vital that the last run is
• observations of, and logging, key performance discussed in detail so that the next run (and any changes
required) can be planned. If mistakes have been made in the
parameters during each run.
run, so much the better; they should be analysed in detail
Initial Acclimatisation (in spite o f professional sensibilities) and the reasons fo r
them found.They should be corrected in subsequent runs.
Some mariners will be unfamiliar w ith real-time simulators
and their use. In such cases some tim e will be required on Track plots o f the previous run(s) should be available, as
should the event log and any relevant charts, soundings
the facility fo r acclimatisation.This may be w ith the channel
plots, etc. A check-list o f topics to be included in the de­
under investigation o r a simple ‘test harbour*. A t least a day
briefing is given in Figure 6.9.
should be allowed fo r this as there w ill be questions of
adaptation to the unfamiliar surroundings and, in some Performance Factors
cases, the mariner’s natural scepticism of the simulator to
Key performance parameters should be logged and the
be overcome. Acclimatisation is also necessary fo r a new
event log consulted.The form er is usually obtained readily
channel for, if the expert panel o f mariners are pilots, they from the simulator output and can be used in later analysis.
w ill be expected to have, as a result o f their practical The latter is im portant because undue stress, fatigue or
experience, a detailed knowledge o f the sea area in other human factors may be observed which are a direct
question. If the channel is new, they w ill need time to result o f the channel design and should be changed if they
assimilate any novel features of w ind and current to extend lead to handling errors.
their experience.
 made. If suitable safety criteria have also been
satisfied, this will serve as a useful confirmation
o f (but should not necessarily over-ride) the
Item Ch ec k
mariners’ views.
1. Design Speed - too £ajt? In this technique the mariners have been used,
-OK?
* 100slow? as experts in their field, to assess and calibrate
2. Rudder Activity . mean value the channel. This use of'Panel o f Experts’ is a
>maximum value
- fretpwecy
useful and valuable tool, but others exist.
3. Engine Movement! - frequency
Perhaps the main alternative is to carry out a
- number very large number o f repeat runs to obtain
4. Assessment o f ship's line and (a) were you able to keep to the vessel’s sufficient statistical information to assess the
position mauilainance intended track (on your own side o f the
chancel in a two way cbum*))? channel design.Tbis is discussed more fully in
- with ease? the next section, but can lead to very long
- with zotac difficulty?
- hardly a! all? periods o f simulator time being required.
0)) Were you able to assess your position, both
geographical\y aad with relation to other traffic Once the channel has been assessed as adequate
(1) by day
(2) by night, and fo r normal use, the following studies may be
(3) b poor visibility
- wilb ease and quickly? carried out:
- with tome difficulty?
- with considerable difficulty? Placement and Type of Aids to Navigation
S. Bend radius - adequate?
• too tight? This may have been part o f the main study, b u t, ^
- too big?
6.
not, the visual scene is ideally-suited to check ;f
Aids lo navigation - buoy position and spacing OK?
- light rhythms aod eoSouis OK? the position and type o f the aids to navigation. j\g
- leadiag lighu OK?
Usually the scene can be changed easily and j?
7. Slopping and Swinging - adequate room?
- bow many tugs and what size?
rapidly to show different buoys, lights, etc.
■engine movements? However, care must be taken to ensure that %
- worse case wave and current OK?
they conform to the IALA Maritime Buoyage
8. Aboru • last point for safe abort?
- point of do return OK?
System (Ref 6.7). J f|
* where to abort to?
JO. Visibility - jsinidun) needed to maintain design speed?
Operational Limits and Rules of Passage-'|||
■limits of visibility for swinging?
- view from wheel house OK? Limits on wind, current and tide height may
11. Control and Safely - did you feel ‘in control‘ throughout? need to be imposed fo r safe operation in the
- if oot, why?
■did you feel the channel to be sjfe?
channel. These should be determined by finding'
- if not, wby? where the mariner feels he is losing control
checked against commercial o r other criteria. t||k
Figure 6.9 - Suggested Check List for Heal time Simulation Exercises unacceptable, attempts should be made to |||
change the design. From these limits Rules o f
Passage o r Operation can be developed.
The performance factors, which can later be checked against
various criteria (see Section 6.6 below) usually consist of: Point o f Safe A bort

• rudder activity, including mean rudder angle, standard In some p o rt approaches the ‘last point o f safe abort* m ^
deviation o f rudder angle, maximum rudder angle, be determined. Beyond this the ship is irrevocably
number o f zero crossings, committed to the channel and cannot turn back to sea#
• off-track error, circumstances ahead prevent its safe passage (see also
* speed variations, Section 7.5.4).
heading variations,
Effect of Restricted Visibility
* tug activity including tow forces.
‘Blind* approaches may have to be studied fo r some
This process continues until the resultant design is channels, in which case an approach using radar may h s j^
satisfactory to the mariners w ho will ultimately use it.They to be made.This may require further changes to the d-.
should feel that a satisfactory level o f navigational safety
will be achieved in the channel. 6.4.3.2 Fast Time Sinti%

A number o f repeat runs will be required and, in some

Fast time simulation is also used fo r channel design,
cases, these may amount to a large number. But full-mission
although in this case th e ‘Panel o f Experts approa 1
simulator tim e is expensive and often a consensus less appropriate method to determine its adequacy. *
agreement can be reached after a comparatively small Although it can be used, the difference between
number o f runs. experience and fast time behaviour is often too
allow judgements, based on experience, to be ma
The adequacy o f the channel width over its entire length
will have been assessed in this way by the mariners and the
design team and any necessary changes will have been
 is therefore usual to augment professional judgement Plan o r Perspective View
" C w i t h certain criteria which are based on experience and
Most fast time simulations provide a plan view of the area
Si:lffM|ndicate whether a channel design is adequate (and safe) o r
under consideration (see Figure 6.10) and some provide a
flfM not.These criteria may also be used with real-time
simple perspective bridge-window view. Unfortunately a
S- ^ simuiation, as mentioned above, but in such a case, some o f
comprehensive computer generated image (CGI)
‘p l 't h e m could lead to very long study durations.
perspective view can be expensive in computer time, slow
i f f e Several techniques are available w ith fast time simulation: the simulation and remove the advantages of fast time
operation. Simple nocturnal views, in which all navigation
• multiple runs
lights are seen, can overcome this problem. Although most
|i" • single runs
w ork will be done w ith a plan view representation, some
. . human control
runs should always be carried o u t using a perspective view
| • pilot model control
if possible because the perception of a channel, when only
:v?-| • plan view o r bridge window display.
the navigation marks are available to indicate its
j?;yi
Multiple Runs boundaries, is quite different to the plan view and may
affect the way the ship is handled.
Fast time operation allows many runs to be carried out in a
| short time and this is its major advantage as a design tool.
1 ^ The multiple run technique is usually coupled w ith ‘pilot
! model control’ and involves running the simulation
repeatedly over a given manoeuvre and analysing the
■:j resulting statistics o f the runs.The pilot model is, in effect,
. an automatic model o f the human pilot with the correct
| delays of perception, randomness of erro r in perceiving
; heading, off-track error, etc. Pilot models are in their infancy
■’..j in the maritime w orld, but even the simplest can be useful.

This probabilistic approach to channel design gives

jn f information on channel and bend width, determined from
: | the spread o f tracks from the multiple runs. Using this, the
probability o f the vessel moving outside the channel
...r boundaries (and therefore grounding) due to a
; | combination o f handling, wind, waves and current can be
determined.This can then be compared with acceptable
s values o f grounding risk as shown in Section 7.6.3.

t | The envelope o f tracks from multiple .runs may also be

<./.JL used to determine the optimum alignment and width in
I channel bends.

i | Single Runs

Single runs in various conditions o f wind, waves and

currents can be used to judge the channel’s suitability,
based on past experience, and can also provide some Finally, a note o f caution must be sounded. Fast time
handling criteria.These may be based on rudder activity as simulation provides a valuable design tool, but it should
with the real-time simulation, and judged against the same always be used in combination w ith judgement and
/ '.'A criteria. experience.The human operator perceives fast time
'1 motion differently to real time, especially when movements
Unfortunately rudder activity criteria are not very sensitive in real time may be exceptionally slow (as when a tanker
indicators o f the effects o f changes to channel design, partly begins to turn), the proper perception o f this motion
because ship-handling, and the way the rudder is used to providing one of the ship-handlers’s problems.Therefore all
achieve a particular goal, is as much a characteristic o f the fast time design w ork should ideally be supplemented with
» ship-handier as it is o f the channeI.They should therefore real time simulation (which will be much reduced in scope
be used w ith caution. due to early use o f fast time methods) or, if this is not
possible, the fast time results should be constructively
Operational limits on wind, wave and currents can also be
criticised by mariners with recent experience o f the area
determined using fast time simulation.These tend to rely
o r of the ship in question.
heavily on the subjective judgement o f the operator, fo r he
must determine under what conditions o f wind, wave and
current he is losing, o r has lost, control. Sometimes it will
be obvious that control has been lost, but in some cases it
may be difficult to differentiate between poor handling and
genuine loss o f control. If in doubt, repeat runs should
always be carried out.
 6.5 C HA N NEL DEPTH 6.5.2.1 Factors Influencing-.

In what follows the im portant qualitative factors with

respect to squat are given, so that the specification o fJ
6.5.1 introduction planned channel can be checked against them. Specials
attention should be given to the design ships,their - ?
The determination o f channel depth and underkeel expected speed and manoeuvres as well as the channel
out and environmental conditions. If one o r more fact&ji;
clearance has been considered in detail in an earlier PIANC
apply, it is advisable to take squat in consideration.
report (Ref.S.I).This is by and large still relevant, but in
some special fields more progress has been made and this Ship-related Factors
part o f the report comprises three main sections, the first • design ship
dealing w ith methods fo r the calculation o f squat, die The choice o f the design ship should be checked ijvf'H
second dealing with underkeel clearance in waves.The third those cases where squat is important. For exampfe|£l
deals with the actual depth o f water available, especially design ship sailing at low design-speed may be fess^
when the sea-bed consists of mud and is therefore not well critical than a fast-moving ‘close-to’ design ship. ,
defined.To help this situation, the concepts o f nautical depth (See Appendix C, Chapter C3)
and nautical bottom are introduced and discussed.
• operat/ona/ ship speeds
Under 6 knots and in sufficient water depth there is ge
6.5.2 Squat no significant squat (Values generally less than 30 cm).
A proper indicator is the Froude depth number (see;
Section 5.2.4). If this is smaller than 0.3 there is
Squat is the combined effect of sinkage and trim due to the
generally no significant squat
forward velocity o f the ship and has been introduced in
Over 6 knots - squat increases rapidly with increasing sp$
Section 5.2.4. Methods fo r its computation in calm water
(refer to Appendix C, Figures C8 and C9)
are discussed below, with the aim of providing the designer
w ith straightforward methods.Attention has been focused • ship form
on comparatively simple formulae, but it should be borne Squa£ is sensitive to ship form.This may influence the '
in mind that more accurate predictions can be made fo r a choice o f the design ship. Care should be taken in
given ship by the use o f computer models developed fo r selecting the appropriate equation.
squat in both calm water and waves.The question of (refer to Appendix C,Table C3)
underkeel clearance in waves is discussed in Section 6.5.3.
• initial trim
A complete overview of the available methods is presented Initial trim influences the value of the maximum squat
in Appendix C which includes a discussion o f the state o f and in some cases its location (bow o r stern). Even a
the a rt and provides examples. From this w ork it is small trim by head may increase the squat at the bow,"
apparent that the use o f the different (but appropriate) For high speed ships w ith block coefficients less than \
formulae can give widely varying values fo r squat 0.7 and in very narrow channels o r canals the
(Appendix C, Section C3.3 and Figures C8 to C10). maximum squat may occur at the stern.
(refer to Appendix C, Fig C7)
Because o f this only three o f the available methods are
presented in this chapter: Waterway-related and O ther Factors
• Huuska/Guliev (ICORELS) • relation with channel width
• Barrass II There is no strong linkage. In general squat reduces
• Eryuzlu et al. underkeel clearance and as such influences the .....
manoeuvrability o f the ship.The effects on manoeuvre^
The recommended formulae cover a wide range of ships of width are discussed in Section 6.4.
and waterways.The Barrass and Eryuzlu formulae are In those cases where ships are forced to steer a
validated with full-scale measurements, while the markedly eccentric course from the channel’s axis in
Huuska/Guliev (ICORELS) formula has been recommended the proxim ity o f banks o r in narrow canals, the matter,
earlier (see Reference 5.4) and as such is commonly is complicated by bank effects and eventually, if there ft,
accepted. a chance of grounding, by an increase in the distance to' '
the bank, leaving less width fo r other traffic.
Nevertheless when using one of these formulae for a
practical case, it should be borne in mind that all o f them • channels'"
must generalize the problem and most were developed fo r For smaller depth/draught ratios (diminishing underk
particular conditions and limits.Therefore experience and clearance) squat will increase above n o r m a l, solid
judgement are necessary fo r their application. bottoms.This may be the case with muddy bottoms.
(Appendix C, Section C4.4 and Section 6.5.4.6 below)
In those cases where squat is of importance and if serious
doubt exists with respect to the applicability of a particular • canals , •-
formula (Appendix C, Chapter C3) o r the situation is not Ships sailing in a canal cause considerable back-floW®
covered by one o f the published methods (Appendix C, water through the canal’s wetted c r o s s - s e c t io n . This ^
Chapter C4) additional, specific, research may be necessary. causes a w ater level depression which is far m o re
 pronounced than when sailing a restricted channel o r lead to modifications o f the allowable draught o r to
jn unrestricted shallow water. corrections o f the maintenance dredging program.
I , >’ Squat formulae fo r these latter types o f fairways will
• Most squat formulae are meant fo r ships moving on a
underestimate squat considerably if used fo r canals.
straight course in the centre line o f a channel.
(Appendix C, Section C 2.1A and Table C3)
Deviation from these conditions may lead to higher
J*
*I • proximity o f banks squat values. In such conditions, the effect o f squat
Passing a bank at close distance increases squat increase can be reduced by imposing lower speeds o r
(Appendix C, Section C4.2) increasing water depth.
in
• relatively abrupt depth changes (e.g. approaches 6.S.2.3 Calculation of Squat
over sills or banks)
Care should be taken here due to the dynamic A il the methods which follow are valid fo r straight channels
behaviour of the ship. with flat bottoms and subcritical ship speeds (i.e. Fnh < 1).
(Appendix C, Section C4.3) The type of waterway and the block coefficient determine
the appropriate formula.The limits o f h/T and L/h
• muddy channel bottoms
respectively should be observed.
A muddy bottom generally decreases squat.An
&
exception is the case o f a fast moving ship that The resulting squat will be greatest at the bow fo r all full-
penetrates a low-density mud which may experience an formed ships (i.e. ships w ith high block coefficient) and for
increase in squat. normal merchant vessels sailing in unrestricted shallow
(Appendix C, Section C4.4 and Section 6.S.4.6 below) water. For high-speed ships w ith block coefficients less than
0.7 and in very narrow channels o r canals the maximum
• other traffic squat may occur at the stern. Initial trim influences the
Passing o r overtaking increases squat, location of maximum squat
(Appendix C, Section C4.1)
Method I: Huuska/Guliev (ICORELS)
• cross wind
In channels open to cross wind ships may have to sail The equation calculates bow sinkage, sb. It is valid fo r
with large d rift angles which may increase squat. unrestricted waterways, restricted channels and canals and
(Appendix C, Section C4.S) has already been mentioned in Section 5.2.4, Equation (2).

• bends
Ships d rift when sailing through bends in the channel
and this may increase squat.
(8)
(Appendix C, Section C4.5)
with
6.5.'2.2 Recommendations for the Estimation V ship’s volume o f displacement ( mJ)
of Squat ship’s length between perpendiculars (m)
^PP
Fnh Froude depth number (see Section 5.2.4 Equation
The use o f different methods fo r the same ship under the
( 0)
same conditions can lead to significant variations in the 7.45 s, + 0.76 fo r s, > 0.03
prediction o f squat A t present, the reason(s) fo r these 1 fo r s, ^ 0.03
,Ns
differences are not clear and therefore the following are Si <AS/A ch)/K,
recommended: K, correction factor, (see Appendix C, Figure C6)
Ac ship midship section area « 0.98 BT
• In general cases use expressions which yield average
xh wetted cross section area of channel/canal with
squat results. In this category fell the methods o f
M extrapolated slope to the water surface (see
Huuska/Guliev (ICORELS), ( 1976,1980) and Barrass li
II Appendix C, Figure C3)
(1979) and fo r full-bodied ships the method of Eryuzlu
et al (1994). This equation should n o t be used fo r Froude Depth
(see Appendix C for References) numbers greater than 0.7.

• To select a more ‘pessimistic’ method (Appendix C, For full form ships w ith a high block coefficient some
Chapter C3) when the risks involved with touching the authors recommend other values fo r the coefficient 2.4 as
waterway bottom are considered to be high. (e.g. used by Huuska.They propose coefficient values varying
dangerous cargo, bottom structure.) between 1.75 and 2.4.

• If problems w ith squat effects are expected in Method 2: Barrass li

particular conditions w ith a specific type of ship, model Barrass analyzed the squat results from different ships and
tests are recommended. model tests w ith block coefficients ranging from 0.5 to 0.9
• It is recommended that the squat estimations made both in open water and in restricted channel conditions for
during the design stage be validated by means o f full- h/T-ratios ranging from 1.1 to 1,5. For laterally
scale observations. Such an a posteriori evaluation may
 Some remarks are appropriate: • at low density, mud is a loose suspension similar to
water, having a viscosity and yield stress which are i
• The definitions fo r nautical bottom and nautical depth
o r only slightly, dependent on density (fluid mud);
supersede the formulation presented by PIANC
Working Group No. 3a in its report (Ref. 5.2). • mud with a higher density is a sediment deposit with 1
well-measurable rheological properties which depend^ -
• in this definition, intentionally no reference is made to
strongly on density (plastic mud). .
muddy bottoms, so that it might also be applied to hard
bottom configurations which could be subject to This change in structural behaviour is called the rheoJogico/i ;
uncertainties about the lowest level in the case o f a transition. i j
rock bottom channel w ith large boulders, o r a sandy
Typical rheologic and density profiles in loose mud dep
bottom suffering from sand waves. In these cases,
are shown in Appendix D, Figure D3. Density appears to
damage caused by contact between the ship and the increase more o r less gradually w ith depth.The initial
nautical bottom is more realistic than in the case o f a rigidity curve, on the other hand, clearly shows the
muddy bottom , where it is more likely that the forces rheological transition level.
exerted by contact with mud will cause controllability '
problems, rather than damage.

6.5A.3 Mud Characteristics

In muddy areas, the definition o f nautical bottom

mentioned in Section 6,5.4.2 could be interpreted as the
level where the navigable fluid mud ends and the non-
navigable seabed begins.The physical parameter to be
selected as a base fo r a practical determination method
should be related to the rheological properties of the mud,
characterising its resistance to flow, deformation and
structural changes.

A Newtonian fluid (e.g. water) is rheologically completely

characterized by only its dynamic viscosity r i , which is
the ratio between shear stress and shear rate (see Figure
6 .1 la and Appendix D, Figure D la ). Mud rheology is far
more complex and is, fo r engineering purposes, often
simplified by means o f a Bingham model (see Figure
6.11b and Appendix D, Figure D i b), rheologically
determined by:
• its (differential) dynamic viscosity rj;
• its yield stress o r initial rigidity r y, being the shear stress Figure 6.11 - Shear Characteristics o f Fluids and
which has to be overcome to initialize material flow.

A more correct, but also more complicated description of 6.5.4.4 Criteria for Determinate
mud rheology is given in Appendix D Figure D I c. It is clear, Nautical Jfo
however, that a practical definition o f nautical bottom
should be based on considerations o f yield stress, as this Use of Echo-sounding
parameter indicates whether mud can be considered as
fluid o r solid. The use o f echo-sounding with different frequ
very useful qualitative indication o f whether a fluid
A n o th e r im p o rta n t physical property, which is easier layer is present o r n o t High frequency levels (100
to define and measure, is mud density p2, related w ith kHz) indicate the interface water-mud, while low
the relative am ount o f w a te r and solid m aterial in the signals ( 1 5 - 33 kHz) penetrate into the mud layer
mud. (Appendix D, Figure D4) and are normally ref!
the well-consolidated bed o r hard bottom.
Yield stress increases with density, but also depends on
many physio-chemical parameters (e.g. sand content, A t some locations, however, a reasonable relatk
spectrum o f particle diameter, clay mineralogy, percentage found between the low frequency echo and a
o f organic material, water chemistry), measuring technique parameter.The 33 kHz echo, fo r example, gener
and even (rheological) history (see Appendix D). If all these corresponds with the 1150 kg/m3 density level i
estuary, and acts as a definition fo r nautical boti
parameters are given, an empirical relationship between
Antw erp (Appendix D, References D l l & DI2).
yield stress and density can be determined.According to
the density range, a distinction can be made between fluid
and ptastic mud (Appendix D, Figure D2):
 Tfte applicability o f such a criterion cannot be generalized, rheological properties o f the local mud.This leads to some
ijjnd should be examined fo r each location; seasonal and disadvantages :
if ;feven tidal fluctuations are possible as well. Reflection of • the critical density defining nautical bottom depends on
"~y ' low frequency acoustic signals in the mud appear to the location, so that it is not possible to establish one
depend upon many parameters (gas bubbles, sandy universal value;
V " horizons, density gradients, etc). Furthermore, as low
^.frequency waves sometimes reflect at several levels, they • at a given location mud characteristics can be variable
* ’4o not always result in an unequivocal signal (see Appendix (e.g. effect o f seasons), so that the critical density
Ky D, Figure DS and References D8, D9 & D10). should be frequently adapted;
• fo r practical reasons a repeated adaptation is not
I | ' R heology R elated C r ite r ia
desirable, so that a fixed critical density at a low er value
•' " Unacceptable effects on controllability and manoeuvrability has to be selected.
I ' due to contact with the nautical bottom are caused by
Table 6 .1 gives an overview o f practical determination
I. r additional forces exerted by interaction between the ship
criteria fo r nautical bottom applied in several approach
and the mud layer. As the magnitude o f these forces is
channels. More details are provided in Appendix D.
ifefated to the rheology o f the mud, it is clear that the
/V;|
.^theoretical definition o f nautical bottom should be based
tipi.
I on the rheological properties o f the mud layer. In fact, this
; <&the case in practically all waterways where a nautical
Table 6.1
^bottom approach is applied.

r Unfortunately, rheological measurements in situ Harbour Criterion for nautical bottom

tan nowadays only be carried o u t by means o f Density level (kg/m3)
static rather than continuous, measuring devices.
As a consequence, it is actually n o t possible to Bordeaux (France) 1200
. /base a practical determination o f nautical Cayenne (French Guyana) 1270
:V.bottom on a rheological parameter, and a Emden (Germany) 1220-1240
’detour has to be made via a parameter which is Maracaibo (Venezuela) 1200
. easier to measure (e.g. density, see Section Nantes - Saint-Nazaire (France) 1200
•45.4.3). Rotterdam (the Netherlands) 1200
Zeebrugge (Belgium) 1150
iizs ,.-£ffc>r several reasons, it is not feasible to define an
absolute critical yield stress value (see Appendix
^ i\.:v.D).On the other hand, a theoretical definition o f the
ift^Utical bottom based on the rheological transition offers
| 4 several practical advantages: ft.5.4.5 Behaviour of Ships in Muddy Areas
This level corresponds with a very low yield stress
I (< 10 N/mJ) and can therefore be considered as safe. In tro d u c tio n
f"
; ^ ; a- As the rheological properties increase very quickly In this section, a restricted review will be given o f the data
• •V depth near the transition level, it can be expected available on ship controllability and manoeuvrability. More
a substantial increase o f depth would lead to details are given in Appendix D, and in the publications
^unacceptable yield stress values, so that this level can mentioned in the reference list.
. he considered as economic,
In te rfa c e U n d u la tio n s ( ‘In te rn a l W aves*)
0^||p|?;:these reasons, several operational procedures for
I j l ^ ^ ^ t n i n i n g the nautical bottom are actually based on the The effect of fluid mud layers on a ship’s behaviour mainly
1 ^v.ffwological transition level, although, due to practical depends on the deformation o f the interface caused by the
T^nsiderations.the determination is based on density pressure field around the moving hull.These vertical
,rtteasurements. interface motions o r internal undulations (or, less correctly,
“ internal waves” ) have the following effects on ship speed
'J C rite ria Based on a H u d D e n s ity Level (see Appendix D, Figure DIO).
fr ^ f^ d a y s several survey systems are available for • A t very low speed, the interface remains practically
^ ntlnuous measurement o f sediment density, most undisturbed (first speed range).
V, ^jjP^fational procedures fo r determining the nautical
• A t intermediate speed, an interface sinkage is observed
are based on a value fo r the acceptable density o f under the ship’s entrance, which at a certain section
(see Table 6.1).
changes into an elevation.This internal hydraulic jump
i'j '
'j K t ^ e critical mud density value depends on the moves towards the stern w ith increasing speed (second
5 i " 85 t *ie Geological properties are n o t pure speed range).
o f density. As a consequence, the choice o f a • A t higher speeds, the interface fump occurs behind the
fnsity level is based on considerations about the stern (third speed range).
 7. MARINE RISK AND Equations ( 12) and (13) is also related in part to ship
design and in part to its operation. In this regard a badly
I
^
SAFETY OF OPERATION designed ship may well be more prone to accidents, as well
as one th a t is poorly operated. In approach channel design, 1
it is usual to concentrate on the operational components |
o f fa and to ensure that these do not give rise to ^
unacceptably high values o f fa. It is therefore assumed that
little can be done to change the relation between fa and ;|
7.1 INTRODUCTION TO ship design as most ports have to accept ships (and their |
MARINE RISK designs) from many areas o f the world. Occasionally it is
possible to design a ship specifically fo r dedicated
operation in a given approach channel, and in such a case,
some control over fa can be envisaged by this means. si
7.1.1 Marine Risk The parameter fa itself is specified generally as ‘accident
rate’ o r incident rate’ and may be expressed as a
The concept o f risk in the marine world is linked to the probability such as: S
frequency o f accidents and their consequence. W ith regard
to the safety o f life at sea fo r example, the consequence of accident rate = x in 106 encounters
an accident will be measured in the number o f casualties or x in JO3 shipping movements |
and the risk to life will be given by
where x is the number o f accidents. Accidents to ships are
classified under a number o f technical headings.The ones
of most interest to the p o rt approach channel designer j
Risk=*fa -Nc ( 12) are: j

• collision
where fa is the frequency o f an accident
• grounding
N c is the number of casualties.
• stranding j
In a p o rt and its approaches the consequence o f an impact
accident may not be loss of life, but serious damage to the striking.
environment o r loss o f revenue to the port.The form er is
Ail of these have precise definitions (see Glossary, Chapter - I
o f increasing concern and the potential environmental
1 I) and may be regarded as events associated w ith
impact o f any p o rt development is nowadays carefully
navigation o r ship handling and, as such, will be influenced
scrutinised.The latter consequence may arise from the
p o rt approach channel being blocked as a result o f an by the design o f the channel. \
accident, thereby preventing some o r all of the marine It is usual in matters o f approach channel design to try to
traffic which uses the port from so doing. reduce fa in Equations (12) and (13).There are exceptions
In such cases the consequence of the accident w ill not be o f course when the consequence of any accident are so
measured by the number of human lives lost, but by other potentially damaging that they must be given equal weight
measures of both damage to the environment and loss o f in the channel design process. However, efforts will
revenue.The equation fo r marine risk then becomes. generally be concentrated on keeping the potential £
accident rate fa to an acceptable level. ~

Risk = f a - M c (13)
7.1.2 Estimation of Marine Risk

where Mc is some measure of the consequence o f the In Reference 7 .1 the estimation of marine risk is described
accident.
thus:
When life at sea is at risk, N c is minimised by ship design,
“Risk estimates are generally o f two basic types, backward and
on board life-saving equipment and the search and rescue
forward. Backward estimates are based upon the number o f
(SAR) capabilities to hand. When the environment is at risk,
accidents that have occurred in a particular situation, and i f
the consequence may be minimised by careful ship design
there have been many there will be a fair degree o f confidence
(e.g. double hull tankers) and provision o f rapid reaction
that the risk has been accurately estimated. Forward estimates
containment facilities.
have to be made where there are so few actual accidents that
When the consequence of an accident could result in no backward estimates are possible: they are based upon an
blocking the approach channel, the width of the channel must analysis o f the situation into a sequence o f events, the
be considered carefully and consideration must be given to probability o f each being known by comparison with data
standby tugs, escort tugs, rules of operation and the like. obtained from other situations. Although these data may
themselves be reliable, the fmol risk estimates will depend upon
W hile the consequence of an accident may be susceptible the comparability o f the situations and also upon whether the
to the design of ship and its operation, the frequency fa in sequence o f events has been correctly identified."
 This description shows how risks may be treated in ports. where K is a constant
jiff For ports w ith comprehensive casualty records, the
existing marine risk level can be estimated using backward
R is the probability that last-minute recovery
action will be unsuccessful
estimates; if no suitable database exists then comparable Lf is the length o f the floating object profile
m data from elsewhere (another p o rt perhaps) has to be along the channel
found and modified fo r the p o rt in question. w( is the distance o f the floating object
from the normal average track o f the channel
In each case the accident rate (o r probability) is
(i.e. cross track error).
determined fo r each o f the accident categories and any
others that are re!evant.The overall marine risk is then the
fell sum o f these individual, independent, risks: 7,1.3 Risk Alleviation Methods

i where:
r
o
= r + r + r + r- + r
c s

r_ = overall marine risk

s^ s t <I4) Once the marine risk has been estimated fo r the new
situation (i.e. fo r the new channel operation) it must be
compared w ith either the existing situation o r agreed
risk o f collision international standards. A judgement must then be made as
risk o f grounding to whether the new situation is acceptable o r not. if it is
risk o f stranding not, means o f alleviating the risk must be found.Apart from
risk o f impact re-designing the channel, the following are at the disposal
risk o f striking. o f the channel operator:

These figures are quoted on a consistent frequency o r Vessel Traffic Service (VTS)
probability basis which may be related to time, e.g. Operating Limits
Rules of Operation
incidents per annum Aids to Navigation
o r to the total number o f movements o r transits, e.g. Traffic Separation Schemes.

These are now discussed further.

incidents per 1000 transits

or similar convenient measures.

; ■ Risk, o r changes in risk due to design developments, can be 7.2 ALLEVIATION OF

, assessed by computer models. In this case, event-driven MARINE RISK
. simulations can estimate the number of encounters between
ships in a given traffic environment (generated by the
approach channel design perhaps) and these may be related
. to collision risk, one of the elements in Equation (13). Such 7.2.1 Vessel Traffic Service (VTS)
, .. computer models orTraffic Planners are described in Section
', 7.4 below and can be used in a busy port, provided proper
^ databases are available to develop and calibrate the model. A VTS is an advisory service fo r mariners. It provides advice
•|x%The collection o f such data is discussed in Section 7.3. and information to mariners on ships passing through the
P system. Surveillance of traffic is carried out by the VTS
. There are one o r tw o semi-empirical expressions which give centre, with information passed from ships to the centre at
^ ■ In c id e n t frequencies directly. Soiem (Reference 7.2) suggested prescribed “ reporting in” points. Confirmation of ship names
method for relating grounding frequency fg to the may be carried out (if weather permits) by aerial surveillance
^T ^tw ensions o f the channel. From experience in a number o f if it is not possible to identify a ship by any other means.
H f ip p r t approaches, the following relationship was developed:
Such systems are used in ports and international
fg ~ K ' L c/ w per transit ( 15) waterways, and while the overall control o f the ship rests at
all times with her master (aided by the pilot) the VTS centre
may require the ship to adhere to certain requirements fo r
ik v ^ fr e r e K Is a constant, evaluated at 10 s per transit the safe operation o f the port. Examples are:
Lc is channel length
w is channel width. • Adhere to the p o rt speed lim it
• Remain alongside at anchor
?IS. exPression is a statement o f the probability that a • D o not proceed beyond a given point until clearance is
is more likely in a long channel and less likely in given.
one.
Radar surveillance will be used w ith such a system and
r expression may be developed fo r the striking arriving ships may be “ tagged” w ith an identifier which
*|ncy fst where: remains with their radar target fo r the duration o f their
stay in port. Often a digital log of all tagged ship
movements is kept, samples being taken every few minutes,
fst = K - R L / W f per transit (16)
so that a hard-copy is available o f ail shipping activities
within the waterway and the port.
 7.2.2 Operating Limits 7.2.4 Aids to Navion*

Operational limits have been discussed in Section 6.7 and Aids to navigation have been discussed elsewhere in
they are a powerful means o f mitigating marine risk-They report and are, o f course, a vital element in the allevr
will provide the basis fo r tug operations, down-time, o f marine risk.Their type, size and positioning must be
emergency scenarios and berth operation and therefore determined as an essential part o f marine-side design. ;•
have a very powerful influence on the operation of a port. Practising mariners (usually the local pilots) should ba;
consulted fo r their views on the proposed aids and thejfc
Many limits may already be in place in an existing port, placement with, if possible, the use o f real o r fast tim e .r
having evolved as a result of operational experience over a simulation fo r their assessment.
number o f years.These should be understood and
respected by the designer who may then wish (or need) to Channel marker buoys should be conspicuous with li|
characteristics o r radar reflectors that allow them to beh;
add to o r modify them as a result o f a new p o rt
easily identified against a background of other lights,
development. Initial changes can be made at the design
bad visibility. ;.f
stage as a result o f the use of ship simulation, combined
with discussions w ith local mariners.As operational Gated pairs o f buoys are preferred fo r marking straight:1'
experience w ith the new p o rt development builds, the channel legs, with spacings adequate fo r the probable J
limits can be tightened o r replaced as appropriate. visibility conditions. In the critical area of a channel, such
longitudinal spacing is about a nautical mile as a maxir
as this is the greatest spacing fo r which a pilot would be?
7.2.3 Rules of Operation happy to maintain control based on his visual percepti
the channel as marked by buoys. ‘ frr
Operational limits lead naturally to Rules o f Operation
Conventional chain-moored buoys o r piled beacons
which are their ultimate manifestation in the operation o f
be considered as channel markers and usually the cho‘
the porcThey determine, fo r example, when it is safe fo r
based on cost and channel usage. Piled beacons have
certain classes o f ship to navigate certain areas, what to do
advantage that they do not move, while moored buoys
in emergency situations and so on.They may be
move ih a tidal stream to the scope of their moorings. ■
supplemented by Guides to Masters provided, fo r example,
Should the moorings break, they could drift off station. ('
by terminal operators in which much practical information
on terminal operations and safety requirements is often Beacons o r buoys should be placed as close to the dr
supplemented by local Rules o f Operation. channel edges as is practicable, and must all conform tfciy
IALA requirements (References 5.5 and 6.7).
Rules of Operation may be used not only to improve
safety, but also to reduce channel cost. For example, Leading marks (or ‘ranges’) are an alternative method
restricting operations to high water means that a. more marking a straight channel leg.They are expensive due
shallow channel can be dredged with resultant savings in the structures required to support them at the corre
capital and maintenance dredging costs.Against this height.They are sometimes difficult to use if the ship
advantage must be set the disadvantage of delays to in­ adopt a large d rift angle, o r if they are only visible asteta
coming o r out-going ships which in themselves wiil have an rather than ahead.
economic penalty.The commercial cost o f the accumulated The correct separation and height o f leading lights may
delays fo r deep-draughted ships may justify an increase in determined from the following IALA recommendatior
channel depth if the period fo r which they are unable to Reference 7.13. For the purpose o f simulation, the
navigate the channel ( o r ‘downtime’) is excessive. following equation may be used:
Periods o f downtime may result from the effects of H l = DL/ 6 5 0 + hL
currents, wind, waves and poor visibility. If downtime is
scheduled and enforced fo r some significant period o f time,
it is possible to reduce the channel dimensions w ithout KDL ( H L ~ h L) / w
jeopardizing the safety.
where: HL - height o f rear light above MHW
The introduction o f navigation windows and downtime, R = distance from fro n t to rear light
enforced by the channel authority in order to avoid unsafe Dl = distance from fro n t light to limit
situations, will to some extent hamper the navigation o f useful range
through the channel w ith the following potential impact. w = width o f channel
The ship waiting time, before a ship will be able to hL = height o f fro n t light above MHW
negotiate the channel, w ill increase and the accumulated K — a coefficient of lateral sensitivity w .
time period o f all ships affected by the restrictions, will has an optimum value of 2.5. A vaiu
represent an economic loss each year. 1.5 is recommended fo r design to a*,
problems o f over-sensitivity at close _.
The viability o f imposing the restrictions mentioned in this
section should be checked and assessed on general Electronic position fixing systems are provided in sorne^
transportation economic grounds. Many ships are now fitted with satellite-based navigatio n
systems (such as DGPS) which will indicate their position 7.4 TRAFFIC PLANNINQ
very accurately. Combined with electronic charts (ECS,
ECDIS) it will be possible, in principle, to determine very
A N D TRAFFIC SIMULATION
accurately where a ship is in relation to a marked channel.
Electronic bearing markers (e.g. RACONS) are provided as
fixed reference marks from which to take bearings.
7.4.1. Introduction

7.2.5 Traffic Separation Schemes It has been shown in this report how manoeuvring
simulation can be used in approach channel design, and
Traffic Separation Schemes (TSS) alleviate risk by segregating how the w ider implications o f vessel safety and future
traffic into lanes o f ships all moving in the same direction traffic and trade through the p o rt must be considered. It
with a traffic separation zone between the lanes.There may has also been suggested that computer programs which
also be inshore traffic zones fo r small craft who do not use model the traffic flow are an im portant aid to a designer
the main traffic lanes. Crossing the TSS is done under a strict when working fo r a busy port.
set o f rules and often at known crossing points.
This Section briefly outlines the components of a Traffic
Planner computer model and indicates how it may be used.
A t its heart, as already implied, are the traffic system and
7.5 COLLECTION OF DATA the operational rules o f the port,The principle
considerations revolve around the efficiency and safety o f
the p o rt marine operations, each o f which may occasionally
Data for the determination of marine risk will generally come into conflict with the other, as operational limits can
come from the following sources: have a drastic effect on p o rt efficiency. As has been shown,
such limits depend on a number of factors, among which
• port accident records
are ship type, class and cargo together w ith environmental
• historical marine casualty records world-wide
conditions and the layout o f the marine side o f the port.
port traffic and trade forecasts
radar surveillance records The conditions fo r which entry is considered safe or
• traffic mix and routes, especially those fo r vessels unsafe are referred to as the “ p o rt entrance regime". If a
carrying dangerous goods berth is available and conditions are unsafe fo r an arrival,
• visual traffic surveys giving numbers and types passing the ship wiil have to wait fo r more favourable conditions.
through a given “ gate" This results in a loss of valuable working time at the quays
• video recordings of traffic from p o rt radar . and delay.Translatton o f the above into a p o rt design is not
a straight-forward m atter and methods and tools for
Present traffic levels and routes (from p o rt radar and other
determining channel width have already been discussed.
records) can be used to determine the present level o f risk
However, the limiting conditions which arise from this
using a marine Traffic Planner (see Section 7.4 below).
design process provide input data fo r the traffic flow
These may then be used as a baseline against which to
simulation model.
measure future levels o f risk from projected changes in
traffic o r operations. Port accident records can be used to The capacity o f the marine side o f a p o rt system is
identify any accident "black spots" which will indicate areas influenced by the p o rt entrance regime (tidal windows, pilot
needing special attention. boarding limits, limits fo r tug operations) and, fo r some
ports, traffic rules are an important factor affecting p o rt
Appeals to p o rt records w ill be valuable, but will generally
capacity.Therefore, the marine side o f a p o rt is a complex
contain statistically small samples o f accidents, especially in
system, and traffic flow simulation models are the only tools
a well-run port. It is therefore often necessary to make use
suitable fo r the detailed determination o f the impact of the
o f larger statistical samples from historical casualty data.
entrance regime and traffic rules on p o rt capacity.
These allow an assessment to be made of typical risk levels
in maritime areas world-wide which have similarities to the The purpose of the traffic flow simulation model is
p o rt in question. therefore to reveal whether the proposed channel design,
w ith its traffic rules and environmental conditions, can
Port radar data provides valuable calibrations fo r Traffic
handle the existing traffic volume and to determine ship
Planners and may be analyzed in a number of ways.Traffic waiting and turnround times. Alternatively, starting from the
distributions, routes and area densities can all be produced
maximum acceptable waiting times and ship turnround
together with analyses o f the mix, speeds and positions o f
times, the simulation model can estimate the p o rt’s
all tagged vessels.
maximum channel capacity.
The effect the designer’s channel will have on such a system can
then be determined, in terms of marine risk, by use o f the 7.4.2. Traffic Flow Simulation Models
Planner. Risk of collision is related to the number of encounters,
a parameter which may be computed by the Traffic Planner.
There are three basic techniques used to study a port system
Use of a Port Traffic Planner is therefore an important part with respect to capacities, ship waiting times, ship turnround
o f the design process in a busy port. times, etc.These are indicated in Figure 7 .1 and are:
 The procedure to be followed creating a traffic
simulation model is schematically presented in
Figure 7.2.

First the boundaries o f the system have to be

determined.These are o f course dependent on
the problem to be solved.

In the next step a description o f the model has

to be given.This means th a t within the
boundaries o f the system the reality has to be
schematized.The measure o f schemattzation
again is dependent on the problem to be solved.

If boundaries have been set and reality

schematized, the computer model can be built,
but one o f the most im portant and difficult tasks
Figure 7.1 - Schematic for Choice o f Method is its verification and validation.

• empirical rules o f thumb based on observations of

existing systems
queuing theory and linear programming techniques and
traffic flow simulation models.

As stated in Section 7.4.1 the marine side is a complex

system, so for comprehensive figures and reliable results,
simulation models have to be used.

Advances in computer simulation techniques have led to

significant developments in the modelling of marine traffic
flows. It is usual to consider them as part o f a continuous
‘process’ and consequently a ‘process description’
technique is used nowadays.

The process description method specifies the dynamic behaviour

of the system by describing the activities of the “ live
components" in the model. “ Live” means that these components
are executing activities.The dynamic section of a model will
contain a process description for every “ live component" and Figure 72 - Steps in the Simulation Process
formulates the interactions between the components.
Verification refers to the questions:
For instance, a model o f the marine side o f a p o rt could
• Are the input parameters and logical structure of the
comprise a process description o f a ship, traffic control
model correctly represented?
(handling the ship traffic) as well as the generators of the
• Is the model implemented correctly in computer code?
different ship types (creating vessels and arrivals).
The goal of the validation process is to produce a model that
The components are specified by the values o f the closely represents true system behaviour so that it may act as
attributes of the components. For example the attributes a substitute fo r the actual system and enable experiments to
of a ship are length, width, draught, type, cargo, etc.Table be carried o u t Validation (tuning o f the model) refers to the
7.1 gives an overview o f typical model components. act o f determining a model that is accurate enough to
represent a real system.Validation is achieved through
calibration o f die model, an iterative process of comparing
7.4.3 Procedure for the Development
the model with the actual system behaviour and using the
of a Traffic Flow Model observed discrepancies to improve the model.

Outline and Detailed Models

7.4.4 Boundary Conditions and Input Data
Irrespective o f the planning objective (new channel, existing
channel, etc) and irrespective o f the availability of a model, a The model simulates the dynamic behaviour o f the
very vital decision to be made is that which concerns the level approach channel with many stochastic input parameters.
o f detail to be applied in the various components of the model. These are generally described by mathematical
formulations o f distribution functions.The most important
iabie 7.2 gives some basic differences between an “ outline”
input parameters are:
and a “ detailed” model.
 Table 7.1

COMPONENT D ESCR IPTIO N S E C TIO N

DEFINE Defines : DEFINITION

components with attributes, queues, tables, random streams
time unit, input streams, output streams

MAIN creates the system by reading the initial values o f attributes INITIAL
from input files

GENERATOR OF SHIPS generates according distribution functions ships and DYNAMIC

determines the necessary attributes o f that ship

TRAFFIC CONTROL manages the ship traffic in the channel and manoeuvring basins DYNAMIC
and checks the tidal conditions, traffic situation and weather
conditions

SHIP carries out the process o f the class ship DYNAMIC

(CLASS, OF COMPONENTS)

Table 7.2

The advantages and disadvantages of outline and detailed models

Outline model Detailed model
Advantages
1. Simple model development 1. Basic assumptions are simple
2. Easy data preparation 2. Additional details increase the opportunities fo r
studying system response
3. Generally applicable results

Disadvantages
1. Overall assumptions may not be correct under all 1. Complicated model preparation
conditions. 2. Results are specific fo r the particular system. Many
2. Implications o f assumptions are n o t clear and are simulation runs are necessary to check the various
therefore difficult to evaluate. possibilities
3. Results are not detailed

Possible reasons for rejection

1. Results could be invalid under certain conditions 1. Expensive
2. N o sufficient data available

1. Arrival pattern of vessel types where t is a stochastic parameter which could be,
fo r example, the inter-arrival time
The arrival patterns o f a ship type is described by of a specific fleet
estimating the distribution o f the inter-arrival times, k is an integer shape parameter
resulting very often in a negative exponential distribution
p is the arrival rate (o r number o f arrivals
function (N.E.D.).
per time unit).
For commercial vessels.This has the form:
Higher values of k imply smaller variances o f jx (see Figure
7.3).
F( t ) = | _ e~ ^ (19)
To characterize the deadweight distribution o f the different
fleets calling at the p o rt in question, there are at present
where p is the arrival rate.
no general formulations which can be provided.The
2. Dwell times distribution o f deadweight is therefore usually described in
tabular form.
Dwell times of vessels in the p o rt are often represented by
‘ Erlang-k distribution functions (Figure 7.3), given by 3. Tidal conditions
expression:
Obviously if the channel is subject to tidal conditions, the
F ( t ) = ( ( k n ) k t k" , e~*flt) / ( f c - l ) ! (20) w ater levels and the current velocities should be given.
 results obtained when set against certain safety criteria
(see Section 7.6).

Figures 7.4 and 7.5 give typical results from a traffic flow
simulation model; Figure 7.4 shows a histogram o f ship
waiting times at the arrival buoy and Figure 7.5 is a plot
over tim e o f the same waiting times.

7.4.6 Evaluation of Simulation Results

Evaluation o f results is dependent on the final objectives.

If the objective is economic efficiency, then the results

indicate how to minimize the costs o r maximize the benefits.

W ithin the framework o f approach channel design, this •

means that it is necessary to weigh the cost o f deepening
o r widening o f the approach channel against the costs o f
waiting times and delays. It should be realized that vessel
waiting times are not only influenced by the dimensions o f
Figure 7.3 - Erlang-k Distribution
the approach channel but also by the configuration o f the
p o rt and terminal.
4. W eather conditions

Weather conditions can be considered by formulating

wind, wave and visibility conditions, based on historical Mean : 8 5.187943 M in im u m -0.001
D e v ia t io n : 115.111839 Maximum: 664.071
data. cum 502 90* : 2 11 .846207 9S% : 3 69 .5 0 0
P e rc E n tr ie s 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
J*
5. Ship sailing times
8 .7 6
5 6 .5 7
Ship sailing times in different channels do not fluctuate 7 7 .8 9
8 7 ,2 5
very significantly, so that a narrow banded uniform 9 2 .4 3
93 .43
distribution represents the sailing times o f a given ship 9 4 .6 2
type with acceptable accuracy. 9 7 . 01
9 7 .8 1
98. 0 0
9 9 .2 0
7.4.5 Output 9 9 .8 0
1 0 0 .0 0

The output data should characterize the performance Figure 7.4 - Distribution o f ShipWa'itingTimes at the Arrival Buoy
of the system.

As the input data shows random variability, the output

of simulation runs will also demonstrate random variability.
This means that a statistical analysis o f the output data
should be applied.

Important results include the distribution o f ship waiting

times and ship turnround times in relation to the channel
dimensions. On the basis o f this information, a financial
evaluation can be carried o u t

For alternative channel layouts a traffic flow simulation

model reveals:
• the maximum channel capacity using acceptable ship
waiting times and ship turnaround times as criteria
• the impact o f operational rule changes resulting from
safety demands on ship waiting times.

The Traffic Planner therefore stands alongside the ship Figure 7.5 - Plot ofWaiting Times in Minutes
manoeuvring simulation as a powerful to o l fo r the marine-
side design.The full design process is essentially iterative,
If, however, the objective is reliability and security, then the
with the channel design, capacity, cost, operational rules o r
chance o f failure of a channel passage should be minimized.
traffic speeds being adjusted sequentially, depending on the
This may result in strictly formulated tidal windows and
resulting down-times in unfavourable weather conditions.
 ^ p r jj0th objectives the relation between the dimensions o f at a suitable location.These boarding areas must be
the approach channel on one side and the related waiting properly located and this may concern the waterway
mes on the other have to be known in order to optimize designer. A t such locations ships may slow down (and
Channel dimensions. possibly ‘bunch’ in a busy p o rt) and account may need to
be taken o f this in the local channel design.

The boarding area should ideally be in waters not subject to

7 5 PILOTAQE severe seas o r swells, which would make pilot boat operation
CONSIDERATIONS difficult o r impossible. If long transits are needed then
alternatives to the pilot boat such as helicopter transfers may
need to be considered. In such cases,a sea area where safe
helicopter transfers tan take place may need to be
p ;: 7.5,1 Qeneral considered by the designer so that the ship can proceed in
the correct orientation to the wind fo r a safe transfer.
Handling ships in the waters of a harbour will be the
'• responsibility o f a number of groups o f mariners.These include
: ferry masters, tug masters and other small craft operators.
7.5.4 Anchoring Areas and
Lay-by Berths
The majority o f ocean-going ships however will be handled
by qualified pilots who combine ship-handling skills w ith
A p ilo t may decide that berthing the ship, o r fu rth e r transit
local knowledge of special conditions in the pilotage area.
They will have technical knowledge, and w ill also be well along the channel, cannot proceed.This may be because, in
versed in the regulatory and environmental requirements his view, weather conditions have deteriorated past the
o f the p o rt area (Reference 7.4), limits fo r safe operation, the tidal ‘window1he had is now
closed, an emergency has arisen ahead o f his ship o r one of
This combination o f abilities is (o r should be) a valuable a number o f o th e r reasons.
resource fo r the designer of p o rt waterways, as has been
shown earlier in this report.The pilot’s value as a member If the reason fo r this is likely to disappear in the short
o f the design team and his advisory role fo r ship-handling term, he may choose to ‘stop and hold’ his ship in the
matters is apparent in the discussions given above on the channel. If not, he wiil have to anchor, o r make fast to a lay­
use o f simulation. However, there are oth e r aspects relating by berth.The latter is more likely to occur in river o r
to pilot operations which may affect waterway design and estuary passages with large tidal ranges and strong
these are now considered. currents, but both measures should be allowed fo r in the
design.
7.5.2 Pilot Variability Suitable anchorage areas and/or lay-by berths should be
provided along the waterway These will be positioned in
Pilots are human and, while all should (and generally wiil) relation to:
attain a high degree o f competence, some will be better
* berth location,
than others.The ability of those that take part in simulator
exercises may well be biased toward the better end o f the * transit speeds and times,
spectrum either because they are the most experienced * tidal characteristics,
and senior pilots, o r because they have themselves taken a * currents,
technical interest in p o rt design and simulators in the past. * weather data.

W hile such pilots will be of great benefit to the design team, In addition, anchorage location will have to take into
it must be recognised that they may represent the best account:
available.The question of how much allowance should be
* sea bed composition,
made fo r the variability in pilot capabilities is not an easy one
* searoom fo r a ship to swing at anchor.
to answer, but some allowance must nevertheless be made.

Some of the pilot models in fast tim e simulations allow fo r

7.5.5 Pilot Numbers
errors o f perception and position and can, in principle,
allow fo r human variability. In real-time simulation either
some arbitrary allowance must be made fo r pilo t variability The numbers o f pilots to operate a service in a given
o r a number o f pilots w ith a range o f abilities must be used channel w ill o f course be the concern o f the local pilotage
in the study. authority. However the designer may have to consider this
in relation to berth areas fo r pilot vessels as well as, in
some parts o f the world, the cost o f the pilotage service.
7.5.3 Pilot Boarding Areas
The techniques fo r determining the required numbers of
An in-bound river o r berthing p ilo t must board the ship at pilots to service a given station will be similar to those
a suitable location; similarly an out-bound pilot must leave used to estimate tug numbers in Section 6.6.3 above.
 7.5.6 Safety Aspects historical data can be used to determine rates that have
arisen in similar p o rt situations.

The pilots primary aim, having regard to the limitations o f These secondary criteria can take a number o f forms, most
the channel and the vulnerability of p o rt installations, is to of which have been evolved by trial and e rro r in various
ensure the optimum expedition consistent w ith maximum ports o f the world. In the remainder o f this section a
safety o f the ship in his charge. By his training (including number o f secondary criteria are given fo r use in design.
simulator training) and experience he will know what is The very nature o f these means that they may change over
safe, and is therefore a valuable source o f advice in time and may become less deterministic and more
simulation studies. In some cases he may be the only means probabilistic.
whereby safety can be assessed, if no other measures or
safety criteria are availabfe.There are some, however, and
these are discussed in the next section. 7.6.3 Risk Criteria

Primary C riteria
7.6 SAFETY CRITERIA Typical values o f the risk to life used in the marine and
other transport contexts are:

I in 10^ and I in {O'8

7.6.1 Qeneral
It should be noted that the number of casualties N c
(Equation 12) is part o f this value; the greater the potential
The rational measurement of safety and the setting of number o f casualties, the less must be the potential risk of
standards against which a channel design can be judged are an accident
problems which as yet do not have universal solutions in the
marine world.There are no internationally-accepted criteria Secondary C riteria
against which to judge safety (as measured by overall marine
risk) in the discipline of p o rt approach channel design, so Little analysis has been done on incident rates. It is
that some have to be determined o r implied. nevertheless'true that incidents occur in ports and in the
majority o f cases it may be implied that they are at a
A thorough analysis o f shipping accidents shows that only a sufficiently low level to be acceptable. Analysis o f the
small percentage of accidents in approach channels and rates fo r the various accident types (grounding, stranding,
ports has been ascribed to channel design, but it is essential etc.) would presumably indicate what these ‘acceptable’
that, with future commercial and economic pressures rates are.
placed on p o rt operators, this percentage remains low.
This has been done fo r the risk o f grounding (Reference
The Concept Design method given in Chapter 5 is based 7.5) by interrogating large accident databases fo r N orthern
on good modern practice and therefore contains within it European ports.The result o f this analysis showed a
the implied safety margins used in many ports throughout remarkably consistent grounding rate of:
the world. In Detailed Design, where measurements o f
marine risk have been made, quantitative measures o f 0.03 incidents per 1000 ship movements.
safety are available and a judgement must be made as to
This expectation o f grounding was consistent throughout
whether such levels are adequate o r not.
the data and, as this was the general rate applying, the
In this section a number o f criteria are considered which can inference can be drawn that this level is acceptable to p o rt
be used to judge the safety of a channel design once and ship operators.
simulation data has been obtained. First, however, the general
concept o f primary and secondary criteria are considered. N o other similar analysis fo r the risk o f other incidents is
known.

7.6.2 Primary and Secondary Criteria

7.6.4 Rudder Activity Criteria
In Section 7 .1 the notion o f risk to human life was
introduced. It was also mentioned that the reduction o f It seems intuitively obvious that rudder activity is a
this risk is the primary motivation behind safety measure o f the adequacy and safety o f an approach
considerations, legislation, etc. in the maritime world.This channel design; the more problems the ship has in
may therefore be regarded as the primary criterion fo r maintaining a course, the less satisfactory must be the
marine safety, and a value fo r the risk o f life, acceptable to design.
society, is the goal fo r all marine risk assessments.
Although there is some truth in this assertion, it should
As has been mentioned, the primary criterion o f risk to nevertheless be treated w ith caution. Rudder activity is as
human life is not always needed when considering marine much an indication o f the inherent manoeuvrability o f the
risk in ports and other, secondary, criteria can be ship o r the technique o f the ship-handier as it is o f the
considered.These can be in terms of incident rates, and adequacy o f the channel.
 Measures o f rudder activity are: Probabilistic
• mean rudder angle 6m Limiting probabilities o r exceedence of lane width and
« ro o t mean square rudder angle Srms passing distance w ith two-way traffic should be 0.5 and 0.2
• standard deviation (Reference 7.6).
• maximum rudder angle 8max
• number o f crossings o f mean rudder angle value per In Reference 7.7, fo r a 10 km long fairway, it is stated that
run, N rud the probability th a t no accident will occur during 10 years
• number o f crossings per unit tim e N rucj/t o f operation is 0.6.
ns
C riteria may be couched in terms o f one o r more o f these A method which exploits the apparently acceptable
parameters. Acceptable mean o r ‘equilibrium’ rudder angles grounding rate in ports is given in Reference 7.5. In this a
to counter wind, bank effects, interaction, etc. have been distribution o f transverse positions of a ship passing
suggested fo r design on the assumption that adequate through a gate in the channel area is obtained using
values fo r the ‘balance’ rudder angle to counter these multiple simulation runs from real o r fast time simulations.
phenomena can be used.Typical values are given in Table If the position distribution can be fitted w ith a continuous
7.3. distribution, then the probability of the lateral position
exceeding the channel boundary can be determined. Once
obtained, it can be compared with the acceptable
Table 7.3
grounding risk, o r alternatively, this risk level can be used to
design the w idth directly (Figure 7.6).
Phenomenon K \
Fora normal distribution, the probability o f grounding
Bank Effects ^ 5° to 7°
would be:
Cross W ind and Current s25°
Reserve 5D N_sd
Bends ^ 15° Pr(groundig) ~ I —erf| (21)
I a/2

where N S(j is the number, o f standard deviations from the

mean, and " e rf” is the Error Function.
Additional rudder activity criteria are:

|6rms| s 10° for targe tankers in straight channels

|8max| £ 15° fo r 75° of transit

lsi 20° fo r a ship with good

manoeuvrability

a6 * 17°

N rU(j/t £ 0 .1 / second.

Unfortunately these measures are

n o t very sensitive to changes in
channel design.They should therefore
be used in conjunction with other
safety criteria.

7.6.5 Width Criteria

C riteria to determine safe widths are

both deterministic and probabilistic.
Examples now follow:

Determ inistic

The maximum swept lane width to

be no more than 70% of the available
channel width.
 7.6.6 Depth Criteria “ The probability o f one seabed contact in 25 years use
of the selected route shall not exceed 0 .1
(Netherlands) o r 0.027 (UK)”
Deterministic
For further information, see Reference 7.9.
The main deterministic criterion relates to the additional
‘safety’ margin to be added to the depth determined from:
• draught 7.6.7 Alignment Criteria
• squat
• motions Alignment safety criteria are essentially those related to
• water density. width and depth mentioned above.The probabilistic
approach is perhaps the most appropriate if a simulator is
This safety margin, the net underkeel clearance, depends used, the envelope o f tracks having to satisfy the various
on the type o f bottom (muddy, sandy rocky) cargo hazard width criteria.
level and environmental conditions. It is usually set at 0.3
metres fo r a muddy bottom, 0.5 metres fo r a sandy It is probably in the navigation o f bends that the ‘Panel o f
bottom, and at least one metre fo r a hard o r rocky Experts’ approach is most appropriate and, ideally, no bend
bottom. can be considered satisfactory at the design stage if not
passed by suitably qualified mariners.
Probabilistic

When the channel is subject to wave action, the probability

o f seabed contact can be determined as described in
Section 6.5.3 using plots such as that in Figure 7.7 (see
Reference 7.8).Acceptable values fo r seabed contact are
suggested as:

5rtLg8Qgjcat.laa..gfnp..,.6,a l„lj.ng J.n 35% gap

V Ind speed (m/s) Vlnd d u re ito o

1. 3 .0 h o tfe
?. <5.0 h o ir*
Gip 4.0 r» S. 12.0 hour*
I Ship apaed 10.0 kr»t« ) 4. 2 4 .0 h o u rs

Figure 7.7 - Plot o f Computed Seabed Contact Risk

 assessment can be made o f marine risk and any changes to
i 8. METHODOLOQY it which may be caused by a proposed change in design and
/ OVERVIEW: THE MARINE operation (Reference 5.8). It has found its place primarily
in p o rt and harbour design where changes in operation,
, IMPACT ASSESSMENT layout o r traffic flows can have a major impact on safety,
which in turn can have an effect on the p o rt environment
.J its operation and the safety o f life.

The growth o f the MIA and its use in p o rt design has been
helped by the advent o f the types o f computer models
8.1 QENERAL OVERVIEW described in Chapters 6 and 7 above. As has been seen
they are aided, and in some cases dependent upon, parallel
developments in p o rt operation, especially in the area of
The body o f this re p o rt has described the techniques radar surveillance.This allows a very comprehensive
presently available fo r the design o f approach channels and picture to be drawn of the existing traffic situation within
associated waterways. Emphasis has been placed on safety the p o rt and hence allows a detailed determination o f
y. existing levels o f marine risk, which, as already discussed,
of operation and, to this end, a major part o f the report
has been devoted to aspects o f marine risk.The balance often provides the yardstick against which future
between safety and cost has also been addressed, although developments are measured.
the trade-off to be made between these tw o important
aspects must remain the province o f the authority who
Is to operate the channel.

The design methods proposed above reflect the increasing

need to consider safety and risk at all stages. In the
maritime world there are few internationally-recognised
safety criteria against which to judge a design.This means
that analysis of existing accident data is o f great
importance; more is needed and the ability to access p o rt
accident/near miss records will become increasingly
important as the need for safety criteria grows.

The results from the questionnaire sent o u t by the

W orking Group give an indication o f modern practise in
Channel Design.They may be used as a guide and
reference because the channels listed in Appendix A
have been operated with a satisfactory safety record,
according to the responses to the questionnaire.

It may be argued that channel design and dimensions

per se play a m inor part in marine casualties; human
factors play the greater p a rt N o doubt this is correct,
and it is a situation which will continue, but the
interaction o f human factors and channel design is
central to the design methods discussed above. Every
effort has been made to include human factors in the
design process given in this re p o rt

It is hoped that the methods described in this report

will help to ensure a satisfactory level o f marine safety is
maintained and, to this end, it is appropriate to draw the
disparate elements o f the design process together into
the formal structure of the Marine Impact Assessment.

8.2 THE M A R IN E IMPACT

ASSESSMENT

Figure 8.1 - Structure o f a Marine impact Assessment

In maritime engineering and design, the twin concerns
fo r both the environment and the safety o f human life
have given rise to the Marine Impact Assessment (MIA). The structure o f the MIA is shown diagrammatically in
This provides a formal framework w ithin which an Figure 8 .1.This is self-explanatory and provides the formal
structure within which the computer models o f Chapters 6 • behaviour and equipping of vessels;
and 7 can be used. • local physical and environmental conditions;
• human factors;
it is seen that the design process follows a logical,
• pilotage, tug assistance and navigational aids,
interactive, sequence in which details o f channel design are
linked to their consequence upon maximum risk. A t the in carrying o u t this task it will be necessary to:
heart of the MIA is the assessment o f marine risk and its
1. Collate and review existing information and tools
comparison with known criteria.
available (worldwide) on the design of approach
it is seen that computer simulation models play an im port channels, such as desk study methods, mathematical
roie in this manoeuvring simulation by allowing width and and physical modelling and simulation, including
alignment to be checked and modified as well as providing research w o rk in hand; this would include a review
means fo r optimisation of alignment and the provision o f o f relevant w o rk already completed by PIANC
Rules o f Operation. working groups.

These Rules form an im portant input to traffic simulation 2. Establish and maintain liaison w ith hydrological and
models as they provide the necessary constraints both to ship research institutions and organisations in
control and minimise marine risk, (f the overall marine risk relation to ship behaviour in a variety o f physical
is deemed unacceptable, the Rules o f Operation can be and environmental conditions.
changed to improve matters before alterations to the
3. Develop and circulate a questionnaire to be
channel design need to be addressed*
forwarded to all p o rt authorities and other
The full MIA w ill n o t be needed in every case. Sometimes interested and relevant bodies, in order to obtain
the emphasis will be on traffic flows within a channel o r data on:
fairway rather than ship behaviour; on other occasions
3.1 physical conditions, eg. tidal range, nature o f
where the p o rt has little traffic, the emphasis will be on
seabed;
ship handling. In all cases a consensus opinion regarding
the safety o f operation must be reached by the multi­ 3.2 parameters and criteria used fo r channel design
disciplinary design team as well as the clients.This is best having regard to local physical conditions;
achieved by means o f simulation which provides the
necessary catalyst to agreement. 3.3 number and sizes o f vessels which use these
channels and in what environmental and
The cost implications o f any channel design (and its
operational conditions;
operation) must be considered.This o f course is part o f
the commercial assessment of the p o rt development which 3.4 records o f full-scale ship behaviour;
has implications and ramifications far beyond approach
channel design. 3.5 detailed reports on accidents/collisions in
approach channel(s).
The MIA however plays an important part in this overall
4. Analyse the replies received to the questionnaire to
design process for, w ithout a safe and efficient marine
provide a systematic inventory of the relevant
operation, the p o rt would have no long-term secure future.
prototype data in a standardised form.The object o f
the analyses shall be to validate manoeuvring
models and form the basis fo r updating existing
guidelines fo r channel design.
5. Analyse the methods used fo r the definition of the
9. TERMS OF nautical depth, based (among other factors) on
density and viscosity. It shall try to relate the
REFERENCE different methods and arrive either at one
standardised method, o r recommend a translation
procedure which facilitates the quantitative
P IA N C /IA P H Joint W orking Group 30 comparison o f the various methods. Criteria w ill be
recommended to be published as a practical guide
Dimensions of Channels and Fairways - a Practical fo r the nautical depth approach.
Guide 6. Develop a methodology fo r assessing and
1. On the basis of existing documents, and in particular reconciling economic and safety aspects of channel
with reference to the draft report o f PIANC PTC II design and use.
W orking Group 7, it shall be ascertained whether there
7. Set up practical guidelines fo r the design of
is sufficient information in these documents to permit
channels.
the preparation o f a joint preliminary practical guide
with respect to channel width and channel lay-out. 3. The successful implementation o f the findings of the
2. To formulate guidelines fo r design and subsequent study w ill require the support of ship-owner
utilisation of navigable channels, having regard to organisations and governments in ensuring that the
existing knowledge and experience and available necessary ship-board equipment is provided to
analytical techniques, with particular reference to: optimise the use of the channels.
 6.9 ‘Capability of Ship Manoeuvring Simulation Models for
Approach Channels and Fairways in Harbours’. Report
ofW orking Group 20 o f Permanent Technical
Committee II, Supplement to Bulletin no. 77 (1992),
5.1 'Underkeel Clearance fo r Large Ships in Maritime PIANC, Brussels.
Fairways w ith Hard Bottom’, Supplement to PJANC
Bulletin 5 J, I 985. 6 .10 Webster,W.C. (e d ito r),‘Shiphandling Simulation :
Application to Waterway Design’. Committee on
5.2 ‘Navigation in Muddy Areas’, PJANC Bulletin 43, pages Assessment of Shiphandling Simulation, National
21 - 28,1982/83. Academy Press, Washington, D .C., 1992.

5.3 ‘Global Wave Statistics’, British Maritime Technology 6.11 ‘Guidelines and Recommendations fo r the Safe
Ltd., London, 1987. Mooring o f Large Ships at Piers and Sea Islands’, Oil
Companies International Marine Forum, London, 1978.
5.4 International Commission fo r the Reception o f Large
Ships (ICORELS), Report of W orking Group IV.
6.! 2 Lean, G.H., Price, W.A.:The effect o f passing vessels
Supplement to PIANC Bulletin 35,1980.
on a moored ship,The Dock and Harbour Authority,
5.5 ‘Aids to Navigation Guide (Navguide)’ International Vo!, 58,1977.
Association of Lighthouse Authorities (IALA), 2nd
6.13 ‘Report o f the International Commission for
Edition, November 1993.
Improving the Design o f Fender Systems’ Supplement
5.6 Dand, l.W.:‘An Approach to the Design o f Navigation to PIANC Bulletin No. 45,1984.
Channels’. National Maritime Institute Report R104,
May, 1981. 6.14 ‘C riteria fo r Movements o f Moored Ships in
Harbours’ Report o f PIANC W orking Group 24,
5.7 ‘Code o f Practice fo r the Carriage o f Dangerous Supplement to PIANC Bulletin No. 88,1995.
Goods by Sea’, International Maritime Organisation,
London. 7.1 Lewison,G.R.G.:‘The Estimation o f Collision Risk for
Marine Traffic in U K W aters’. Journal o f Navigation,
5.8 Dand, l.W and Lyon, P.R.: ‘The Role o f the Marine
volume 33, no. 3, September, 1980.
Impact Assessment in Port Development’, International
Conference on Maritime Technology .'Challenges in 7.2 Solem, R R.:‘Probability Models o f Grounding and
Safety and Environmental Protection, Singapore, Collision’. Proceedings o f Automation o f Safety in
November 1993.
Shipping and Offshore Petroleum Operations, 1980.
6.1 Heikkila, M.:‘The Evaluation o f Manoeuvrability through
7.3 IALA Recommendations fo r Leading Lights,AISM
a N arrow Strait using a Full-Bridge Shiphandling
Bulletin No. 71, Paris, May 1977.
Simulator’, MARS1M and ICSM ‘90,Tokyo, japan, June
•1990. 7.4 ‘Pilotage and Shiphandling’.The Nautical Institute,
6.2 Bowers, E.C. & Stewart, C.F.;‘Waves over Dredged London, 1990.
Channels’, HR Ltd Report IT219, October 1981.
7.5 Dand, l.W. and Lyon, P.R.: T h e Element o f Risk in
6.3 Dand, l.W. and W hite, W.R.:‘Design of Navigation Approach Channel Design’. International Conference
Canals’, National Maritime Institute report R78,April, on Maritime Technology : Challenges in Safety and
1980. Environmental Protection, Singapore, November, 1993.

6.4 ‘PC - Global Wave Statistics - Version 2 .!’. Disk and 7.6 Koster,j.:‘PushTows in Canals’. D elft Hydraulics
manual. British Maritime Technology, 1990. Laboratory Report no. 144,1975.

6.5 Shore Protection Manual, US Army Corps o f Engineers, 7.7 Oldenkamp, I.:‘Statistical Analysis o f Ships’ Manoeuvres’.
Coastal Engineering Research Centre,Vicksburg, 1984. Symposium on Ship Handling,Wageningen, November,
1973.
6.6 Admiralty Manual of Tides, HMSO, 1941, reprinted
1961.
7.8 Spencer, j.M.A., Bowers, E.C. and Lean, G.H. ( 1990): Safe
6.7 The IALA Maritime Buoyage System,AISM Publication, underkeel allowances fo r vessels in navigation channels.
Paris, November i980. Proc. 22nd International Coastal Engineering
Conference, pp. 3 126 - 3139, Delft, the Netherlands.
6.8 The IALA Recommendations fo r the Rhythmic
Characters o f Lights on Aids to Navigation, AISM 7.9 Savenije.A.C.;‘Probabilistic Admittance Policy Deep
publication, Paris, April 1982. Draught Vessels’, PIANC Bulletin N o .9 l, 1996.
 11. QLOSSARY ECS:
Electronic C hart System

ECDIS:
Electronic Chart Display System
Several terms, expressions and abbreviations have been
used in this re p o rt which may not be familiar to all users. A fairway:
glossary o f such terms is given below:
the navigable waterway defined by the fairway buoys.This
aid to navigation: may o r may not have a width equal to that o f the channel.
a device external to a vessel designed to assist in the
Froude Depth Number:
determination of its position and its safe course o r to warn
a key non-dimensional parameter related to behaviour in
of changes o r obstructions. !n the case o f channels such
shallow water. A t a Froude Depth Number of unity a ship is
devices include buoys, piled beacons, leading lights, sector
lights, radar reflectors etc. moving at the ‘critical’ speed o f the wave o f translation fo r
the depth o f water. It will make extremely large transverse
bank effects: waves and will experience a massive increase in
a hydrodynamic effect caused by the proximity o f a ship to resistance.Few commercial displacement ships have
a bank.Asymmetrical pressures acting on the ship may sufficient power to attain such speeds in shallow water, and
cause it to be sucked towards, and turned away from, the operate in the subcritical regime.
bank. Bank effects depend on speed, distance off, ship size,
bank height and w ater depth/draught ratio. GPS:
a global positioning system. A satellite-based maritime
bend angle:
positioning system.
the angle between tw o legs o f a channel which meet at a
bend. Usually expressed as the change of heading fo r a ship grounding:
using a bend, so that a ‘45° bend’ means that a ship’s track a grounding occurs when a vessel under way comes into
heading must change by 45° when navigating the bend. contact with the bed o f waterway, berth o r bank of a
bend radius: fairway, canal o r river.
the radius from the centre o f the bend to the centreline of
impact
the channel.
impact occurs when a vessel under way, o r drifting, hits an
CGI: immovable object such as a jetty.
Computer-Generated Image.
interaction:
channel width: hydrodynamic effect induced on a ship when close to
defined in this report as the width at the bed of the another ship o r a bank. It causes asymmetric forces and
channel. moments to act on the ship which can cause it to move off
collision: course.
a collision occurs when tw o vessels under way, drifting, on LNG:
tow o r otherwise untethered come into contact, liquified natural gas
concept design:
LPG:
preliminary design o f channel width, depth and alignment
liquified petroleum gas
using data given in this report, together with other relevant
data relating to ships and environment. MIA:
marine impact assessment-A multidisciplinary method of
DGPS:
Differential GPS.A method of improving the accuracy o f assessing the effect o f a change in the marine environment
GPS by means o f ground stations at known locations. brought about by channels, new reclamations, changes in
marine traffic etc.The effect on marine risk is o f
deto//ed design: paramount importance.
the additional design process involved in refining and
exploring aspects o f the approach channel design once the navigation aid:
initial width, depth and alignment have been determined. an instrument, device, chart etc. carried on board a vessel
This is outlined in Chapter 6 and is not to be confused and intended to assist in its navigation.
with ‘detailed design’ in the civil engineering sense.
0B0:
downtime; ore/bulk/oil carriers
the period(s) o f time fo r which the channel cannot be
used.This may be due to maintenance, accidents, prevailing wind/currenV
congestion o r because there is insufficient water depth the most commonly occurring wind o r current, obtained
(due to low tide height), excessive wind waves o r current from current and wind records. Currents will include tidal
fo r safe navigation. streams and wind-induced currents.
sheer: Lf = length o f floating object profile along channel
the tendency o f a ship to deviate from its chosen course. Lpp = ship length between perpendiculars (m)
Usually this is caused by ship-ship interaction, bank effects, Nc = number o f casualties
high velocity local cross currents o r wind squalls. R = bend radius (m), see Figure 5.! o r turning
radius over first 90° heading change,
stranding: see Figure 5.8
the consequence o f a grounding in which the ship is left tg = ship arrival rate
high and dry. tQ = overall marine risk
S>2» = blockage ratio A j/A ^
striking;
T - ship draught (m)
striking occurs when a ship underway hits a drifting floating
Tw = wave period (s)
object such as a ship at anchor, floating dock o r buoy.
V = ship speed through water (m/s)
swept track: Vk = ship speed in knots
the track swept o u t by the extremities o f the ship when w = width of waterway at bottom (m), see equations
manoeuvring. It w ill generally be greater in bends than (3) and (4)
straight sections and in cross winds and currents. It will w Bg = bank clearance on the green side o f channel
also be greater in deep water, under a given set of (m), see Table 5.4 and Figures'5.6 and 5.11
conditions, compared to shallow water. WBM = basic manoeuvring lane (m), see Table 5.1 and
Figure 5.2
trade-off study: wgr bank clearance on the red side of channel (m),
a study in which various (often competing) options are see Table 5.4 and Figures 5.6 and 5 .11
weighed against each other w ith the view to achieving an Wf = cross track e rro r
acceptable compromise solution. Wj ” additional width fo r wind, current, etc., see Table
UKC: 5.2
underkeel clearance W .L = water line, see Figure 5.6
= manoeuvring lane (m), see Figure 5 .11
window: wp = passing distance (m), see Table 5.3 and Figures
the time period fo r which a channel is available fo r use. 5.4 and 5 .11

VTS:
Vessel Traffic Service. An advisory service fo r mariners
regarding ship operations in a port. Provided by an
administration o r P ort Authority.

12. LIST OF SYMBOLS

As ship midship section area (m2)

~
a ch channel wetted cross-sectional area (mJ)
Ay, ST
A Ch " A s (m1)
a = bend angle (deg),see Figure 5.1
B ss ship beam (m)
=: block coefficient, see equation (2)
CB
V volume o f displacement (m3), see equation (2)
Aw — additional width in bends (m), see Figure 5.1

*1 = dynamic viscosity
frequency o f an accident
u grounding frequency
fst striking frequency
r; Froude Depth Number, see equation (1)
^nh
h water depth (m)
Hs = significant wave height (m)
Hw sz high w ater
kn — knot (nautical mile/hour)
Ks constant in equation (8)
X wave length (m)
L ship length (m)
Lc channel length
 APPENDIX A
ANALYSIS OF EXISTINQ APPROACH CHANNEL WIDTHS
A1. INTRODUCTION conditions. For an inner channel these figures are
respectively 6.5 B and 4.2 B.To determine whether the
channel is one o r tw o way (in the event that the
For the evaluation o f the Concept Design Rules (CDR), questionnaires o r other sources did not provide any
W orking Group 30 sent a questionnaire to a number o f certainty) it was assumed that 6 B indicated the difference
ports world wide. Although die questionnaire provided between a one- and a two-way channel.
useful information, in the course o f the evaluation process
it became clear that additional data was necessary to carry
out a comprehensive evaluation o f the CDR.
A3. EVALUATION OF THE
To obtain the additional information, a supplementary CONCEPT DESIQN RULES
questionnaire was sent to a selected number of ports.This
supplementary questionnaire provided additional
information on 26 approach channels. For the evaluation o f the Concept Design Rules (CDR) the
actual channel widths were compared with the channel
In addition, the following sources were used:
widths determined using them.This comparison needs
1. Guide to Port Entry 1993/1994, Shipping Guides some explanation.
Limited
A part from the assumptions fo r a number o f channels, no
2. Lloyd’s Ports o f the W orld 1994, Lloyd’s of London
data were available with respect to the maximum
Press Ltd
permissible speed, ship manoeuvrability, and in some cases,
3. Fairplay W orld Port Directory, Fairpiay 1994; wind conditions.To overcome this problem the minimum
4. Shipping Statistics Yearbook 1994, Institute of Shipping and maximum channel widths were determined by using
Economics & Logistics. both the ‘favourable’ and ‘unfavourable’ design conditions.
To determine the most favourable and most unfavourable
speed o f the vessel, all three speed classes mentioned in
the CDR were considered.
A2. SELECTION OF
In this way the range o f channel width (W mjn - W max) was
CHANNELS A N D
determined.
ASSUMPTIONS
The difference between the existing channel width and the
calculated range (W min - W max) is now defined as follows:
To carry out the evaluation properly, relevant channels
were selected. ifW 2Ctuat < W min(CDR)
then the difference = W actua| - W m{n(CDR)
For this a number o f criteria were used:
ifW actua, > W max(CDR)
1. the present channel width limits the beam o f the vessel
then the difference “ W actuaj - W max(CDR)
2. the beam of the largest vessel is known
ifW min(CDR) < W acwa5 < W max(CDR)
3. the existing width o f the channel is known.
then the difference = 0
W ith respect to the selected channels a number of
So a negative difference indicates an overestimation and a
assumptions were made fo r the evaluation (reference is
positive difference an under-estimation by the CDR.
made to Chapter 5 in the main report):
1. Channels have sloping edges and shoals unless
otherwise mentioned.
A3.1 One way channels
2. The channel width mentioned in the questionnaire
Table A ! and Figure A I show the results o f the application
refers to a straight section.
o f the CDR.
3. For the evaluation it is crucial to know whether the
channel type is one o r tw o way. Following the CDR, 16 channels are larger and 9 smaller
than the actual channel width, while 4 channels fall in the
For outer channels following the CDR, an absolute range W m{n - W max (see column 11).
maximum of 8.9 B fo r an one-way channel and an absolute
minimum o f 4.4 B fo r a two-way channel can be calculated The differences as defined in paragraph A3 vary between
using the ‘most unfavourable’ and ‘most favourable’ design -2 .1 B and 1.6 B (see column 12).
 Figure A I shows the position o f W min and W max and the 3. Overestimation by the CDR is caused by:
[ ' | location o f the actual channel w idth, while Figure A3 shows a. Discrepancies between the form er design ship and
> - - differences ranked by the magnitude of the difference. the ship dimensions o f the largest vessel presently
Figure A5 gives the ratios VVactua|/W max and W actua|/W rnjn allowed to enter the p o r t
j I (columns 8 and 10), b. The probability that the CDR uses more parameters
!I £*'A (for instance cargo hazard level and wave heights)
which can increase the channel w idth over the
^ A3.2Two way channels
t ' 'i original value.
■& c. The probability that the CDR applies higher safety
’* Results are presented fo r two-way channels in the same
standards than those in the original design.
^ manner as fo r the one-way equivalent.
d. The application o f special regulations fo r the
K:] Table A2 and Figures A2, A4 and A6 show the results.The approach of the largest vessel. For instance, under
' 'v results reveal that 8 channels are larger and 5 smaller than favourable environmental conditions o r under
the actual channel width, while 3 channels fall in the range restrictions o f the second manoeuvring fane (in a
| W mfn - W max.The differences vary between -2.6 B and 4.8 B. two-way channel), channel passage could be granted
to a ship with a larger beam than that o f the
original design vessel.

I A4. CONCLUSIONS If only the beam o f this larger vessel is mentioned in

the questionnaire, this regulation would lead to
overestimation when applying the CDR.
1. In general, the comparison between the dimensions
4. Underestimation by the CDR occurs in the following
derived using the Concept Design guidelines and the
situations:
■.$ dimensions o f the actual channels showed a good
correlation, having regard to the range of local a. Natural channels w ith a large width and a shallow
conditions which have to be taken into account when depth will lead to underestimation.
.•{ estimating channel width (see Figures AS andA6). b. If the width o f a wide estuary o r river is given
2. Moderately large individual differences can be noted instead o f the width o f the fairway, the CDR will
between actual channel width and channel width lead to an underestimation.
| calculated by the CDR.The differences vary from -2 .1 B
In such cases, the actual channel w idth does not lim it the
.j to 1.6 B fo r one-way and from -2.6 B to 4.8 B fo r two-
beam o f the vessel.
way channels.
 Table A I
Overview of existing and design widths, ratio & difference
One-way channel only
No. Loc. Existing Exist Width Existing Min/ Ratio’ Max.1 Ratio1 Range* Diffe­
channel channel of latest channel CDR of CDR of CDR rence’
width depth vessel W idth width Wmin/W width Wmax/W widths
in m in m in m In B in B in B in B in B
W D 8 w 1£t* w * 1*^nnnjir. W ^ W DIFF

(1) (2) (3) w (5) W <7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
i outer 200 14 60 3.3 3.4 1.03 3.9 12 0.5 -0.1
2 inner 100 8.5 24 4.2 3.6 0.9 4.2 1.0 0.6 0.0
3 inner 87 8.2 34 Z6 35 1.4 3.5 t.4 0 -0.9
4 inner !50 7 40 3.8 4.2 l. l 4.7 1.3 0.5 -0.4
5 Inner 200 IZ2 41 4.9 3.6 0.7 4.3 0.9 0.7 0.6
6 inner 76 7.6 32 2.4 A2 1.8 4.8 2.0 0.6 -1.8
7 outer 90 8.5 32 za 4.4 1.6 4.4 1.6 0 *1.6
8 inner 78 to 35 2,2 2.9 1.3 3.8 1.7 0.9 -0.7
9 outer 200 9.3 42 4.8 3.9 0.8 5.4 1.1 15 0.0
10 outer 152 ! 3.7 46 3.3 4.1 1.2 4.1 1.2 0 -0.8
II inner 122 !0.5 45.7 2.7 3.7 1.4 3.7 1.4 0 -1.0
12 inner 150 (3.5 34 4.4 3.7 0.8 3.7 0.8 0 0.7
13 inner 140 8.6 34 4.t 33 0.8 4 !.0 0.7 0.!
14 inner 250 13.5 58 4.3 3.6 0.8 4.3 1.0 0.7 0.0
15 outer 100 12 27. i 3.7 3 0.8 5.7 1.5 17 0.0
16 inner 91 n 44,2 Z1 3.8 1.8 3.8 1.8 0 -1.7
17 inner 200 10.5 34 5.9 3.3 0.6 4.3 0.7 1 1.6
18 outer 300 15 52 5.8 4.8 0.8 4.8 0,8 0 i.O
19 outer 180 tz e 40 4.5 6.6 1.5 8.7 1,9 2.1 -2.1
20 inner too 10 30 3.3 4.5 1.4 4.6 1.4 0.1 • 1.2
21 inner 152 12 28 5.4 2.9 05 3.9 0.7 1 1.5
22 mner 180 15.2 55 3.3 4 t.Z 4 1,2 0 -0.7
23 inner 183 11.6 39,6 4.6 3 0.6 3 0.6 0 1.6
24 outer 183 14.6 SS 3.3 3,4 t.O 3.4 1.0 0 -0.1
25 outer 185 112 32 5.8 5.6 1.0 5.6 1.0 0 0.2
26 outer 183 12 34 5,4 3.3 0.6 4.7 0.9 1.4 0.7
27 outer 150 7 37 4.1 4.2 1,0 4.2 1.0 0 -O.f
28 inner 90 8.1 32.2 Z8 3.6 1.3 3.6 1.3 0 •0.8
29 outer 200 S2 SS 3.6 3,7 1.0 6.2 1.7 2.5 -0.1

NOTES:
I} = Minimum width according to the Concept Design Rules (COR), using favourable conditions for the
variables of the additional widths. Abbreviated by W rnln, Presented as a multiple of B.
2) = Ratio (Abbreviated by W m in.rat. or W m a x.ra tlo .)
is determined as follows:
F o r W m in W m in .ra t.= W m !n /W a £ tu a l (8)=(7)/(6)
F o rW m a x W m ax. rat.=W m ax/W acU ial (!0)=(9)/(6)
3) = Maximum width according to COR, using unfavourable conditions for the variables of the additional
widths. Abbreviated by W m ax. Presented as a multiple of B.
4) = Range {Abbreviated by W range. Presented as a multiple of B) is the difference between the minimum
and maximum CDR width.
W range = W m ax-W m i n or ( 11)=(?)-( 7)
5) = Difference (Abbreviated by DiFF. Presented as a multiple of 8.) determined as follows:
tfW actuaf < W m in Iorcol.(6)<(7)] ihen DIFF = W actual - W m in ()2)=(6)-{7)
IfW a c tu a l > W m a x [or col. (6}>(9)] then DIFF = W a e tu a J -W m a x (!2)=(6)-(9)
tfW m ln < W actual < W m a x then DIFF = 0
6) = WactuaJ is the ratio of existing channel width W and the vessel’s beam 8. (W actual=W /B)

Notes: Figure I shows both the existing widths (Wactual) and the CDR widths and Notes: * Figure 2 shows boih the existing width (Wactual) and the CDR widths (Wmin,<t« and
Woui.a») as presented in Table I. Wmw,cot} as presented in Table 2.
The numbers correspond with those used in Table I. * The numbers correspond with those used in Table 2.
All widths ate in units o f B. * Alt widths are in units c f B.

1 2 ’ i 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 M 12 13 !4
PORTSfHARBOURS
* W e c to il [B ]
* Wmm.CDRtB! * Wjnsx.CDR [nj

Figure A I Figure A2
 Table A2
Overview of existing and design widths, ratio & difference
Two-way channel only
No. loc. Existing Exist. Width Existing Min.' Ratio* Max.1 Ratio’ Range* Diffe­
channel <hsnnel of la te st channel CDR of CDR of CDR rence’
width depth vessel Width width W min/W width Wmax/W widths
in m in m in m (n B in B In B in B in B
W D B w ^ ‘ w ^, w , ^ W ^ W
* 'm vuv. DIFF

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) <«> m (8) (9) (10) (H ) (12)
1 inner 200 9.1 28 7.! 6.8 0.95 6.8 0.95 0 03
2 inner 150 9.5 26 S.8 6.2 l. l 6.2 l.l 0 -0.4
3 inner 300 (3.5 45 6.7 6.6 j.O 8.6 13 2 0.0
4 inner 200 10.7 32.3 6.2 7.8 13 7.8 13 0 -1.6
5 inner 320 13 25 118 6.2 05 8 0.6 t.8 4.8
6 outer 240 II 31 7.7 5.7 0.7 8.5 l. l 2.8 0.0
7 outer 500 13 40 12.5 10 0.8 11.6 0.9 1.6 0.9
8 outer 200 25 33 6.) 8.7 1.4 103 1.7 1.6 -2.6
9 inner 244 11 42.7 5.7 6.4 l. l 6.4 l.l 0 -0.7
10 inner 200 U 32 6.3 6.8 l. l 6.8 1.1 0 -05
li outer 960 21 69 13.9 9.7 0.7 15.1 (.1 5.4 0.0
12 outer 240 12 34 7.1 8.7 1.2 14.1 2.0 5.4 - 1.6
13 inner 360 10.5 45 9.0 7.6 1.0 7.6 1.0 0 0.4
14 inner 150 I0.S 20 7.5 8.4 l.l 10.2 1.4 1.8 •0.9
IS inner 200 12.9 325 6.2 8.8 1.4 as i.4 0 -Z6
16 inner 150 n 13 115 9.6 0.8 10.6 0.9 1 0.9

NOTES:
!) = Minimum width according to th e Concept Design Rules (CDft), using favourable conditions for the variables
of the additional widths. Abbreviated by W m in. Presented as a multiple of B.
2) = Ratio {Abbreviated by W m in .rat. or W m ax, ratio.)
is determined as follows:
For W m in W m in ,ra t. ~ W m in/W a ctua l (8)-(7)/(6)
For Wmax Wmax.rat. «*Wmax/Wactual (IO)={9)/{6)
3) = Maximum width according to CDR, using unfavourable conditions for the variables of the additional
widths. Abbreviated by W m ax. Presented as a multiple o f B.
4) = Range {Abbreviated by W range. Presented as a multiple of B) is the difference between the minimum
and maximum CDR width.
W ra nge = W m a x -W m tii or (! I)={9)-(7)
5) = Difference (Abbreviated by DIFF. Presented as a multiple o f 8.) determined as follows:
If W actual < W m in [or cot. (6) <(7)] then DIFF ='W a c tu a l-W m in (l2)=(6)-(7)
IfWactual > Wmax [or cot. (6}>{9ft then DIFF = W actual-W max (!2)=(6)-(9)
If Wmin < Wactual < Wmax then DiFF- 0
6) = W actu a l is the ratio of existing channel width W and the vessel's beam B. (W actual=W /B)

Notes: * To categorise a channef the following rule is used:

IfW a c tu a t < 6.8 then One-Way
IfW actuaJ > 6.B then Two-Way
* The following channels are categorised as One-Way based on that rule in spicc of die information
obtained from the questkmaire and the supplementary questionaire and were removed from Table 2
{Two-Way channels) coTabte i (One-Way channels):

No. Location Type according Wactual Rule of Categorised

of Table I to questionalre Category as

I. outer Two-Way 3.3 B <6B One-Way

9. outer Two-Way 4.8 B < 68 One-Way
12. inner Two-Way 4.4 B < 6B One-Way
16. inner Two-Way 2.1 B <6B One-Way
27. outer Two-Way 4.1 B < 6 fl One-Way
N otes: * Figure 3 eombiaes figure 1 (using Ihc Itfl v-axis) with the Diffetenc* (using the right v-axiO. N otes: * Figure 4 combines figure 2 (using the tefl y-axisl with the Difference (using (he ngiuvav
* The channels are tanked according to the magnitude o f the Difference. • The ciianncisarc ranked accordi ng lo Ihc magnitude o f the Di (Tereocc.
* The values o f the Difference are listed in column (12) of Tables 1 • The values o f the Difference arc listed in column (12) o f Tables 2.
* The numbers correspond with those used in Table I. • The numbers correspond with those used io Table 2.
* Both the widths and the Difference are in units o f 8. • Both the widths and the Difference are in units o f B.

TAVO W A Y C H A N N E L
Wmin, Wmax, Wucfual. & Difference

Figure A3 Figure A4

Notes: * Figure 5 shows the ratio of the CDR widths and the existing width. The values are listed in Notes: * Figure 6 shows the ralio of the CDR uidihs and ilie existing width. The values are listed it
columns (8) (WnWV/nx) and (10) (W tW W ia) of Table 1. columns (8) (WmirAV«ci) and (10) (WmWWio.) o f Tabic 2.
• The numbers correspond with lhose used in Table ]. * The numbers correspond with those used in Table 2.

ONE W AY CHANNEL T W O W AY CHANNEL j

Ratio vslues Ratio values

F/gure AS Figure A6
 APPENDIX B
TYPICAL SHIP DIMENSIONS

Dead­ Displacement LengthoA Lengthpp Beam Draught Block

weight Coefficient
tonnes tonnes m m m m

Tankers (ULCC)

500,000 590,000 415.0 392.0 73.0 24.0 0.86

400,000 475,000 380.0 358.0 68.0 23.0 0.85
350.000 420,000 365.0 345.0 65.5 22.0 0.85

Tankers (VLCC)

300,000 365,000 350.0 330.0 63.0 21.0 0.84

275,000 335,000 340.0 321.0 61.0 20.5 0.84
250,000 305,000 330.0 312.0 59.0 (9.9 0.83
225,000 277,000 320.0 303.0 57. 19.3 0.83
200,000 246,000 310.0 294.0 55.0 18.5 0.82

Tankers

175,000 217,000 300.0 285.0 52.5 17.7 0.82

150,000 186,000 285.0 270.0 49.5 16.9 0.82
125,000 156,000 270.0 255.0 46.5 16.0 0.82
100,000 125,000 250.0 236.0 43.0 I5.S 0.82
80,000 102,000 235.0 223.0 40.0 14.0 0.82
70,000 90,000 225.0 213.0 38.0 13.5 0.82
60,000 78,000 217.0 206.0 36.0 13.0 0.81

Product and Chemical Tankers

50,000 66,000 210.0 200.0 32.2 12.6 0.81

40,000 54,000 200.0 190.0 30.0 11.8 0.80
30,000 42,000 188.0 178.0 28.0 10.8 0.78
20,000 29,000 174.0 165.0 24.5 9.8 0.73
10,000 15,000 145.0 137.0 19.0 7.8 0.74
5,000 8,000 110.0 104.0 15.0 7.0 0.73
3,000 4,900 90.0 85.0 13.0 6.0 0.74

Bulk Carriers/O BO’s

400,000 464,000 375.0 356.0 62.5 24.0 0.87

350,000 406,000 362.0 344.0 59.0 23.0 0.87
300,000 350,000 350.0 333.0 56.0 21.8 0.86
250,000 292,000 335.0 318.0 52.5 20.5 0.85
200,000 236,000 315.0 300.0 48.5 19.0 0.85
150,000 179,000 290.0 276.0 44.0 17.5 0.84
125,000 150,000 275.0 262.0 41.5 16.5 0.84
100,000 121,000 255.0 242.0 39.0 15.3 0.84
80,000 98,000 240.0 228.0 36.5 14.0 0.84
60,000 74,000 220.0 210.0 33.5 12.8 0.82
40,000 50,000 195.0 185.0 29.0 11.5 0.80
20,000 26,000 160.0 152.0 23.5 9.3 0.78
10,000 13,000 130.0 124.0 18.0 7.5 0.78

Container Ships (Post Panamax)

70,000 100.000 280.0 266.0 M - 41.8 13.8 0.65

65,000 92,000 274.0 260.0 Uo\ 41.2 13.5 0.64
60,000 84.000 268.0 255.0 39.8 13.2 0.63
55,000 76,500 261.0 248.0 38.3 12.8 0.63

NotefThe dimensions of the ships given in the tables may vary up to ± 10% depending on construction and country o f origin.
 Dead­ Displacement LengthOA Lengthpp Beam Draught Block
weight Coefficient
tonnes tonnes m m m m
Container Ships (Panamax)

60,000 83,000 290.0 275.0 32.2 13.2 0.71

55,000 75,500 278.0 264.0 32.2 12.8 0.69
50,000 68,000 267.0 253.0 32.2 12.5 0.67
45,000 61,000 255.0 242.0 32.2 12.2 0.64
40,000 54,000 237.0 225.0 32.2 11.7 0.64
35,000 47,500 222.0 211.0 32.2 II. 1 0.63
30,000 40,500 210.0 200.0 30.0 10.7 0.63
25,000 33,500 195.0 185.0 28.5 10.1 0.63
20,000 27,000 174.0 165.0 26.2 9.2 0.68
15,000 20,000 152.0 144.0 23.7 8.5 0.69
10,000 13,500 . 130.0 124.0 21.2 7.3 0.70

Freight Ro-Ro Ships

50,000 87,500 287.0 273.0 32.2 12.4 0.80

45,000 81,000 275.0 261.0 32.2 12.0 0.80
40,000 72,000 260.0 247.0 32.2 11.4 0.79
35,000 63,000 245.0 233.0 32.2 10.8 0.78
30,000 54,000 231.0 219.0 32.0 10.2 0.75
25,000 45,000 216.0 205.0 31.0 9.6 0.75
20,000 36,000 197.0 187.0 28.6 9.1 0.75
15,000 27,500 177.0 168.0 26.2 8.4 0.74
10,000 18,400 153.0 145.0 23.4 7.4 0.73
5,000 9,500 121.0 115.0 19.3 6.0 0.71

Cargo Vessels

40,000 54,500 209.0 199.0 30.0 12.5 0.73

35,000 48,000 199.0 189.0 28.9 12.0 0.73
30,000 41,000 188.0 179.0 27.7 11.3 0.73
25,000 34,500 178.0 169.0 26.4 10.7 0.72
20,000 28,000 166.0 158.0 24.8 10.0 0.71
15,000 21,500 152.0 145.0 22.6 9.2 0.71
10,000 14,500 133.0 127.0 19.8 8.0 0.72
5,000 7,500 105.0 100.0 15.8 6.4 0.74
2.500 4,000 85.0 80.0 13.0 5.0 0.77

Vehicle Carriers

30,000 48,000 210.0 193.0 32.2 11.7 0.66

25,000 42,000 205.0 189.0 32.2 10.9 0.63
20,000 35,500 198.0 182.0 32.2 10.0 0.61
15,000 28,500 190.0 175.0 32.2 9.0 0.56

Gross Displacement Lengthoa Lengthpp Beam Draught Block

Tonnage Coefficient
tonnes m m m m

Ferries

50,000 25,000 . 197.0 183.0 30.6 7.1 0.63

40,000 21,000 187.0 174.0 28.7 6.7 0.63
35,000 19,000 182.0 169.0 27.6 6.5 0.63
30,000 17,000 175.0 163.0 26.5 6.3 0.62
25,000 15,000 170.0 158.0 25.3 6.1 0.62
20,000 13,000 164.0 152.0 24.1 5.9 0.60
15,000 10,500 155.0 144.0 22.7 5.6 0.57

Cruise Liners

80,000 44,000 272.0 231.0 35.0 8.0 0.68

70,000 38,000 265.0 225.0 32.2 7.8 0.67
60,000 34,000 252.0 214.0 32.2 7.6 0.65
50,000 29,000 234.0 199.0 32.2 7.1 0.64
40,000 24,000 212.0 180.0 32.2 6.5 0.64
35,000 21,000 192.0 164.0 32.2 6.3 0.63
 APPENDIX C
PREDICTION OF SQUAT

• a w ater level depression, which varies over the ship’s

C l . INTRODUCTION
length;
• a vertical force directed downwards and a moment
Section 6.5 o f the main report deals w ith the different about the horizontal transverse axis, causing a
factors to be considered when determining the channel displacement o f the ship in its vertical longitudinal plane
depth. One o f these factors is squat, which is the combined o f symmetry, referred to as squatThis comprises:
effect o f sinkage and trim due to the forward velocity of a vertical bodily movement called sinkage (s);
the ship.
a rotation called trim (6).
As squat can have a major effect on the required depth,
Squat is a combination of sinkage and trim . As a result the
several investigations have been carried out, in order to local vertical movement o f a point at the hull, measured from
find a practical formula fo r design purposes.While there is the undisturbed water level, depends on its longitudinal
still no generally accepted method, it was decided that a position. Usually one is only interested in the point with
separate subgroup o f the W orking Group should look into maximum squat (sm3X), which in many situations appears at
this problem.This Appendix is the result of the jo in t efforts the bow; fo r this reason, several authors have published
o f the subgroup. Members o f the subgroup were: expressions fo r squat at the bow (s^).

W. Dietze (Germany)
T. Rekonen (Finland)
J.C.K. van Toorenburg (Netherlands)
M.Vantorre (Belgium)
R.Wijnstra (Netherlands)

The purpose of this appendix is to give the reader

background information on the conclusions in Section 6.5.
Section C2 o f this appendix provides some definitions.
Section C3 gives a description of, and a comparison
between, practical, empirical methods fo r squat estimation
based on a limited number o f parameters. Numerical
methods requiring a detailed description o f ship geometry C2.1.2 Ship Dimensions (Figure C£)
are not considered. Section C4 deals w ith some special
effects on squat, which are n o t incorporated in the
In addition to the main dimensions (length between
methods of Section C3. Section C5 gives recommendations
perpendiculars Lpp, beam B, draught T, volume o f displacement
fo r the practical use of available methods, while in Section
V, block coefficient Cg), the following ship characteristics are
C6 proposals are given fo r fu rth e r investigations and
o f importance in some squat formulae:
research. Important results o f research and investigations
of the last 25 years are listed in Section C7. * the underwater amidships cross section A s;
• the waterplane coefficient Cyyp:

n wp
C2. DEFINITIONS A N D wp
(0
NOMENCLATURE WL&

where A W p denotes the waterplane area.

C2.1 Definitions

C2.1.1 Vertical Ship Motions (Figure C1)

The forward motion of a ship in calm water induces a

relative velocity between the ship and the water. Because
of backflow of the water, this relative velocity is different
from the ship’s speed and is n o t uniform over its length.
This velocity field causes hydrodynamic pressures on the
hull which result in:
 C2.1.3 Waterway Configuration (Figure C3)

The relative velocity between the ship and the w ater is Aw = Ac - A s (cano/s) (4)
influenced by the waterway dimensions. Squat formulae — Acfj —As (channels)
are often developed fo r (laterally) unrestricted shallow
waters o r fo r canals.Therefore an extension o f these
The blockage factor S is defined as the fraction o f the cross
formulae is required when considering the restricted
section area o f the waterway occupied by the ship’s
channel situation, which receives particular attention in
underwater midships section:
this Report. Some formulae fo r squat in open w ater
allow o f its calculation in canals o r channels by
introducing a restricted width coefficient K s: A s
S= or s = -A (5)
ch
s ( W ) = Ks - s ( W = ° ° ) (2)
The ratio between the ship’s cross section and the net
cross section area o f the waterway is denoted by Sj:
For this reason, definitions have to be introduced fo r the
three basic configurations (unrestricted shallow water,
restricted channel, canal).
W - r r r - T ^ s
(6)

UNRESTRICTED
SHALLOW WATER RESTRICTED CHANNEL
If squat and water level depression are neglected
(which is a very rough simplification, leading to a
significant underestimation o f squat), a ship moving
in a canal w ith speed V undergoes a relative water
velocity (I + S2)V ;fo r this reason,S2 is referred to
as the ve/ocrty return factor.
Figure C3 - Waterway configuration: definitions

The main vertical dimension is the water depth (h o r h|).

Due to the water level depression induced by the ship’s
forward speed, water depth has to be defined in
undisturbed conditions, if the bottom o f the waterway is
covered with fluid mud, 1>2stands fo r the mud layer
thickness, while hj is measured between the free water
surface and the water-mud interface. W ater and mud
densities are denoted by pi and p2, respectively.

In a canal, the backflow is determined by the ship’s cross C2.1.5 Ship Kinematics {Figure C5)
section and the cross section area o f the canal, Ac. In a
restricted channel, an equivalent cross sect/on area is
defined by extrapolation of the slopes to the water
surface. If the slope of the banks is l:n, and the width of the
channel (at the bottom ) is W ,AC^ is given by following
equation:

Ach = Wh + nh2 (3)

In the case o f a restricted channel, the height o f the

dredged underwater trench is denoted h j .

Some authors extend their formula fo r restricted waters

to laterally open water by defining an effective width or
width o f influence W eff.

C2.1.4 Ship - Waterway Relationship

The net cross section area o f the waterway is denoted byA w

where: Figure C5 - Ship kinematics: definitions
 The ship's speedV (Vk if expressed in knots) is often Kb (-) correction factor fo r channel w idth
incorporated with water depth in a depth Froude number (Eryuzlu 1994)
FntrThis is useful in theoretical studies o f squat in open «<c (-) correction factor on critical speed fo r
water when Fn^ - I acts as a critical value, w ith the critical canal (Romisch 1989)
ship speed being denoted by Vcr.The service speed o f the *ch correction factor on critical speed fo r
<-)
ship is denoted Vs. channel (Romisch 1989)
(-) correction factor fo r channel w idth
The ship’s trajectory is not necessarily a straight line, but
(Huuska 1976)
can be curved w ith radius R.The yaw velocity o r rote o f turn,
k at (-) squat at critical speed referred to
being the ship’s angular velocity about its vertical axis Oz, is
denoted by r. draught (Romisch 1989)
L (m) ship length
The angle between the ship’s longitudinal axis o f symmetry (m) own ship length
O x and the line tangent to its trajectory is called the drift (m) ship length between perpendiculars
*-pp
angle, denoted by {1 ship length at waterline
*-WL (m)
M (Nm) moment
n {-) (inverse) bank slope
C2.2 List of symbols
O origin o f ship coordinate system
PMH planar m otion mechanism
Ac (m 2) wetted cross section area o f canal
r (rad/s, °/s) yawing velocity, rate o f turn: dip/dt
A ch K ) equivalent wetted cross section area o f
R (m) radius
channel with extrapolated slopes to the
SAP (m) sinkage at aft perpendicular
water surface
aft perpendicular SFP (m) sinkage at fore perpendicular
AP
(m 2) ship’s underwater amidships cross section SM (m) average, midships, sinkage
As
K ) net cross section area o f waterway Sb (m) sinkage at bow
Aw
AW p (m 2) ship’s waterplane area s (m) maximum sinkage
B (m) ship’s beam s (-) blockage factor: As / A c o r A s / A ch
(m) own ship’s beam (Barrass 1979)
B0
(m) arithmetical width o f canal: A c/h S| <-) corrected blockage factor (Huuska
(Fuehrer & Romisch 1977) 1976)
CB (-) ship’s block coefficient: V / (LppBT) % (-) velocity return factor: A j 1 (Barrass
CF {-) correction factor fo r ship shape 1979)
(Romisch 1989) t («) time
cv (-) correction factor fo r ship speed T (m) ship draught
(Romisch 1989) To (m) own ship draught
CWp (-) ship’s waterplane coefficient: Ayyp / UKC (% o fT ) underkeel clearance
(Lw l B) V (m/s) ship speed through the water (relative
Cz (-) mean sinkage coefficient (Tuck 1966) to the undisturbed water)
Ce (-) trim coefficient (Tuck 1966) (m/s) own ship speed
Vo
d (m) distance between the longitudinal axis o f (m/s) passing ship speed
VP
ship and the canal axis (m/s) critical ship speed
VCr
D (m) distance between ship hull and toe o f (knots) ship speed through the w ater (relative
Vk
the bank to the undisturbed water)
F (N ) force (m/s) ship service speed
v s
Fnh <-) Froude number based on undisturbed
V ( m 3) ship volume of displacement
depth:V I (gh),fi
w (m) channel width, measured at bottom
Fnho (-) Froude depth number o f own ship:
Weff (m) effective width o f waterway
C
V0/feh)« X (m) ship longitudinal coordinate
nhp (-) Froude depth number o f passing ship:
*0 (m) longitudinal distance between centers o f
Vp/<ghr gravity o f passing o r encountering ships
FnhP (-) relative Froude depth number: Fnfl0 - Fnhp
FP y (m) ship fateral coordinate
fore perpendicular
(m /s 2 Yo (m) lateral distance between longitudinal
g acceleration due to gravity
h ,h | (m)
axes o f passing o r encountering ships
water depth
(m) thickness o f mud layer z (m) ship vertical coordinate
(m) mean water depth o f a restricted P (rad, °) d rift angle
hm
waterway o r canal (Romisch 1989) 0 (°,m/m,mm/m) trim
h mT (m) relevant water depth: h-hy( I -hm/h) PhP (kg/m3) w ater density
(Romisch 1989) P2 (kg/m3) mud density
hT (m) height o f dredged underwater trench <t> (rad, °) angle o f heel/roll
K, (-) correction factor on blockage (Huuska (rad, °) heading angle
1976) a (-) non-dimensioned path curvature UR
 C3. SQUAT IN SHALLOW Hooffc ( 1974) derived the following formula for squat:

WATER
v 2
f nh
(9)
pp V* n/j
C3.1 Description of Practical Methods

with C z = 1.4 ... 1.53 over a wide range of ship forms

A ship sailing w ith a certain speed obviously needs to
o f which the value Cz = 1.46 is
displace water.This water thus is set in motion around the
recommended
bow and comes to rest again astern o f the ship.The flowing
w ater gains kinetic energy from the potential energy it had and C0 - I.O.
before it was set in motion.This results in a local
This leads to
depression o f the w ater surface around the ship. In this
depression the ship floats and sails as if squat did not exist.
Squat cannot therefore be considered as an Increase in nh
= (1 .9 ..,1 0 3 ) (10)
draught o f the ship; rather its effect is a downward
lp p J \^ i nh
displacement o f the ship with respect to the general water
surface level and, thereby decreasing the underkeel
clearance. H u u ska (1976) used H ooft’s equation and found that a
coefficient o f 2,4 gives a better correlation fo r the
Squat depends mainly on following effects:
scattered values from model tests fo r lateral
- ship speed relative to the water; unrestricted waterways carried out by several
configuration o f the waterway, that is the ratio o f water laboratories. He extended the equation by a blockage
depth/ship draught and the ratio of waterway factor Ks to include restricted channels and canals,
width/ship beam; using the investigations o f Guliev (1971,1973).
configuration o f the ship hull, mainly expressed by the
block coefficient C B.

Many authors have investigated theoretically o r empirically Sb - 1 4 (li)

I1 J i- ? :
the squat problem fo r particular o r general conditions (see LPP
References).Those which have proved to be o f practical
use in the last decade are described here in detail.
with Ks =7.45 Sj + 0.76 fo r s, > 0.03
A fundamental theoretical approach to squat was carried Ks = I fo r s, £ 0.03
out by Tuck (J966), based on slender body potential Sj = (K >IAcb)IK l
theory. His results fo r determining sinkage and trim in the Kj = correction factor, see Figure C6
subcritical speed range Fn^ < I were as follows: As =midship section area o f ship - 0.98 BT
wetted cross sectional area of channel/canal
• mean sinkage:
w ith extrapolated slope to the water
surface, see Figure C6
V F2
nh
(7)

trim angle:

V F;nh
(8)
Lp p j ' - F 2
nh

in which the tw o coefficients Cz and C q are functions of

the ship hull characteristics.Tuck and Taylor (1970)
developed these equations and made some approximations
fo r shallow water o f infinite width.

The following authors made the equations ofTuck and

Taylor m ore applicable fo r practical purposes and fo r more
general use. Figure C6 -Correction factor K t (Huuska, 1976)
IC O R E LS { 1980) made use o f H o o ft’s equation but This leads to the effective w idth W eff ^ 8 B assuming
proposed fo r the bow squat o f a ship o f conventional Cyyp 0.9
shape an Huuska’s empirical coefficient o f 2.4:
Barrass II (1979,1981) modified and simplified his
initial formula to give:
nh
(12)
I?
LPP r cS1/2.08
'~B‘>2 Yk
^mox 30
(17)
For full form ships with a high Cg, some authors
recommend a coefficient which value varies between Eryuzlu and Hausser (1978) made experimental
1.75 and 2.4. investigations w ith large fully loaded tankers in
Millward (1990) found the following expression fo r unrestricted water w ith restricted depth ( 1.08 £ h/T s
maximum bow squat from experimental tests w ith ship 2.75). Analysis o f the results fo r bow squat gave
models o f various hulls (0.44 £ C8 £ 0.83) in a channel
of unrestricted width (W /lp p - 2) and hull length/water
depth ratios L/h o f 6 to 12: T 027
S. = 0.113 ( i ) BFjj? (18)

si = ( . 5 . o c Bii - o . 5 5 ) 1- ^ - 7i £
0 (13)
Eryuzlu e t a l (1994) undertook thorough model tests
w ith general cargo ships and bulk carriers w ith bulbous
Millward stated that his formula would “ likely bow (CB a 0.8, L/B = 6.7 - 6.8, B/T = 2.4 - 2.9) in
overestimate the squat and therefore err on the side o f laterally unrestricted water with restricted depth ( l . l s
safety” . h/T s 2.5).The effect o f channel width on squat was
Millward (1992) recalculated his test results using the investigated in supplementary model tests carried out
same basic format as Tuck’s equation. He deduced an in a channel (height o f dredged underwater trench hy =
empirical formula based on the block coefficient Cg as 0.5 h, bank slope n = 2).
mentioned above and the draught/length ratio T/L to give
An empirical formula, valid fo r both channels and
canals, was obtained and evaluated by means o f full-
F2
nh scale squat measurements.
(61.7 C / f - s - 0.6) (f4)
100
2289
_V
0.298 - (f) K. (19)

The National Physical Laboratory, London ( 1975)

suggested fo r full-bodied ships a graphical method (see
Figure C7), which considers the initial trim o f the ship. with
The plot is valid fo r tankers in open water conditions
w ith small underkeel clearance.
Barrass ! ( 1979) tentatively proposed the empirical 3.1
when (20)
formula

V~z w
Sb = 3.75C6£ ( ~ ) * (15) when >9.61
Kb = I

Romisch (1989) developed his empirical formula from

extensive mode! investigations, based on the critical
He analyzed the squat results from different ships and
ship speed Vcr. It is valid both fo r unrestricted and
model tests with C B of 0.5 to 0.9 both in open w ater
restricted channels and fo r canals within the range o f
and in restricted channel conditions fo r h/T-ratios
h/T = 1.19 to 2.25.
ranging from l . l to 1.5.For laterally unrestricted water
(depth restriction only) the effective w idth W eff o f the
waterway must be at least

= CyCfKArT (21)
K f f ~ [ 7 . 7 + 4 5 ( 1 - C ,WP-.)23B (16)
Figure C l - Graphical method for prediction o f squat o f full-bodied ships
(National Ports Council, 1975)
 with : C3.2 Use of the Methods
v 2 V 4
Cv = 8 ( r ) (~ r— 0.5) +.0625 (seeTable C l) When using one o f the formulae mentioned in Section
C3.1 fo r a practical case, one should bear in mind that:
II
|| oCB6 ^ 2 • first all formulae must generalize the problem, and
(for bow squat)
• most formulae were developed fo r particular
pp
conditions and therefore have limits o f applicability.
(for stern squat)
Therefore experience and judgement are necessary fo r
K AT (22) their application.Table C3 may be helpful in selecting the
■■ft®
most suitable formula fo r a particular situation considering
the following additional notes (see as well Section C4).
Table C l • All methods are valid fo r straight channels with
flat bottom and subcritical ship speeds (Fnh < I).
V/Vcr 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 _ |
Type o f waterways and the block coefficient CB
Cv 0.023 0.046 0.080 0.125 0.180 0.251 0.362 [ decide the appropriate formula.

• The limits o f h/T and Uh respectively should be

:i The critical ship speed Vcr depends on the type of
observed.
waterway:
j - Unrestricted shallow water: The resulting squat will be greatest at the bow fo r all laden
full form ships (i.e. ships w ith high block coefficient) and fo r
0.125 normal merchant vessels sailing laden in unrestricted
V „ = 0 .5 8 ( ? g ) J ih (23) shallow water. For high speed ships w ith C B < 0.7 and in
very narrow channels o r canals the maximum squat may
occur at the stern. Initial trim influences the location of
maximum squat.
- Canal with rectangular o r trapeziform cross section:

C3.3 Results of Squat Formulae -

V„ = Kr ./ih or (24) A Comparison

Three common merchant ships, the characteristics o f

The value of Kc is given in Table C2. which are given in Table C4, have been selected to compare
the squat values calculated with appropriate formulae of
B 00 Table C3.
Ac/As 1 6 10 20 30

Kc 0.0 0.52 0.62 0.73 0.78 1.0 Figures C8 to CIO show the resulting bow squat values fo r
unrestricted shallow water w ith a depth/draught ratio o f
Restricted channel: 1.2. N ote that the curves o f Millward 1990 and 1992 do
not meet fo r all three ships the assumption 6 & Uh ^ 12
hT~\ made in his model tests.
m Kck( 1 - - ) + / ^ mT (25)

m
C4. SPECIAL EFFECTS O N
i with
SQUAT
hL
Kc k ~ 0 . S B ( n ) (26)
The squat formulae predict squat in open o r restricted
water fo r the steady state, w ith o u t taking into account the
shape o f the waterway, o r the influence o f other traffic.
For many channels the design conditions are:

• straight channel
(27) . single ship
• no sudden changes in channel configuration.
 TABLE C3 C4.1 Passing and
Overtaking Ships

Squat is caused by the velocity o f the

water around the ship hull. If another
ship is nearby, this water flow will be
influenced and so is the squat.The
effect on the squat depends on
several factors: direction and speed
of the other ship, size o f the other
Batiaas i + H Barrass 1■+11 Barrass I + li Barrass I + II Barrasc 11-(I
1.1 S h /T S l.5
Barrass f * II ship and configuration o f the
1.1 S h fl'S l. S l. ls h /T s l.5 l. ls W T s l . 5 1.1 s h f f s l . S 1.1 Sh/Tsl.S
waterway.
Eryuifo/Haussor
1.0 8 sW V s 2 .7 S The effect o f interaction between
Eryuzlu at at Eryuztu et si encountering ships was studied by
I . l£ h / T s 2 . 5 1.-i=Sh/T£2.5 Dand ( 19 8 1); as an example, Figures
Huuska Huuska Huusku/Gulrev Huuska/GuMov Huuska/Guliev Huuske/Guliev C ! I and C I2 show time histories of
1.1 S h /T s 2 .0 1.1=5(1^52.0 M xb/T£2.0 1 .l5 h /T s 2 .0 1.1Sh/Ts2.0 1.1 ^ h /T s 2 .0 midships sinkage and trim during
iCORELS ICORELS head-on and overtaking encounters.
Millward 1990 M illward 1990
For several values fo r waterdepth /
6 s l/ h s 1 2 6 ;S L /h S l2 draught and lateral separation / ship
MiJlwnrd 1992 M illward 1992 beam. Figure C13 displays the
e * L / h £ l2 6^U bs12 following ratios as a function o f the
Nai.Ports Council ratio between the speeds of the two
10shs40 m ships:
Romisch Romisch Romisch Romisch Romisch Romisch
1.19 Sb/T £ 2 .2 9 1.19s; h/T-J2.29 I.1 9 s h /T s 2 .2 9 1 .l3 ih /T S 2 .2 9 I.1 9 s :h /T £ 2 .2 9 1.19 sh/- * maximum midships sinkage to
T S 2.29 stationary midships sinkage;

- maximum bow squat to stationary

TABLE C4 bow squat;

- maximum stern squat to

Ship type Lpp (m) B(m) T (m ) CB L/T L/B stationary bow squat

250 000 tdw tanker 330 50 20 0.85 16.5 6.6 For a speed ratio in the region of
unity, bow squat appears to increase
65 000 tdw bulk carrier 245 35 13 0.76 18.8 7.0
between 50% to 100% during passing
Panamax container vessel 270 32 ) 2.5 0.60 2 1.6 8.4 o r overtaking.

Actual methods o r rules o f thumb

that take into account these factors are not known. If
passing and/or overtaking only occurs occasionally, speed
TABLE C5 reduction is the best solution. If this kind o f manoeuvres
Increase of squat, as function of waterdepth occurs frequently, an increase o f squat should be taken into
and distance to vertical bank account. It must be borne in mind, however, that passing
and overtaking manoeuvres not only cause additional
squat, but also lateral forces and yawing moments.The
h/T Distance ship side to bank effects o f the latter on the ships’ manoeuvrability and
controllability can only be decreased by speed reduction
0.5 B B and/or a larger lateral separation between the ships.

l.l 47% 24%

C4.2 Proximity of Banks
1.2 25% 16%
The methods in Section C3 fo r width-restricted channels
In some cases however, conditions are more complicated. and canals take into account the effect o f banks only in an
This chapter describes the effects of these conditions. indirect manner, fo r it is assumed th a t the ship is sailing in
These effects should only be taken into account if one the centre o f the waterway. In most cases this assumption
occurs normally o r cannot be compensated fo r by other is valid. However, squat increases if the ship is sailing close
measurements, o r regulations. Mostly it is not possible to to the bank, because the hydrodynamic pressure on the
give exact data fo r every condition. ship is affected by the bank.
 Figure C8 - Bow squat for 250 OOO tdw tanker Figure C9 - Bow squat for 65 000 tdw bulk carrier
(Lpp ~ 330 m; B = 50 m ;T - 20 m; CB = 0.85) (Lpp = 245 m; B = 35 m;T= 13 m;CB = 0.76)
in unrestricted shallow water (h/T — 1.2J in unrestricted shallow water (h/T = 1.2)

Model tests (National Ports Council, 1980) show that the separation.The bank effect on the dynamic trim o f a ship
additional sinkage due to bank proxim ity increases if: seems to be insignificant.
• the distance between the ship hull and the toe of the W hen operating in a waterway o f a given water depth, the
bank decreases; additional sinkage can be reduced effectively by decreasing
• the ratio o f water depth to ship draught reduces; the speed o f the vessel when approaching the bank o f a
channel o r canal.
• the Froude number Fnh increases;
• the amount o f water over the bank decreases (this is Fuehrer and Romisch (1977) proposed a formula fo r ships
more significant than the slope o f the bank). sailing off-centre in a canal. In such a case, the critical
speed required fo r the calculation o f squat (see Section
An estimation o f this additional squat fo r ships with a block C3.1) can be found from:
coefficient C B between 0.70 and 0.85 and a static trim o f
not more than 0.01 of ship’s length is shown in Figure C I4
fo r a typical flooded bank configuration. A surface piercing
canal bank causes additional squat.The use of Figure C !4
requires a knowledge o f the normal squat underway (see
Section C3), which is the average o f the normal sinkage at
the bow and stern.The additional squat due to the bank
where d is the distance between the longitudinal axis of
can then be read o ff as a multiple o f the mean squat; the
ship and the canal axis, and br the arithmetical width of the
latter is added to the normal bow o r stern sinkage. The
canal (= A c/h).
additional squat is only marginal if the vessel’s distance
from the bank is more than 2B o r 3B, depending on the This problem is also discussed by Huuska (1976).
Froude number; higher Froude numbers require more
 C4.3 Bottom Configurations
of Waterways

The calculation methods discussed in Chapter C3 are valid

fo r steady state conditions, characterized by constant ship
speed and constant w ater depth. In natural o r partly-
dredged waterways, large variations o f water depth may
occur, causing unsteady, transient squat phenomena.

W hen the water depth o f an access channel decreases

gradually, the ship’s resistance increases.This reduces the
The magnitude o f squat is not sensitive to the extent of
ship's speed and, as a result, squat is also reduced.
the shallow water. A sill with a width o f 0.3 times the' ship’s
O n the other hand, the situation becomes critical when a length can induce a transient squat o f the same magnitude
ship is running from deep w ater to a shallow area with an as a flat seabed o f infinite extent.
abrupt change in depth. In such a case, the ship can enter
the shallow area at full (deep water) speed, which results in Although there are not enough studies to present a
a significant squat. Moreover, the transition between the method fo r the determination o f squat over a sill o r on a
tw o steady-state conditions may be characterized by limited shallow, the present state-of-the-art (Haatainen et
violent oscillations (pitching and heaving). It is al, 1978) indicates that the latter does not exceed squat
recommended that ship speed be adjusted so that the values found over a flat bottom at the same Froude depth
depth Froude number Fnh does not exceed a value o f 0.5. number.
Figure CI3 - Head-on and overtaking encounters:maximum sinkage midships, bow,stern (Dand, 1981)
 low speeds w ith relatively large positive underkeel
clearances;
- high speeds with negative underkeel clearances and
thick layers o f low density mud (low concentration
gradient).

The first case is not of major importance as squat is small

at low speed.The second exception, on the other hand,
should be taken into consideration if the channel is
supposed to be used at speeds of 8 knots and more.

C4.5 Drift and Yawing

C4.5.1 Introduction

Generally, theoretical and experimental investigations of

squat phenomena only consider ships navigating at
constant forward speed with zero d rift along a straight
track. In several situations, these assumptions imply a
simplification:

- a ship navigating in a cross wind is only able to follow a

steady course with a certain d rift angle;
- in bends, yawing and swaying motions are superposed
on the forward speed.

These additional modes of motion should be taken into

account when determining gross underkeel clearance, as
C4.4 Muddy Bottoms relative water velocities and, therefore, hydrodynamic
pressures on the hull and, therefore, squat, are modified.
The terminology used in this paragraph is explained in
Appendix D. C4.5.2 State of the Art

The presence of a fluid mud layer on the bottom of a

Newman (1969) developed a theory fo r calculating flow
channel influences the sinkage and trim of a vessel because
characteristics around, and forces on, a slender body in a
o f tw o effects.
lateral flo w in shallow water.
(a) The pressure field around the moving hull causes
undulations of the water-mud interface (or so-called A three-dimensional numerical method making use of
“ internal waves” ) which, in their turn, modify the potential theory was proposed by Leiva von Bovet ( 1985)
distribution o f vertical forces over the length o f the in order to calculate flow around a ship hull in shallow
ship and, therefore, sinkage and trim , w ater; this method allows evaluation o f sinkage and trim
due to horizontal motion on a curved track with a drift
(b) If the ships keel penetrates the mud layer, the
angle.This method was extended by Martin and Puls
hydrostatic (buoyancy) force acting on the submerged
( 1986), taking account of the effect o f the propeller.
part of the ship is increased due to the higher density
of the mud. This review shows that practical, empirical methods for
evaluating squat effects on ships navigating on a curved
As the interface deformation is a function o f ship speed,
track o r w ith a d rift angle are not available.
the effects described in (a) are speed dependent; the
influence of (b), on the oth e r hand, depends on the
C4.5.3 Examples
underkeel clearance.As a result, a distinction should be
made between speed and underkeel clearance ranges.
Results o f model tests and theoretical calculations
In most o f the cases, the presence o f mud layers decreases published by Martin & Puls (1986) are displayed in Figure
squat, so that squat estimations fo r solid bottom situations C l5.They show the effect of d rift and path curvature on
generally result in a safe overestimation.There are two the vertical force and trim moment acting on a cargo ship.
exceptions: As examples, the results show:
 Antwerp. Preliminary results o f
PMM yawing tests w ith a bulk
carrier illustrate the influence o f
path curvature on sinkage and trim :
Figure C i8 shows that,due to the
yawing m otion, bow sinkage
increases by about 25% on a bend
w ith radius R - 2.5 L. The effect of
d rift is n o t included.

C5.
RECOMMENDATIONS

The comparison between squat

estimations according to different
methods in Section C3.3 illustrates
th a t im portant deviations may
occur; the ratio between the
highest and the lowest result is in
the region o f 2. A t present, the
Figure CIS -Vertical force and trim moment coefficients in dependence on reason(s) fo r these deviations are
drift angle at different water depths with and without propeller
(Martin and Puls, 1986) n o t clear, so that it is n o t possible
to recommend one single squat
estimation method. Nevertheless,
some general guidelines can be given.
• Some formulae are developed explicitly fo r a particular
waterway configuration, a restricted water depth range
and/or a specific type o f ship.Table C3 can be used to
select an appropriate estimation method.
• The systematic calculations in Section C3.3 show that
some methods systematically result in high (e.g.
Millward) o r low (e.g. Eryuzlu, Romisch) squat values;
the iCORELS/Huuska formula appears to yield an
average result. For this reason, the ICORELS formula is
recommended in the concept design stage o f a channel.
Taking account o f the possible consequences o f contact
w ith the bottom due to, among other factors, the type
o f cargo and the bottom structure, decisions can be
made whether to use a more “ optimistic” o r
“ pessimistic" formula.
• If problems with squat are expected in particular
conditions with a specific type o f ship, model tests are
recommended. It is advisable, however, to execute
these test with self-propelled ship models; if towed
models are used the towing post layout requires special
• a drift angle of 10° appears to result in an increase of
attention, in order to avoid additional moments causing
the vertical force by 50% o r more;
extra trim .
• the yawing motion due to a path curvature w ith a
radius o f 3.65 times the ship’s length causes an increase It is recommended that squat estimates made during
of about 10%. the design stage be validated by means o f full-scale
observations. Such an a posteriori evaluation may lead
The effects on the ship’s sinkage and trim are shown in
to modifications of the allowable draught o r to
Figure C l 6. corrections of the maintenance dredging program.
The effect o f drift on mean sinkage, trim and bow sinkage • Most squat formulae are meant fo r ships moving on a
is also illustrated in Figure C 17, showing results o f model straight course in the center o f a channel. Deviation
tests with a bulk carrier carried o u t at Flanders Hydraulics, from these conditions may lead to increased squat.
 sills, transient shallows;
- muddy bottom : relatively high speed (> 8 knots),
negative underkeel clearance, mud with low density
gradient;
- d rift (e.g. due to wind, bends) and yawing (bends).

In such conditions, the increase in squat can be reduced by

imposing lower speeds o r increasing the water depth.

CO. PROPOSALS

C6.1 Proposals for Further Research

Squat estimations based on formulae proposed by several

authors often result into very significant deviations, as
illustrated in Section C3.3. As an example o f the tw o
extremes, Figure C8 shows that Eryuzlu’s form ula yields
0.76 m bow squat fo r a 250 000 tdw tanker travelling
w ith a speed o f 12 knots in open w ater w ith 20 % under­
keel clearance, while Millward’s most recent formula
gives 1.5 m.

A nother example is given in Figure C19, comparing the

results o f empirical squat formulae with data published by
SNAME in “ The MARAD systematic series o f fuil-form ship
models".The results are surprising. For example, at a speed
Figure Cl 7 - Model tests with scale mode! o f bulk carrier o f 10 knots w ith 20% underkeel clearance, the Millward
(259.6 x 43 x 14.6 m3, scale H70, h/T — L2, no propeller equations, which tend to overestimation, result into a bow
action): influence o f drift on sinkage and trim sinkage o f approximately I m; ICORELS yields 0.75 m, and
(Flanders Hydraulics, Antwerp)
Eryuzlu 0.5 m.The MARAD series publication, on the other
hand, gives a bow sinkage o f I.4 m.

The following may contribute to an explanation o f these

differences.
(1) The MARAD results and Miilward’s formulae are based
on tests w ith towed models, while Eryuzlu’s tests were
carried out w ith self-propelled models. If the impact of
self-propulsion is therefore significant, this would imply
that the credibility of many captive towed model test
results should be questioned.
(2) A second explanation concerns the ship’s geometry. It
is possible that squat effects, and particularly trim ,
depend very much on the geometry of the ship’s
forebody, e.g. the bow type, Eryuzlu only to o k ships
Figure C I S - Model test with scale model o f bulk carrier w ith bulbous bows into consideration, while the
(264 x 32 x 12.25 m \ scale 1/64, h/T ~ L I, no propeller
MARAD series consisted o f ships with rounded o r
action): in f uence o f path curvature on sinkage and trim
(Flanders Hydraulics, Antwerp) cylindrical bows,
(3) O th e r factors may be o f importance: scale effects,
Generally, calculation methods fo r special conditions are different analysis of squat data, verification by means of
not available. Squat increases from otherwise constant full-scale measurements with comparable conditions.
conditions in following cases:
passing o r overtaking; A complete explanation can only be given by a critical
analysis of experimental results.A theoretical approach
- off-centre course relative to the center line of the
might also be helpful, both of which could be tasks fo r a
channel;
future working group.
 • W ater-related items:
MARAD SHIP H
wave, swell, tide, depth, current, temperature (gradient),
h/T = 1.2
salinity (gradient).
• Seabed/ban k-related items:
contours, soil properties, texture

• Environment-related items:

wind

A m ultitude o f measuring methods has been used and

examples are found in Dand and Ferguson (1973),
Nawrocki ( 1994), Eryuzlu et al (1994), and measurements
MARAD SHIP H on the O u te r Weser in Germany. All o f them have
h/T = 1 .5 drawbacks. Accepted methods are based on model tests,
fo r which verification on prototype ships has been
undertaken.

In the opinion o f the W orking Group, there is an urgent

need fo r reliable prototype measurements o f carefully
selected ships under various conditions in different types
of locations, especially in the higher speed range. Recently
the possibilities o f satellite positioning systems (GPS) have
become available.The major advantage o f these systems
over methods used in the past is that satellite-based
Figure Cl 9 - Bow squat for MARAD ship model: systems, in principle, are able to provide highly reliable and
experimental values versus prediction methods
accurate measurements almost anywhere at sea.

C6.2 Proposals for Measurements W hat next?

In-situ measuring, as it stands now, is essential to get a

As different prediction methods show significant better insight in the applicability of various squat
differences, it is necessary to validate the methods against calculation methods. Measuring may prove essential to
in situ measurements. If special effects are expected fo r a provide a sound basis fo r a theoretical understanding.
given channel, the need fo r measurements (model, o r in
situ) is even greater.Also prototype verification for
admission policy may be needed. In this paragraph some
Cl. REFERENCES
considerations on in situ measurements are given.

The need for in situ squat measurements may exist for:

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- unrestricted shallow water
open and deep water BARRASS, C.B.:“ The Phenomena o f Ship Squat” .
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andTerra etAqua, No. 18,1979,pp. 16 -2 1.
When considering measurements, the following items may
BARRASS, C.B.:“ A Unified Approach to Squat Calculations
be important:
fo r Ships” . PIANC Bulletin No. 3 2 ,1979, pp. 3 -10.
• Measuring method and instruments:
fault and reliability analysis are essential, before and BARRASS, C.B.:“ Ship S quat-A Reply” . The Naval Architect,
after the measurements. November 1981, pp. 268-272.

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Ships Sailing in Restricted W ater” . Proceedings o f 8th
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LEIVA VON BOVET, G.:“ Tiefgangs- undTrimm-
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DAN D, I.W.:“ Full Form Ships in Shallow Water, Some MARTIN, H., PULS, D.: “ Vertical Forces,Trim Moments and
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Flows” . National Physical Laboratory, R eport No. 160, Schiffbauforschung.Vol. 25, No. 3, S. 155-15 9 .1986.
1972, pp. 1-24.
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August 1981.
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pp. 25-40. International Shipbuilding Progress,Vol. 39, No. 417,1992,
pp. 69-78.
ERYUZLU, N.E., HAUSSER, R.:“ Experimental Investigation
into Some Aspects of Large Vessel Navigation in Restricted N AG H D I, P.M., RUBIN, M.B.:“ On the Squat o f a Ship” .
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Navigability o f Constraint Waterways Including Harbour 107-117.
Entrances,Vol. 2, 1978, pp. I - 15.
National Ports Council: “ Ship Behaviour in Ports and th eir
ERYUZLU, N.E., CAO,Y.L.( D ’AGNOLO , F.:“ Underkeel Approaches” . Part 2. Additional sinkage caused by sailing in
Requirements fo r Large Vessels in Shallow Waterways” . the proximity o f channel bank, 1980. Part 3.The prediction
28th International Navigation Congress, PIANC, Paper S II- o f squat fo r vessels in shallow waters, 1981. Part 4,
2, Sevilla 1994, pp. 17-25. Additional sinkage caused by blockage when sailing in a
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175-181.
NEW M AN, J.N.: “ Lateral Motion o f a Slender Body
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Shallow W ater and Through Channels” . PIANC Bulletin 39, No. I, pp.9 7 -117. 1969.
1971, Vol. I, No. 7, pp. 17-20.
NORRBIN, N.H.:“ Ship Underkeel and Side Clearance fo r
HAATAINEN, P., LUND, j., KOSTILAINEN.V.: Safe Passage” . Schiff & Hafen, Heft 7 , 1984, pp. 56-60.
“ Experimental Investigation on the Squat in Changing
W a ter Depth Conditions” . Helsinki University o f PIANC:“ Underkeel Clearance fo r Large Ships in Maritime
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Phares et Balises, No. 5 3 ,1982, pp. 24-55. H arbour Congress, pp. 4.149-161, KVIV,Antwerp, 1988.

ROMISCH, K.:“ Empfehlungen zur Bemessung von VANTORRE, M.:“ Systematische proevenreeksen m et het
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Technischen Universitat Dresden, Heft 1 ,1989,pp.39-63. boven een mengsel petroleum-trichloorethaan als
slibsimulatiemateriaal: experimentele waarnemingen en
ROMISCH, K.:“ Der “ Squat” in Begrenzten Fahrwassern - theoretische interpretaties". Rijksuniversiteit Gent &
Betrachtung aus Hydromechanischer Sicht” . Schiff & W aterbouwkundig Laboratorium Borgerhout.
Hafen / Seewirtschaft, Heft 10 , 1993, pp. 58-62. Gent/Antwerpen, 1990.
ROSEMAN, D.P. (Editor):“ The MARAD Systematic Series VANTORRE M.:“ Ship Behaviour and Control at Low Speed
o f Fult-Form Ship Models” . SNAME (The Society of Naval in Layered Fluids". Proceedings International Symposium on
Architects and Marine Engineers), jersey City, 1987. Hydro- and Aerodynamics in Marine Engineering
SELLMEIjER R..VAN OORTMERSSEN, G.: “ The Effect o f (HADMAR), BSHC,Varna, 19 9 1.
Mud on Tanker Manoeuvres". Spring Meetings, RINA, Paper VERMEER, H.:“ The Behaviour o f a Ship in Restricted
No. 7,The Royal Institution of Naval Architects, London, W aters” . International Shipbuilding Progress,Vol. 24, No.
1983. 2 8 0 ,1977, pp. 323-336.
SEREN, D.B., FERGUSON, A.M., McGREGOR, R.C.:“ Squat - WATT, D.: “ Vessel Performance in Confined and Restricted
An Examination ofTwo Practical Prediction Methods".The Channels o f the St. Lawrence River” . Ministry o f Transport,
Naval Architect, No. 5, Sept. 19 8 1, pp. E228-E230. Ottawa, December 1970, pp. j -34.
Transportforskningsdelegationen:“ Sjdtransporter,Farleder
W A U G H , R.G.:“ W ater Depths Required fo r Ship
och Sakerhet (Sea Transportation, Fairways and Safety)". Navigation” . Journal o f Waterways, Harbours and Coastal
Stockholm, 1983, pp. 5.1-5 .14. Engineering Division, ASCE,Vol. 97, 1971, pp. 455-474.
TUCK, E.O,;TAYLOR, Rj.:“ Shallow W ater Problems in Ship WENS R, DE W O LF P.,VANTORRE M., DE MEYER C.:“ A
Hydrodynamics” . Proceedings 8th Symposium on Naval Hydro-Meteo System fo r Monitoring Shipping Traffic in
Hydrodynamics, Pasadena, 1970. N arrow Channels in Relation with the Problem o f the
URLAUB,M.: “ Squat and Keel Clearance - Problems and Nautical Bottom in Muddy Areas” . 27th International
Repercussions from a Pilot’s Point ofView (in German)” . Navigation Congress, Section II, Subject 1, pp. 5-16. PIANC,
Schiff & Hafen / Seewirtschaft,Vol. 45, No. J, January 1993, Osaka, 1990,
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“ Planeringsdirektiv fo r Farleder (Planning manual fo r 1973, pp. 6-7.
Fairways)” . Helsinki, 1980, pp. 31 -39.

VAN CRAENENBROECK K„VANTORRE M ..D EW O LF P.:

“ Navigation in Muddy Areas: Establishing the Navigable
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Amsterdam, November 19 9 1.
 APPENDIX D
WATER DEPTHS IN MUDDY AREAS:
THE NAUTICAL BOTTOM APPROACH

D.1. SUMMARY D.2. PRACTICAL

DETERMINATION OF
From a practical and operational point o f view, a nautical
NAUTICAL BOTTOM
bottom approach requires:

(a) a practical criterion, i.e. selection of the physical mud

characteristic acting as a parameter fo r the nautical
D.2.1 Mud Characteristics
(See References D3, D4, and D27)
bottom approach and its critical value;

(b) a practical survey method for continuous The rheological properties o f a fluid characterise its
determination o f the accepted level; resistance to flow, deformation and structural changes.
Rheology is graphically represented by a rheogram (flow
(c) a minimum value fo r the required underkeel clearance
curve), giving a relationship between shear rate 7 = d7/d t
(UKC) with reference to this nautical bottom , ensuring
and shear stress T.The slope d j / d y o f this curve is referred
a minimal risk fo r contact with the latter and to as differential dynamic viscosity and the ratio T/7 is called
acceptable ship behaviour; apparent dynamical viscosity.

(d) knowledge about ship behaviour in these situations; if For a Newtonian fluid (e.g. water), no difference exists
necessary, measures to compensate adverse effects on between differential and apparent dynamic viscosity, so that
controllability and manoeuvrability. rheology is completely characterised by only one parameter:
dynamic viscosity 71 (Figure D. I a). Mud, on the other hand, is a
Section D,2 treats topics concerning requirements (a) and wsco-pfastic (or shear thinning) material, which means that the
(b).The latter are related, as it is useless to select a apparent dynamic viscosity is a monotonously decreasing
function of shear rate (see Figure D. I c).
parameter fo r which a practical, continuous survey method
is not available. Some physical mud properties o f interest For engineering purposes, mud is often considered as a
for a nautical bottom approach will be discussed briefly, Bingham fluid, rheologically determined by (see Figure D. I b):
followed by a review o f practical procedures fo r • its (differential) dynamic viscosity r | ;
determination o f nautical bottom. • its yield stress o r initial rigidity Ty.

Section D.3 gives a review of research on the behaviour of Comparison w ith Figure D. I c shows that using a Bingham
model fo r describing mud rheology implies a serious
ships navigating in muddy areas, and rs therefore more
simplification fo r several reasons:
related to items (c) and (d). Ship behaviour (resistance,
• the slope o f a mud rheogram is not constant, but
manoeuvrability, propulsion, etc) is mainly affected by the
decreases with shear rate;
presence o f mud layers due to:
• different relationships are found with increasing and
• the generaion o f internal undulations at the interface decreasing shear stress: a smaller shear stress is
between water and mud, which depends on some required in order to obtain the same deformation if the
shear stress decreases.
properties o f the mud, such as density and layer
thickness, but also on the ship’s characteristics, such as The latter is a consequence o f thixotropy of the mud. Since
draft, UKC' and forward speed; shearing of the material results in the break-up of the
original structure, liquefaction takes place, resulting in a
• the rheological properties o f the mud (viscosity, decrease o f flow resistance. Expressed in a simplistic way,
rigidity), which are responsible fo r additional forces on mud behaves more like a liquid after it has been stirred.As
the ship’s hull. another result o f thixotropy, fo r different cycles of
increasing, and subsequently decreasing shear rate, the
Section D.4 provides some suggestions fo r further consecutive rheograms lie below the previous ones. On
research. the other hand, when stirring is stopped, structural
recovery w ill take place over some time and the yield
stress increases again (consolidation). it can be concluded
I In this appendix U KC is referred to the mud-water that the rheogram o f a mud sample depends on its stress
interface at rest, unless otherwise specified. history (or rheological history).
 • rate o f deformation (shear rate)
• percentage o f organic material
• water chemistry (especially pH, salinity), etc.

If all these parameters are given, viscosity and/or yield

stress can be considered as a pure function o f density.
According to the density range, a distinction can be made
between fluid mud and plastic mud (Figure D.2):
• at low solids volume fraction and, therefore, low
density, mud is a loose suspension similar to water,
having a viscosity and yield stress which are not, o r only
slightly, dependent on density (fluid mud);
• mud w ith a higher solids volume fraction and,
therefore, higher density, is a sediment deposit w ith
easily measured rheological properties which depend
strongly on density (plastic mud). Besides viscous
behaviour, this kind o f mud shows elastic behaviour as
well, comparable w ith a soil; this combination is
referred to as Wscoe/asfic/ty (o r elastoviscosity).

This change in structural behaviour is called the rheological

change-over o r rheo/ogica/ trans/t/on.The corresponding yield
stress appears to be Jess than 10 N/m2References D.5,
D.25. Recent investigations in the German waterways,
however, resulted in a critical yield strength of 120 N/m 1
Figure D I - Rheological characteristics o f
Reference D.3S.
(a) a Newtonian fluid
(b) a Bingham fluid
Typical rheologic and density profiles in loose mud deposits
(c) mud ID.3]
are shown in Figure D.3. Density appears to increase more
or less gradually with depth; sometimes typical steps are
This behaviour causes difficulties in defining the parameters
o f the Bingham model. Figure D.Jc shows several observed in which density hardly increases w ith depth.The
characteristic shear stress values which could be possible initial rigidity curve clearly shows the rheological transition
definitions o f yield stress, e.g.: level.

• T0: s ta tic yie ld stress, lo w e r y ie ld stress;

• t b:Bingham yield stress, upper yield stress, residual
stress.

In a Bingham model assumption, t b (Bingham yield stress)

and rjco (Bingham differential viscosity) are usually selected
to be the model parameters.

A nother im portant physical property is density p2. related

w ith solids volume fraction <{>and concentration o f solid
materialT$ :
I SEOtMEHT CO NCENTRATION
J ____ i------ 1___
300 500 700
CRY SEDIM ENT CONCEW TflATfON (gfi)

?2 = Pi < 1 ~<1>) + P S$ - p , ( 3 -<J>) + T S Figure D2 - Initial rigidity in relation to the dry

sediment concentration [ D.25J

Pl and p$ being the densities o f water and solid material A review o f static and continuous survey methods fo r
(sediment), respectively. determining these characteristics in situ is given in the
Report o f PIANC PTC II W orking Group 14 (Economic
For a given mud sample, viscosity and yield stress can be methods o f channel maintenance), Reference D.8.
considered as a function o f solids volume fraction (and,
therefore, o f density), but also depend on other
parameters (see Reference D.3 fo r complete list): D.2.2 Use of echo-sounding for
• stress history
determining the nautical bottom
• sand content
• particle diameter (spectrum) The use of echo-sounding with different frequencies results
clay mineralogy in a qualitative indication as to whether a non-consolidated
 does not seem to correspond to a specific
density value. Experience with acoustic
measuring systems shows that reflections in the
mud depend upon a lot o f parameters affecting
the acoustic impedance (gas bubbles, sandy
horizons, etc).

An acoustic echo is determined by the

(frequency-dependent) acoustic impedance,
which is dominated by density gradients
rather than by density itself.

Furthermore, as low frequency waves

sometimes reflect at several levels, they do
not always result in an unequivocal signal
(see Figure D.5, and References D.8, D.9,
a 10).

These difficulties with the interpretation of

low frequency echo soundings do not always
occur. A t some locations, a reasonable
relationship is found with a physical mud
parameter. Examples are:

the 33 kHz echo generally corresponds

w ith the 1150 kg/m1density level in the
Loire estuary Reference D. 11;

in Antwerp, the nautical bottom is

defined by means o f the 33 kHz echo
Reference D. 12.

The applicability o f such a criterion cannot

be generalized. It should be examined for
each location, as it can also depend on
seasonal and even tidal fluctuations.

D.2.3 Criteria based on

rheological properties

DEPTH [m lef.NAP) D.13.1 Definition of Naulical Bottom

ECHOSOUNDER BACKSCAT7ER DENSITY Based on a Critical Yield Stress Value
RHEOMETER
GAUGE

From a scientifical point o f view, a definition

should be based on a critical yield stress. On
Figure 03 - Typical rheologic and density profiles in loose mud deposits [ D .I8 j
the other hand, the choice o f a critical value
appears to be a delicate one.
mud layer is present o r not. High frequency levels ( 100 -
2 10 kHz) indicate the water-mud interface, while low A maximum value fo r yield stress could be based on a
frequency signals ( 1 5 - 3 3 kHz) penetrate into the mud theoretical comparison o f the available propeller and
layer (Figure D.4) and are normally reflected from a well rudder forces with the ship’s resistance due to both
consolidated bed o r from a hard bottom.Typical values friction w ith water and contact with the muddy bottom,
the latter being approximated by the product o f contact
fo r the difference between both levels vary from 0.3 m
surface and initial yield stress.
to several metres.
However, such an approach yields acceptable values fo r
It is not clear whether there is any relationship between yield stress which are very high. For example, a 100 000
the level indicated by the low-frequency echo and a dw t ship would be able to navigate at a speed o f 5 knots if
physical mud characteristic. According to different authors, the yield stress is less than 100 N /m J; it would even be
the lower trace is considered to be a reflection from the possible to execute rudder manoeuvres in these
well-consolidated bed Reference D.2 o r from the hard conditions.There are many indications that navigation in
such conditions is not realistic:
bottom Reference D.6. In Reference D.7 it is stated that
this echo
 D.2.3.2 Definition of Nautical Bottom Based
on Rheological Transition

A theoretical definition o f the nautical bottom based on

rheological transition offers several practical advantages:

• The yield stress corresponding to this level is very low

( I to 3 N/m2) and can therefore be considered as safe.

♦ As the rheological properties increase very quickly

w ith depth near the transition level, it can be expected
that a substantial increase o f depth would lead to
unacceptable yield stress values, so that this level can
be considered as economic.

In spite of these practical advantages, some objections in

Figure D4 - High and low frequency echo-soundings principle can be raised against the use o f the rheological
on muddy bottoms [ D.I8]
transition level:
• the rheological transition is n o t really
situated at a specific /eve/, but rather
indicates a transition range;
• a definition making use o f this level is merely
based on mud properties; the influence on
ship dynamics and behaviour is not
considered.

Several operational procedures for determining

the nautical bottom are based on the rheological
transition level, although, due to practical
considerations, the determination is based on
density measurements (see Section D2.4).

D.2.4 Criteria based on a

mud density level

As several survey systems are available

nowadays fo r the continuous measurement of
sediment density, most operational procedures
fo r determining the nautical bottom are based
on a value fo r the acceptable specific gravity of
the mud (see Section D2.5).

However, the critical mud density value depends

on the location, as the rheological properties
are not pure functions of density (see Section
D2.1). As a consequence, the choice o f a critical
Figure D5 - DiflScu/ties o f hw frequency echo-soundings in muddy areas: density level is based on considerations o f the
Emden [ D.9], Gironde estuary [D,8] rheological properties o f the local mud.This
leads to the following disadvantages:
* The critical density defining the nautical bottom
• Model tests have shown that multiplying the yield stress depends on the location, so that it is n o t possible to
and the contact surface (keel - mud) does not result in a establish a universal value.
correct value fo r the initial resistance (see section D.3).
• A t a given location, mud characteristics can be variable
• Calculations are only valid fo r a uniform mud layer. If (e.g. effects of seasons), so that the critical density must
the thickness o f the mud layer varies, the ship w ill tend be changed frequently.
to take the “ easiest” path.
♦ For practical reasons, such an adaptation o f the
• Rudder and propulsion efficiency can be influenced as a definition o f nautical bottom is n o t desirable, so that a
result o f internal waves. fixed critical density has to be selected. Such a selection
is always a compromise between safety and economics;
 if, for safety reasons, the lowest observed critical
density is selected, it is doubtful if the proposed density
aiso represents the most economic solution.
• Occasionally, the density profiles show typical steps in
which density is hardly influenced over several meters
depth (see Section D2.1, Figure D.3, Reference D.4).
This implies that the association of the nautical bottom
to only a density can lead to uncertainties.

D.2.5 Examples

D.2.5,1 Rotterdam (the Netherlands)

The 1200 kg/m3density level has been selected fo r the

Europoort area (controlled by the Ministry of Transport and
Public Works - Rijkswaterstaat) because observations o f the
mud layer revealed that this level is hardly influenced by
strong siltations Reference D.15.A net UKC of one metre
relative to the 1200 kg/m3level is considered to be safe.

Several charts are plotted Reference D.8.

(a) hydrographic chart; depth detected by a 2 10 kHz echo-
sounder, coinciding w ith the mud-water interface
(density approximately 1050 kg/m1);
(b) density chart: depth o f levels w ith densities i f 0 0 ,1150
and 1200 kg/m3;
(c) double chart: sounding depth of hydrographic chart and
nautical bottom indicated by density 1200 kg/m3;
Figure 06 - Beerkanad, Rotterdam port area:
(d) nautical chart (see Figure D.6): nautical bottom nautical chart [0.8]
( 1200 kg/m3) with indication of mud layers.

D.2.5.2 Zeebrugge: Channel 'Pas van het Zand'

and Outer Harbour (Belgium)
csm A i fccrom * ip *)
CYW AMIC V iS C O S fT Y (P a s te )
V C U 'M c M A SS O f S E O iM c N T {\.W)
From the rheological evaluation of the mud and the results CCNC=N7*ATON(kpm*)
iV.iJC CONTENT < 63 ro*c<*cri)
o f full-scale tests (see section D.3), it was concluded that •c* c
the 1150 kg/m3density-horizon represents a safe criterion
for the nautical bottom in the harbour and its access
channels References D.7, D. 16, D. 17 as the rheological
transition level always appears to correspond to a higher
density value.This implies that the 1150 kg/m3-level
represents the “ w o rst case” ; above this level no significant
o r detectable shear strength can be measured.

It can be concluded that the nautical bottom is defined to

be the level corresponding with the rheological transition,
but as a continuous survey system fo r monitoring this level
is not available, it is, in practice, replaced with a critical
density level. This level actually corresponds w ith the
rheological transition fo r sandless mud; fo r mud w ith a
larger sand content, the rheological transition shifts to
higher density values ( 1200 o r even 1260 kg/m3), as shown 500 rs 600( s / l }X30

in References D.7, D. 18. was tow t.tco s.iso nos 12a j.mq uk>a uujo

The following procedure fo r the production of nautical Figure 0 7 - Zeebrugge mud: yield stress in function o f density
charts has been established.The area is surveyed for different mud contents [0 . 18]
simultaneously by the BEASAC (Belfotop Eurosense
Acoustical Survey A ir Cushion) platform, carrying out
echo-soundings, and the Navitracker survey system,
tracking the 1150 kg/m3-level. Each o f these survey teams
delivers a chart:
 D.2.5.3 Nantes-Saint-Nazaire - Bordeaux
(France)

The procedure followed in the Loire and Gironde

estuaries is comparable with the Zeebrugge
approach.The 1200 kg/m3level is accepted as the
nautical bottom as, on the average, this density
corresponds to a rheological transition level,
References D.I3.D.11.

D.2.5.4 Germany

The Federal Waterways Board determined

density-based criteria fo r the nautical bottom in
several muddy navigation areas, References D.35:

Brunsbiittel: 1180 - 1250 kg/m3

Figure D8 - Zeebrugge Navitracker map: differential chart between Emder Fahrwasser: 1220-1240 kg/m3
top o f sediment and density horizon [D. 19] Wilhelmshaven: 1220 kg/m3

These density values correspond to an

• The BEASAC chart represents the echosounding data, undrained shear strength o f 0.12 kN/m 2, which
w ith shaded areas where tw o different echoes was found to be an average value fo r the rheological
(2 10 kHz and 33 kHz) have been detected; transition level.The critical density values should be
checked at least annually.
• The Navitracker chart consists o f three sub-charts:
* the 2 10 kHz echosounder data; D.2.5.5 Qulf of Mexico (U.S.A.)
* the 1150 kg/m3density level;
* the differences in depth between the latter (Figure The U.S. Army Engineer’s Dredging Research Program
D.8, from Reference D. 19). considers implementation o f the nautical bottom concept,
defined by means o f a critical density corresponding with
The actual nautical chart is a combined Beasac/Navitracker
the rheological transition level. Fluid mud survey systems
map, in which the 210 kHz echosounder data in the muddy
have been developed and tested in several channels
areas are replaced by the 1150 kg/mJdensity horizon
(Calcasieu River, Louisiana; Sabine River,Texas; Gulfport
(Figure D.9, from Reference D. 19).
Harbor, Mississippi).

It is the purpose to re p o rt the critical density

level mentioned above to navigators, together
w ith the high and low frequency acoustic
reflection. However, based on experience and at
their own discretion, pilots may accept vessels
whose draughts are deeper than the critical
density level.The US Arm y Corps o f Engineers,
by reporting the critical density level, would
make no formal warranty as to its navigability.
The ultimate definition o f navigable depth is left
to local pilots knowledgeable about specific
vessel behaviour and manoeuvring practice,
(References D.28, D.29, D.30, D.31, D.32).

D.2.5.6 Maracaibo (Venezuela)

The 1200 kg/m3level is accepted to be the

nautical bottom as, on the average, this density
corresponds w ith a rheological transition level.

D.2.5.7 Cayenne (French Quyana)

In the Mahury river, giving access to the p o rt of Cayenne, it

is accepted that the nautical bottom is situated 0.30 m
above the 1270 kg/m3 level.
 D.2.5.8 Other Although some theoretical studies have recently been
performed, most information is based on experimental
Reference D. 15 states that in the approach channels to w o rk from both full-scale and model tests.
Bangkok harbour, the 1230 kg/m3level is considered to be
safe. It is not known whether this value is based on D.3.1.1 Model tests
investigation o f mud properties o r is simply local nautical
practice. Model tests have been carried o u t at MARIN
(Wageningen, the Netherlands, 1976, Reference D.20),
The 1200 kg/m3level is considered to be the nautical Flanders Hydraulics (Antwerp, Belgium, 1986-1988,
bottom at the Port of Cochin (India), but the criterion is References D. 16, D. 17, D.2 i , D.22) and SOGREAH
not applied because o f the lack o f sophisticated (Grenoble, France, 1989, References D. 13, D. 14).A review
instrumentation there Reference D.3 6. o f test conditions is given in Tables D. I and D.2, from
Reference D.23.

D.3.1.1.1 MARIN, Wageningen Reference D.20

D.3. BEHAVIOUR OF SHI PS
NAV1QATINQ IN MUDDY Tests were carried out in 1976 with a model (scale 1:82.5)
AREAS o f a 200 000 dw t tanker (3 10 m x 47.2m x f 8.9 m) in a
section o f the MARIN shallow w ater basin.

The mud was simulated by a mixture of chlorinated paraffin

and kerosine. Several mud layer configurations were tested:
D.3.1 Introduction
three w inter conditions (density 1140 kg/m3; layer thickness
2,5 m, 1.35 m and 3.85 m) and tw o summer conditions
This section reviews data available in the open literature (density 1240 kg/m3, layer thickness 2.5 m and 1.35 m).
relating to the behaviour o f ships navigating above o r in a
mud layer.

TABLE D. I - Review of model test programs

Lab Mud P2 T| Ty h2 Ship h l/T model test conditions measurements

simulating (kg/m1) (Pas) (Pa) (m m ) model speed
m aterial (m/s)
Marin CP/K IMO 0.028 0 30 tanker 0.85 0.17, self-propulsion tests speed-rpm,
winter 16 squat
47 ~ 0.28, stationary captive tests forces
1240 0.031 0 30 PMM tests forces
summer 16 1.15 0.40
Flanders TCE/P 1110 0.002 0.135 35 TSHD 0.90 0.00 self-propulsion with speed,
Hydraulics 1140 0.002 0.14 11 LNG beam guidance: steady- squat,
(FH) 1220 0.002 0.146 35 TSHD state, rudder action. lateral forces,
1220 0.002 0.146 16 TSHD 1.20 0.50 acceleration, prop, forces,
deceleration
NM 1089 0.005 E.l 140 inland 1.5 0.16 towing interface pos.,
- - - - - . fluid velocities
1198 0.024 17.8 340 5.7 1.25
AM 1030 0.004 0.4 28 TSHD 0.85 0.00 self-propulsion (see TCE/P)
- - - - - - initial resistance tests init res. (UKC<0)
i 196 0.079 32 40 1.20 0.40
Sogreah AM low grad. low *=■35 tanker 0.80 0.20, towing tractive force,
int. grad. - -30 - 0.30. squat
high grad. high ~25 1.20 0.40,
0.50,
0.60

Table D.2 - Ship models

Laboratory Ship model Lpp (m ) B (m ) T (m ) Cb Scale

Marin Tanker 3.76 0.57 0.23 0.85 1:82.5
(310.2) (47.0) (19.0) 0:1)
Flanders TSHD 3.10 0.58 0.20 0.84 1:40
(124.0) (23.2) (8.0) (1:1)
Hydraulics LNG 3.81 0.59 0.16 0.80 1:70
(266.7) (41.3) (11.2) (1:1)
(FH) Inland 3.95 0.69 0.14-0.34
Sogreah Tanker 2.56 1:100; 1:70; 1:55
The fluid was heated to 20°C in o rd e r to obtain an D.3.1.1.5 S O Q R EAH , C/renoblc References D.13, D.14
acceptable viscosity (25 cSt,*= 0.03 Pa s). Underkeel
clearance relative to the interface, varied between +15% to In 1989, tests were executed with a 2.56-m-long towed
,10% o f draught. tanker model in a 50 m x 3.2 m flume.

Three series o f tests were executed: Several types o f artificially composed mud layers were
self-propulsion tests (determination o f speed-rpm used:
relation and measurement o f squat and trim as a • 2 types o f mud : high and low rigidity;
function o f speed); • 3 concentration gradients as a function o f depth (high,
(2) stationary captive tests (measurement of forces as a intermediate, low).
function o f speed, rudder angle and d rift angle);
Tests were carried o u t at tw o draughts (0.112 m and 0.156
(3) planar motion mechanism tests. m), speeds between 0.2 and 0.6 m/s (discrete values) and a
large range o f positive and negative underkeel clearances.
Test series (2) and (3) were conducted at a ship speed of 5
Squat, trim and tractive force were measured.
knots. In the first w inter configuration, tw o additional
speeds (3 and 7 knots) were tested as well. D.3.1.2 Full-scale tests
D.3.1.1.2 Flanders Hydraulics, Borgerhoul-Antwerp
References D.16, P.17, D.21 anti D.H2 Full-scale tests to o k place in Rotterdam Reference D. 15,
Zeebrugge References D.7 and D. 16 and the Loire estuary
Tests with self-propelled ship models Reference D. 13.

Tests were carried out in 1986-1988 with models o f a D.3,1.2.1 Rotterdam Reference D.1S
LNG-carrier (267 x 4 1.6 x II m,scale l:70) and a trailing
suction hopper dredger ( 124 m x 23 m x 9.7 m, scale 1:40). In the Europoort area, full scale tests were carried o u t on
The models, equipped with propulsion and rudder(s),were the 300 000 d w t oil tanker Lepton in 1975. During the
forced to follow a guiding beam at the centreline o f a small trials, the track and heading o f the ship, the rudder activity
basin (32 m x 2.25 m x 0.3 m), but were free to move in a and propeller rpm were recorded.The behaviour and
vertical direction. Speed, sinkage, trim , lateral forces, density variations of the mud during and after passage of
propeller thrust and torque were ail measured; propeller the tanker were recorded on board survey launches
rpm and rudder angle were controlled. anchored in the approaches.Trial conditions: draught 20.9
m, underkeel clearance 1.60 m, mud layer thickness
For the systematic test series, the mud layer was simulated
(between 1030 and i 200 kg/m3) 1. 15 m, speed 4 knots.
by means of a trichlorethane-petrol mixture. Several mud
configurations were tested (full scale thickness 0.6- 1.4 m, Zeebrugge Reference D.7 and D. 16
density p2 — i * 10 -1225 kg/m \The liquid appears to be a
Bingham fluid (y) = 0.002 Pa s;Ty = 0 .13-0.15 Pa). Seventeen full-scale tests with the trailing suction hopper
Underkeel clearance relative to the interface, was varied dredger Viaanderen XV/// were executed in the outer
between +20% to - 10% of draught. harbour o f Zeebrugge in f986-l988.Three types o f tests
were performed :
A limited test series was also executed above artificially
composed mud (p2 = 1030-1 ISO kg/m3,full scale thickness • type I : short engine manoeuvres (acceleration/
1.2 m, rj = 0.004-0.028 Pa s, Ty = 0 .4 -11 Pa). Under keel deceleration tests)
clearance varied between +20% and -4% o f draught. • type 2: constant power manoeuvres
type 3: yawing tests at zero speed by means o f bow
Types of tests : thrusters.

acceleration tests Types I and 2 were executed with underkeel clearance

steady-state tests (constant speed, < 6 knots) from -0.35 to +3.0 m w ith respect to the interface.Three
deceleration tests runs were executed with negative underkeel clearance,
steady-state tests with rudder action through mud w ith maximum density 1140 kg/m3. During
these tests, tw o survey vessels were anchored along the
Tests with towed ship models
track to observe the mud behaviour.
In order to study internal wave phenomena at the
Nantes - Saint-Nazaire Reference D. 13
interface, tests were carried o u t w ith the model of an
inland vessel towed above natural mud layers. Interface In 1985, the track o f A/soce, a tanker navigating w ith a 10%
deformation and fluid velocities were recorded. underkeel relative to the 1200 kg/m3density level in the
Loire estuary, was followed by tw o vessels.
Initial resistance tests

The suction dredger model mentioned above was tested D.3.1.3 Theoretical developments
with negative underkeel clearance relative to the interface
o f artificial mud layers in order to determine initial Interface undulations and squat due to the navigation o f
resistance. ships above o r in fluid mud layers were studied at the
 University of Ghent, Belgium References D. 16, D.21, D.22,
D.24, D.26.

Theoretical calculations o f the wave resistance of a ship

moving with constant velocity over a layer of fluid mud
were carried out at the University ofTel-Aviv and reported
in Reference D.34.

D.3.2 Interface undulations

The effect of fluid mud layers on a ship’s behaviour

depends mainly on the deformation o f the interface caused
by the pressure field around the moving hull.Vertical
interface motions o r internal undulations (the term
“ internal waves” being less correct, Reference D.24) were
observed during both model and full-scale tests.

The effect o f ship speed is illustrated in Figure D. 10.

Figure D. 11 illustrates that this relation between speed and

interface undulations is less clear at large negative
underkeel clearance (^ -4% of draught), due to a secondary
internal wave pattern at the ship entrance1.

Most of these phenomena, observed during tests with

TCE/P layers at Flanders Hydraulics, were confirmed by
results o f tests above natural and artificial mud, and also
concur w ith those published by MARIN (Figure D. 12) and
SOGREAH:
* A t MARIN, interface deformations generated at lower
speeds appeared to be located in the vicinity o f the
ship, while at higher speeds, the influence extended to
larger distances.The height o f the internal jump was
found to:
increase with the mud layer thickness;
reduce w ith decreasing underkeel clearance;
• A t very low speed, the interface remains practically
undisturbed (first speed range). decrease with increasing density.

• A t an intermediate speed, an interface sinkage is * A t SOGREAH, internal undulations in the artificially-

observed under the ship's entrance2, which at a certain composed mud layers were not visible w ith the most
section changes into an elevation.This internal hydraulic rigid mud; with the least rigid mud, internal ‘waves’ with
jump moves towards the stern w ith increasing speed. height 0.5 (negative underkeel clearance) to 2 (positive
The angle between the jump and the ship heading is underkeel clearance) times the layer thickness were
approximately 90° (second speed range). observed in the higher speed range.
• A t higher speeds, the interface jump occurs abaft the
stern.The angle mentioned above increases to
approximately 135° (third speed range).
2 part o f a ship forward o f the parallel middle body
 Due to the interface deformation and squat phenomena
(see Section D3.5), several situations o f relative position
between the ship’s keel and the two-layer system are
possible (see Figure D. 15),

AP FP

210 kHz - horizon

time ($)
■ A t Flanders Hydraulics, the test series w ith seif- Figure D13a
propelled models above an artificial fluid mud layer observation point
revealed interface deformations comparable with those
observed in two-layer systems.
• Qualitative tests at Flanders Hydraulics w ith a towed
mode! above natural mud layers resulted into similar
deformation patterns. Measurements o f fluid velocities
confirmed the hydraulic jump character o f the interface
deformation: mud flows in an opposite sense relative to
the ship's speed under the sunken part o f the interface,
and follows the ship under the risen p a rt Another
important conclusion concerns the stability of the Figure D13b
interface. A t higher speed, mixing o f mud w ith water Figure D 13 - /memo/ wove registered by survey vessel
sometimes occurs, but only takes place behind the ship, during full-scale test with Vlaanderen XVIII [ 0 . 16]
so that the fluid velocity patterns around the ship are
not affected by this phenomenon. It was also observed
that the interface recovered surprisingly fast
• The existence and nature o f interface motions was
confirmed by full-scale observations at Rotterdam and
Zeebrugge {see Figure D. 13).

In general, the effect on ship behaviour is most important

in the second speed range, and less im portant in the third
speed range. For this reason, it is useful to make an
estimation of the transition velocity between the second
and third speed ranges.The following expression is based
on theoretical calculations (University o f Ghent) and
confirmed by model tests (Flanders Hydraulics), (See
References D. 16, D.22, Figure D. 14):

Pi
K rit J 27^1
P2
0.3.3 Propulsion and resistance

This speed is different from the maximum velocity of

D.3.3.1 Speed-Propulsion Relationship
propagation of internal gravity waves in a two-layer fluid
system Reference D.20:
The clearest illustration o f the effect o f interface
undulations on the propulsive properties o f a ship is given
by the relationship between forward speed (V) and number
o f propeller revolutions (n). Results o f model tests show
P2 that the effect occurs mainly in the second speed range,
where a given rpm results in a substantially low er speed
 Figure D I5 - Model tests at Flanders Hydraulics and theoretical
calculations with dredger in a two-tayer system,
b , + T - l.20;pz+ p r L I l ; h 2+T ~ 0.175.
Position o f ship’s keel relative to water-”mud”-interface
as function o f forward speed and UKC [0. / 6]

compared to the situation with a solid bottom (Figure D. 16).

The transition between the second and third speed ranges is
smoothed with decreasing underkeel clearance (Figure D.I7).

The effect o f underkeel clearance is illustrated by results of

full-scale tests carried o u t at Zeebrugge. In the low
underkeel clearance range, tests executed w ith constant Figure D16 - Model tests at MARIN with tanker
propulsive power show that speed increases by 20 to 25% in a two-layer system, speed - rpm relation [0.20]
if the underkeel clearance varies from -5 to +10% of the (a) UKC ~ 20% to bottom
draught (Figure D. 18). It should be noted that all steady- (b) UKC ~ 10% to bottom
(c) UKC = 10% to interface
state tests carried o u t at Zeebrugge were executed in the
third speed range. Resistance was determined in a qualitative, indirect way by
manipulation of the results of deceleration tests carried
The speed RPM (n)-curve is the combined result o f
o u t at full scale (Zeebrugge) and by means o f ship models
resistance and propulsion; both characteristics must be
(Flanders Hydraulics). An important increase o f the
investigated separately in order to evaluate the
resistance coefficient was observed in a well-defined speed
contribution of each.
range, situated within the second speed range. Model tests
D.3.3.2 Resistance showed that at initially positive underkeel clearance, the
resistance coefficient increased with increasing speed until
Resistance tests with ship models have been carried out at contact occurred between the keel and the mud layer due
SOGREAH. Figure D. 19 shows that, at constant speed, to interface deformation and squat effects (Figure D. 15,
resistance increases with decreasing underkeel clearance curve I ).This implies that contact with the mud layer
until some small positive underkeel clearance is reached. If would cause a decrease of the resistance coefficient; this
the underkeel clearance decreases to some small negative phenomenon can be understood by considering the
value, resistance decreases very slightly; if the keel velocity o f the ship relative to the water and to the mud
penetrates deeper in the mud layer, a substantial increase (Figure D,20), and is confirmed by the Sogreah resistance
o f resistance is observed. measurements fo r low gradient mud (Figure D. 19).
 D.3.3.3 Initial resistance

Initial resistance measurements Reference D.27 showed

out that there is no relationship between the test results
and the theoretical value calculated by multiplication o f
contact area by initial yield stress.The measured initial
resistance appears to be overestimated by the calculated
value at small negative underkeel clearance, and
underestimated at larger negative underkeel clearance (see
Figure D.22). It is possible that, due to the visco-elastic
properties o f the mud, a supplementary force has to be
overcome in order to penetrate horizontally through the
rigid mud layer. It can be concluded that theoretical
calculations o f the critical yield stress defining the nautical
bottom (see Section D 2.3.I) are doubtful.

D.3.3.4 Propulsion

It was observed that the speed at which the resistance

coefficient determined by means of deceleration tests,
reaches a maximum does not necessarily coincide w ith the
“ hollow ” in the speed/RPM curve (Figure D. IS, curve 2” ).

This implies that the shape of the speed/RPM curve should

not merely be ascribed to an increased resistance, but rather
to the influence of interface motion on propulsion.There are
indications that contact between the rising interface and the
stern part o f the keel obstructs the flow into the propeller,
causing a very poor propulsive efficiency.The latter is
illustrated by the fact that in the hollow of the speed/RPM.
curve, very large dirust and torque values were measured
(comparable with bollard pull conditions, see Figure D.21).

Full scale tests at Zeebrugge showed that the acceleration

characteristics during short engine manoeuvres at low
speed are not affected by underkeel clearance in the range
between -5 and +40%.

D.3.3.5 Discussion

An analysis of ship performance requires insight into the

longitudinal forces acting on a ship.These are resistance,
propulsive forces and, in the case o f a varying speed, inertia
forces.This insight can only be gained by means o f captive
model tests.Tests w ith full-scale ships and self-propelled
models, on the other hand, only give an idea o f the overall
performance, e.g. by means o f a relationship between speed
and rpm o r power.

Unfortunately, neither o f the three laboratories have

systematically investigated both resistance and propulsion.
A t MARIN, resistance and propulsion tests only resulted in
a speed rpm curve.At Flanders Hydraulics, only self­
propulsion tests were carried out. A t SOGREAH,
resistance was measured, but propulsion was not
investigated.This implies that the present state o f the a rt
does not contain all the elements fo r a complete evaluation
o f the effect o f mud layers on the longitudinal speed and
controllability o f ships.
 the mud and the vertical gradient o f the
latter.

V/nO (IV>
Figure D21 - Model tests at
Flanders Hydraulics with suction
dredger in a two-layer system
(p2+pi = l.22;h,+T - l.2;h2+ T - 0.175).
Relation apparent speed o f advance -
Figure D I 9 - Model tests at SOGREAH with mud bottom o f high rigidity, thrust coefficient Marked abscissae
T ~ 0.156 m,V - 0.4 m/s.Variation o f tractive force with UKC correspond with respective critical
and density gradient [D. 14J speed values [D.22]

Figure D20 - Flow around a ship navigating in a

two-layer system [D.I6]
(a) Third speed range, positive or zero UKC
(b) Third speed range, negative UKC
(c) Second speed range, relatively large positive UKC
(d) Second speed range, small positive or negative UKC

Resistance is affected by the presence of a mud layer due

to several possible causes:
(a) Additional wave resistance due to interface
undulations.
The importance is n o t clear, and should be evaluated by
means o f resistance tests combined w ith information
on internal undulation patterns.Theoretical calculations (c) Changes of relative velocity between ship and water
as performed in Reference D.34 offer another and/or mud due to interface undulations.
possibility, but should be validated with experimental
data. This effect depends on the speed range and the initial
underkeel clearance:
It should be borne in mind that, although relatively high
internal "waves” are observed, their energy content is • The speed determines the kind of interface undulation
comparatively low because o f the small density and, therefore, the change in relative velocity: a sunken
difference between both fluids. interface decreases relative water velocity and
increases relative mud velocity, while an elevated
(b) Mud rheology.
interface has an opposite effect.
The effect o f the higher viscosity and the Bingham
character o f mud is o f importance if contact occurs • For a given speed, the initial underkeel clearance
between the ship and the mud layer; in that case, the determines whether contact will occur between the
effect on resistance is determined by the (negative) ship and the sunken and/or the elevated part of the
underkeel clearance value, the rheological properties of interface.
 For one particular configuration, all possible cases are lateral forces on the hull. If the latter counteract the force
given in Figure D. 15. on the rudder, instabilities may occur Reference D.23.

Considerations o f resistance do not fully explain all the D.3.4.3 Contact with plastic mud
aspects o f the speed/rpm curve. One possible explanation
concerns internal wave resistance at the transition
A ship navigating w ith the keel in contact w ith a plastic
between speed ranges 2 and 3, but measurements o f
propeller thrust and torque at Flanders Hydraulics indicate consolidated mud layer sometimes becomes uncontrollable
that contact between the elevated interface and the after and chooses ‘path of least resistance’. A t the same time, it
part o f the keet obstructs the flow to the propeller, causing is practically impossible to decrease the ship’s speed,
a very poor propulsive efficiency. although the latter may only be I o r 2 knots.

It can be concluded that underkeel clearance/speed Such phenomena were observed during full-scale trials
combinations between curves I and 2’ are characterized by carried out in 1988 w ith the suction hopper dredger
relatively low resistance and low propulsive efficiency. Waanderen XV/// near Zeebrugge,and confirmed
Further investigation is required in order to check whether independently by several witnesses (pilots, crew o f inland
speed control and stopping manoeuvres could be affected vessels). It is not clear w hether there is any relationship
in these conditions.
between these phenomena and the presence o f a mud layer,
the rheological properties, the interface deformation, etc.
D.3A Manoeuvrability
D.3.5 Squat effects
D.3.4.1 Dynamic behaviour

D.3.5.1 Governing Effects

The MARIN model tests led to the following conclusions.
• A ship becomes more sluggish if the underkeel is
The presence o f a fluid mud layer on the bottom of a
reduced, until the tatter is 3% to 5% of the draught.
channel influences the sinkage and trim o f a vessel due to
Further reduction makes the ship less sluggish.
tw o effects.
• The presence o f mud appears to have a larger effect on
(a) The pressure field around the moving hull causes
the manoeuvres at low speed (3 knots) and a smaller
effect at higher speeds (up to 7 knots). undulations o f the water-mud interface which
themselves modify the distribution of vertical forces
• The presence of mud on the bottom generally tends to
over the length o f the ship and, therefore, sinkage and
slacken the steady motions (forward speed, d rift and
trim.
rate o f turn are lower), and to accelerate the dynamic
motions (overshoot in a zig-zag test is smaller). (b) If the ship’s keel penetrates the mud layer, the
hydrostatic (buoyancy) force acting on the submerged
D.3.4.2 Rudder effects hull increases due to die higher density o f the mud.

Above a solid bottom, a rudder command to p o rt induces As interface deformation is a function of ship speed, the
a lateral force on the rudder to starboard, resulting into a effects described in (a) are speed dependent; the influence
moment forcing the ship to yaw to port. Model test results o f (b), on the other hand, depends on the underkeel
carried o ut at Flanders Hydraulics do not always follow clearance.As a result, a distinction should be made
this pattern (Figure D,23). in some cases, forces and between speed and underkeel clearance ranges.
moments take the usual sign fo r large rudder angles, but
point to the opposite direction fo r small angles. Such D.3.5.2 Lower Speed Range
instability o f rudder action appears to take place if the keel
is in contact w ith both water and mud (ranges I to 2” and
In the “ second speed range” , the occurrence o f an interface
3 to 4 in Figure D. IS), especially if the contact zone is
elevation near the stern causes trim effects (Figure D.24):
located near the stern (range 2’ to 2"). In the case o f a
“ stable” rudder action, however, forces induced by a rudder * If the underkeel clearance is sufficiently large (Figure
angle are larger above mud than above a solid bottom. D.20c), the interface elevation under the stern will
cause a trim by the stern.
An analysis of data published by MARIN Reference D.20
shows that the application point o f the force induced by * W ith decreasing underkeel clearance, contact takes
rudder action is n ot situated near the aft perpendicular, as place between keel and interface (Figure D.20d).The
is the case above a solid bottom, but shifts about 30 to vertical force on the a ft body, which is initially directed
40% o f the ship’s length forward, which is a less stable downwards, decreases and even changes its sign,
situatton.The Flanders Hydraulics test results lead to causing a trim by the bow.
comparable values at large rudder angie.The rudder angle
appears to cause asymmetric flow in both w ater and mud, The influence on mean sinkage also depends on underkeel
which results in asymmetric interface undulations, creating clearance (Figure D.25):
 Figure D23 - Model tests at Flanders Hydraulics with suction dredger in a two-layer system,
hz+T = 0.175: (a) p2+ pj = L22;(b) p2+pi = H I .
Influence o f UKC on rudder action (second speed range) [D.26]

• If the underkeel clearance related to the mud-water D.3.5.3 Higher Speed Range
interface is relatively large (> 10%), mean sinkage is
comparable w ith, o r even slightly larger than solid In the “ third speed range” , an interface sinkage occurs over
bottom conditions fo r speeds less than 3 knots. the full ship’s length.
• A t small positive o r negative underkeel clearance, the
If the underkeel clearance is positive o r slightly negative,
buoyancy effects due to the interface elevation reduce
this interface sinkage results in an increase o f net
sinkage, which is practically zero in this speed range.
underkeel clearance (Figure D.20a).As a result, squat
• A t relatively large negative underkeel clearance, effects are less compared w ith a solid bottom situation
buoyancy due to the mud density causes an elevation o f w ith the same initial underkeel clearance.
the ship.
A t relatively large negative underkeel clearance, contact
occurs between the mud layer and the keel (Figure D.20b).
 * SOliO BOTTOM — K C - 10%
o TCE/P — KC = 10% h-| /T BOTTOM
e 6 TCE/P —KC =- !.% 5m * 1.1 SOUD
mm/m T o 1.1 pj/p] = 111
n) A 1J0
0 h j/T =0.17?
05

l .. r „ L _
WT DUG LliJd v / / g l

F/gure D24 - Mode/ tests ct Flanders Hydraulics (Antwerp)

with a trailing suction hopper dredger
( 115.6 x 23.0 x 8.0 m \ scale I HO) above a mud iayer
simulated by a trichlorethane-petroI (TCE/P) mixture
(P2+Pl = I' 22 ;h 2/T - 0.175):trim. Source: [D.26]

0 1 2 3 < V|l (kn) 5 6

Figure 025 - Mode/ tesis at Flanders Hydraulics

(Antwerp) with a trailing suction hopper dredger
(1 15.6 x 23.0 x 8.0 m\scale 1140) above a mud layer
simulated by a tricblorethane-petrot (TCE/P) mixture
(p 2 +p i ~ l.22;h2/T = 0.175):midships sinkage.
Source: [D.26]

D.3.5.4 Effect of Mud Characteristics

The transition between the lower and higher

speed range depends on water depth and mud
density, and shifts to higher speeds w ith
increasing density.

Squat effects also appear to depend on

rheological characteristics, especially on the
vertical concentration gradient o f the mud.The
upward forces acting on a ship navigating in a
mud layer are more important in the case of a
high gradient mud, so that squat effects are
partly eliminated.

D.3.5.5 Conclusion
Figure 0 2 6 - Mode/ tests at SOGREAH (Grenoble) with a tanker
(model Jength 2.56 m) above an artificially composed mud layer: In most o f the cases, the presence of mud layers
midships sinkage. Source: [0 . 14] decreases squat effects, so that squat
estimations fo r solid bottom situations are
conservattve.There are tw o exceptions:
The rather high relative velocity between both results into
low speed, relatively large positive underkeel clearance;
a downward vertical (hydrodynamic) force which
high speed, negative underkeel clearance, mud w ith low
counteracts the upward buoyancy (hydrostatic) force. A t
concentration gradient.
speeds higher than about 8 to 10 knots, the downward
force even might exceed the additional buoyance force, so
that sinkage is larger than in solid bottom conditions
(Figure D.26).

In all cases, the presence of mud layers influences trim in

such a way that the bow is moved upwards compared to
the situation with a solid bottom.
 D A PROPOSALS FOR results to full scale, it is necessary to come to an
agreement about the test procedures and, particularly,
FURTHER RESEARCH about the simulation of the mud layer at model scale
conditions, taking account o f the purpose o f the tests and
the conditions. For example, the use o f a two-layer system
D,4.1 Theoretical definition of might offer advantages fo r the execution o f large
nautical bottom systematic test series fo r studying ship behaviour at
positive o r small negative underkeel clearance, while the
use o f a mud-like suspension is required fo r the simulation
From a theoretical, scientific point o f view, the definition of
of deeper penetrations o f the keel into a more rigid mud
nautical bottom should based on a critical value o f a
layer.
physical mud characteristic (e.g. yield stress).The latter
should be selected in such a way that the forces caused by
contact between a ship’s keel and a mud layer with critical
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 DA SYMBOLS TCE/P trichlorethane * petrol m ixture
Ts concentration o f solid material (dry sediment) (g/!,
TSHD trailing suction hopper dredger
artificially composed mud
UKC underkeel clearance, referred to mud-water
aft perpendicular
interface (unless specified
ship’s beam (m)
differently) (m o r % o f draught;
block coefficient (-)
V ship’s speed (m/s o r knots)
chlorinated paraffin - kerosine mixture
diameter o f propeller (m) Vcrit critical speed separating second
and third speed ranges (m/s o r knots
fore perpendicular
Vm model speed (m/s)
acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
Vw ship’s speed through the water (m/s o r knots'
water depth between free surface and
Y lateral force on ship (N
water-mud interface (m)
mud layer thickness (m)
r undimensioned lateral force
thrust coefficient:T/f;u2 (pn2D“) (-)
Y -/Y /(...) (Vip^V) (-)
ship’s length (m) 7 shear (-'
liquefied natural gas (carrier) Y shear rate
(I/s)
ship’s length between perpendiculars (m)
angular velocity o f ship’s propeller (rpm) 6 rudder angle O
yawing moment; moment about vertical P density (kg/m3o rt/m 3'
axis o f ship (Nm) Pi water density (kg/m3o rt/m *
undimensioned yawing moment Pi mud density (kg/m3o rt/m 3)
N /(...)- (’/ 2p W ) (-) Ps sediment density (kg/m3or t/m 3)
angular velocity o f model propeller (rpm) n dynamic viscosity (Pa s;
natural mud "Hoo Bingham differential viscosity (Pas)
(shaft) power (kW, HP) T shear stress (Pa * N/m1)
revolutions per minute T0 static (o r lower) yield stress (Pa N/m2)
mud content; content o f particles with tb Bingham (or upper) yield stress,
diameter < 63 |im (weight %) residual stress (Pa s N/m2)
time (s) initial rigidity, yield stress (Pa = N/m2)
draught (m) 4> solids volume fraction (-)
thrust (N) mean sinkage (m)
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