LECTURE NO.

1
Industrial Plant Engineering
Fluid Machinery and Heat Transfer
1. PUMPS
1.1 Typical Pumping Installation

1.2 Head and Power Calculation

1.3 Continuity equation

Q = AV = constant
Q = AsVs = AdVd
1.4 Developed Head (DH)
Developed head (DH) = static head + pressure head + velocity head + friction head
 p − ps   Vd2 − Vs2 
DH = H = (zd − z s ) +  d  +  ( )
 + h fd + hfs

 γ w   2g 
1
 where:
zs is negative if the source is below the pump centerline and
ps is negative if it is a vacuum.
1.5 Friction head
Darcy Equation
 L  V 
2
h f = f   
 D  2g 

1.6 Water power

WP = γ w QH
1.7 Brake power (BP) and Pump efficiency (ηp).
WP
BP =
ηp
WP
ηp =
BP
BP = WP + PL + PDF + PHL + PML
where:
PL = power required to overcome leakage
PDF = power required to overcome disk friction
PHL = power required to overcome hydraulic losses
PML = power required to overcome mechanical losses

Example No. 1
A centrifugal pump delivers 70 liters per second of water to a pressurized tank whose pressure is 300 kPa. The
source of water is 10 meters below the pump. The diameter of the suction pipe is 300 mm and the discharge pipe
is 250 mm. Calculate the kw rating of the driving motor assuming the pump efficiency to be 70%.
A. 28 kw
B. 45 kw
C. 40 kw
D. 50 kw

Solution:
Q 4(0.07 )
V1 = = = 0.99 m s
A1 π (0.3)2
Q 4(0.07 )
V2 = = = 1.42 m s
A2 π (0.25)2
p2 − p1 V22 − V12
H= + + z 2 − z1
γ 2g
300 (1.42 )2 − (0.99)2
H= + + 10 = 40.63 m
9.81 2(9.81)
Water Power = QγH = (0.07 )(9.81)(40.63) = 27.90 kw
WP 27.90
Input Power = = = 39.85 kw (C)
η 0.70

Example No. 2

2
 A pump is driven by an electric motor moves 25 gal/min of water from reservoir A to reservoir B, lifting the water
to a total of 245 ft. The efficiency of the pump and motor are 64% and 84% respectively. What size of motor in Hp
is required?
A. 3 hp
B. 5 hp
C. 2 hp
D. 7 hp

Solution:
P
Pmotor = brake
E motor
Solving for Pwater :
Q = 25 gal min = 0.0557 ft 3 s
( )( )
Pwater = 62.4 lb ft 3 0.0557 ft 3 s (245 ft ) = 854.54 ft − lb s
854 .54 ft − lb s
Pwater = = 1.55 hp
550 ft − lb s − hp
P 1.55
Pbrake = water = = 2.42 hp
E pump 0.64
Pbrake 2.42
Pmotor = = = 2.88 hp say 3.0 hp
E motor 0.84
Thus; use 3.0 hp motor.
Answer: (a) 3.0 hp

1.8 Characteristics of Reciprocating Pumps.

1.8.1 Piston displacement, VD.
Piston rod neglected
π 
VD = 2 D 2LSn
4
Piston rod considered
π π
( 
)
VD =  D 2 + D 2 − d 2  LSn
4 4 
where:
D = inside diameter or bore.
d = piston rod diameter.
L = piston displacement or length of stroke.
S = strokes per minute.
N = number of cylinders.

1.8.2 Volumetric Efficiency, Ev

Volumetric efficiency – is the ratio of actual volume to the piston displacement.
Q
Ev =
VD
1.8.3 Slip
Slip – is one minus the volumetric efficiency.
Slip =1 − Ev

3
 1.8.4 Actual discharge.
Q = AV
Q = VD (1 − slip )

Example No. 3
A single-acting reciprocating pump, with a diameter of 18 cm and a stroke of 30 cm, delivers water at a
rate of 0.18 cubic meter per second. What is the percentage slip it delivers at 1500 rpm?
A. 1.6%
B. 5.3%
C. 8.4%
D. 10.5%
Solution
π π  1500 
VD = D 2 LN = (0.18 )2 (0.30 ) 
4 4  60 
VD = 0.19 m3 sec
Q = 0.18 m3 sec
VD − Q
% slip = × 100 %
VD
0.19 − 0.18
%slip = ×100%
0.19
%slip = 5.3% (B)

1.9 Characteristics of Centrifugal Pumps.

1.9.1 Specific speed – is defined as the speed in revolutions per minute at which a geometrically similar impeller
would operate to develop 1 ft of head when displacing 1 gpm.
N Q
Ns = 3 4
H
where:
Ns = specific speed, rpm
N = speed, rpm
Q = discharge, gpm
H = head, ft
1.9.2 Impeller Contours
A. Radial or conventional
B. Francis
C. Mixed flow
D. Axial flow

4
1.9.3 Range of Specific Speeds

Radial impellers have specific speeds up to about 3000 rpm, while Francis wheels go up to 4500 rpm.
Mixed flow impellers range from the specific speed of the Francis wheels to about 10,000; for Propeller
types the range is from 10,000 to 14,000 rpm.

Example No. 4
It is desired to deliver 5 m3/s at a head of 640 in single pump having a specific speed not to exceed 40. If
the speed is not to exceed 1352 rpm. How many stages are required?
A. 3
B. 4
C. 5
D. 2

Solution:
N Q
Ns = 3
h4
1352 Q
40 = 3
 640  4
 
 n 
Thus,
n=2
Answer: (d)

1.9.4 Similar Pumps

N1 Q1 N2 Q2
=
H13 4 H 23 4
Q1 Q
3
= 23
N1D1 N 2 D 2
where D is the impeller diameter.

1.9.5 Affinity Law

Affinity laws – these laws express the mathematical relationship and illustrate the effect of changes in
pump operating conditions or pump performance variables such as pump head, flow, speed, horsepower,
and pump impeller diameters at nearly constant efficiency.

5
  N  D 
Flow, Q2 = Q1  2  2 
 N1  D1 
2 2
 N2   D2 
Head, h2 = h1  N   
 1   D1 
3 3
 N 2   D2 
Power, P2 = P1  N   D 
 1  1
A. Constant impeller diameter, variable speed
2 3
Q2 N 2 H2  N2  P2  N 2 
= =   = 
Q1 N1 H1  N1  P1  N1 
B. Constant speed, variable impeller diameter
2 3
Q2 D 2 H 2  D2  P2  D2 
= =  = 
Q1 D1 H1  D1  P1  D1 

Example No. 5
A pump delivers 500 gpm of water against a total head of 200 ft and operating at 1770 rpm. Changes have
increased the total head to 375 ft. At what rpm should the pump be operated to achieve the new head at
the same efficiency?
A. 2800 rpm
B. 3600 rpm
C. 3434 rpm
D. 2424 rpm

Solution:
2
H1  N1 
= 
H 2  N 2 
2
200  1770 
= 
375  N 2 
N2 = 2424 rpm
Answer: (D) 2424 rpm.

1.9.6 Centrifugal Pumps in Parallel and Series Operations.

A. Parallel pumps – performance is obtained by adding the capacities at the same head.
B. Series pumps – performance is obtained by adding the heads at the same capacity.

2. FANS AND BLOWERS

2.1 Fan Performance and Design.
2.1.1 Fan capacity, Q – volume handled by a fan expressed in cubic meter per sec at fan outlet conditions.
Q = AV
where:
Q = volume flowrate measured at outlet, m3/s
A = fan outlet area, m2
V = velocity at outlet, m/s

2.1.2 Fan static pressure head, hs – the total pressure diminished by the fan velocity pressure.
6
 hw ρ w
hs =
ρa
where:
hs = static pressure head, meters of air
hw = manometer reading, meters of water
ρw = density of water = 9.81 kN/m3 or 1000 kg/m3 or 62.4 lb/ft3.
ρa = density of air at standard conditions = 1.2 kg/m3
Standard condition: 101.325 kPa (29.92 in Hg) and 21.1 C (70 F).

2.1.3 Fan velocity pressure head, hv – corresponds to the average velocity determination from the volume of
air flow at the fan outlet area.
V2
hv = o
2g
where:
hv = velocity head, meters of air
Vo = velocity at outlet, m/s
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2

2.1.4 Total pressure head , htotal – the rise of the pressure head from fan inlet to fan outlet.
htotal = hs + hv

2.1.5 Power output – is the power output of a fan developed based on total pressure.
Power Output = ρ a gQhtotal

2.1.6 Static air power – air horsepower calculated from static pressure.
Static Air Power = ρ a gQhs

2.1.7 Static efficiency ηs – static air power divided by the shaft power.
Static Air Power
ηs =
Shaft Power
2.1.8 Mechanical efficiency ηm – power output divided by the shaft power.
Power Output
ηm =
Shaft Power

Example No. 6
A fan has a total head of 10 m H2O and efficiency of 70%. What is the maximum capacity of the fan using
standard air if the motor used to drive it is rated at 50 kW?
A. 0.510
B. 0.459
C. 0.408
D. 0.357
Solution:
ρ gQht γ w Qht
Motor Power = w =
η η

50 kW =
(9.81 kN m )(Q)(10 m)
3

0.7

7
 Q = 0.357 m 3 s
Ans. (D) 0.357

2.2 Bernoulli’s Equation Applied to Fans.

Basic Assumptions:
A. Considering inlet and discharge static pressure.
B. Considering inlet and discharge velocities.
C. Constant temperature.

Total head = static pressure head + velocity head

p − p V 2 − V12
htotal = 2 1 + 2
γa 2g
p2 − p1 V22 − V12
htotal = +
ρag 2g
ρ w (hw 2 − hw1 ) V22 − V12
htotal = +
ρa 2g
P1 and hw1 is negative if below atmospheric pressure.
Where:
P1 and hw1 = inlet static pressure reading.
P2 and hw2 = discharge pressure reading.
ρw = density of water (1000 kg/m3).
ρa = density of air (1.2 kg/m3 at 101.325 kPa and 21.11 C).
V1 = inlet velocity, m/s.
V2 = outlet velocity, m/s.
g = acceleration due to gravity.

Example No. 7
A fan delivers 5 m3/s of air through a circular duct whose diameter is 200 mm. The static pressure is 120 mm water
gage with the total fan efficiency of 60%. Determine the power required to drive the fan in kW. Take specific
weight of air equal to 11.77 N/m3.
A. 136.48
B. 252.3
C. 189.56
D. 81.89
Solution:
Weight Density of water assumed as 9810 N/m3.
Q = 5 m3 s
Power Output = γ aQht
γ a = 11.17 kN m 3
hw γ w V2
ht = hs + hv = +
γa 2g
4Q 4(5 )
V= = = 159 .155 m s
πD 2
π (0.2 )2
(0.12)(9810) (159.155)2
ht = + = 1391.1 m
11.77 2(9.81)

8
 γ aQht (11.77 )(5)(1391.1)
Power = = = 136,444 W
η 0.60
Power = 136.444 kW
Ans. (A) 136.48 kW

2.3 Fan Characteristics and Fan Laws

Fan characteristics – is the term for the variation in fan capacity or volume pressure, power requirement, and fan
efficiency, with degree of restriction or resistance to gas flow, at constant speed.

Fan Laws - three basic relationships between fan size, fan speed, and gas density which are the bases for predicting
full-size fan performance.
3
D   N2 
Q2 = Q1  2   
 D1   N1 
2 2
D   N2   ρ2 
h2 = h1  2     
 D1   N1   ρ1 
5 3
D  N   ρ 
P2 = P1  2   2   2 
 D1   N1   ρ1 
For fan efficiency equal.

2.3.1 Variable fan speed – constant fan size, constant density

N 
Q2 = Q1  2 
 N1 
2
N 
h2 = h1  2 
 N1 
3
N 
P2 = P1  2 
 N1 

2.3.2 Variable fan size – geometrically similar fans, constant density

3
D 
Q2 = Q1  2 
 D1 
h2 = h1
2
D 
P2 = P1  2 
 D1 

2.3.3 Variable gas or air density – constant fan size and speed, constant system or point of rating
Q2 = Q1
ρ 
h2 = h1  2 
 ρ1 
ρ 
P2 = P1  2 
 ρ1 

9
 Example No. 8
A fan used to provide ventilation in a tunnel requires a 3-kW electric motor to deliver 360 m3/min at a
static pressure of 300 mm of water when operated at a speed of 500 rpm. It was later found that the air
to be delivered needs to be increased to 420 m3/min. If the fan size remains constant., account for the
pressure in meters of water.
A. 0.0384
B. 0.0843
C. 0.3048
D. 0.4083
Solution:
For constant fan size, variable speed
Q2 N 2
=
Q1 N1
2 2
h2  N2   Q2 
=  = 
h1  N1   Q1 
2
h2  420 
= 
0.3  360 
h2 = 0.4083 m (D)

2.4 Fan Combinations

Fans in series – used to increase head with the same discharge.
Q2 = Q1
htotal = h1 + h2
Fans in parallel – used to increase discharge with the same head.
h2 = h1
Qtotal = Q1 + Q2

3. AIR COMPRESSORS
3.1 Performance of Single-Stage, Single-Acting Reciprocating Compressor

3.1.1 Compression Process (1-2)

p1V1n = p2V2n
n −1
n −1
T2  p2  n V 
=  =  1 
T1  p1   V2 
10
 where n = polytropic exponent, = k for isentropic process (k = 1.4 for air and n =1 for isothermal process.)

Example No. 9
Air is compressed adiabatically from an initial pressure of 200 psi and a temperature of 700 deg R to 300
psi. Find the temperature after the compression.
A. 576 deg C
B. 680 deg C
C. 590 deg C
D. 786 deg C
Solution:
k −1
T2  p2  k
= 
T1  p1 
1.4 −1
T2  300  1.4
= 
700  200 
T2 = 785.98 R (D)

3.1.2 Piston Displacement, VD

π
V D= D 2LN m 3 s
4
where D = bore, m ; L = stroke, m; N = speed, rev/sec.
3.1.3 Capacity of compressors, V1’.
m′RT1
V1′ = compressor capacity =
p1
3.1.4 Volumetric Efficiency, ηv.
Compressor capacity V1′
ηv = =
Displaceme nt volume VD
1n
p 
ηv = 1 + c − c 2 
 p1 
where c = clearance = (V1 – VD)/VD.

Example No. 10
A single acting air compressor operates at 150 rpm with an initial condition of air at 97.9 kPa and 27 C and
discharges the air at 379 kPa to a cylindrical tank. The bore and stroke are 335 mm and 381 mm
respectively with 5 % clearance. If the surrounding air is at 100 kPa and 20 C while the compression and
expansion process are pV1.3 = C, determine the free air capacity in m3/s.
A. 0.0819 m3/s
B. 0.0856 m3/s
C. 0.0943 m3/s
D. 0.0642 m3/s
Solution:
p f Vf p1V1
=
Tf T1
where:

11
  150 
π (0.355 m )2 (0.381 m ) rps 
π D LN
2
 60 
Vd = = = 0.0943 m 3 s
4 4
1 1
p  n
 379  1.3
η v = 1 + c − c 2  = 1 + 0.05 − 0.05  = 0.908
 p1   97.9 
V1 = 0.908(0.0493) = 0.0856 m 3 s
Then;
(100)V f (97.9)(0.0856)
=
20 + 273 27 + 273
V f = 0.0819 m 3 s
Answer: (a) 0.0819 m3/s.

3.1.5 Mass of compresses air inside the cylinder, m

m = m ′ + m cl
where:
m = amount of air inside cylinder
mCL = clearance mass
Also,
V1 = VD + cVD = (1 + c )VD
V1 = (1 + c )(V1′ η v )
 m′RT1 
= [(1 + c ) ηv ]
mRT1

p1  p1 
m = [(1 + c ) η v ]m ′
3.1.6 Compressor Work (Power)
n −1
 
np1V1′  p2  n
Wk =   −1
n − 1  p1  
 
where p1 = suction pressure, kPaa; p2 = discharge pressure, kPaa

Example No. 11
A double acting compressor with piston displacement of 0.05 m3 per stroke operates at 500 rpm. The
clearance factor is 5% and it receives air at 100 kPa and discharges it at 600 kPa. The compression and re-
expansion curve is polytropic n = 1.3. Determine the power required to compress the air.
A. 157.54 kW
B. 175.54 kW
C. 147.55 kW
D. 174.55 kW
Solution:
n −1
 
np1V1′  p2 
− 1
n
W=  
n − 1  p1  
 
Solving for the free air capacity, V1′ :
V1′ = V1 − V4
12
 where:
V1 = V3 + Vd = cVd + Vd = (0.05)(0.05) + 0.05 = 0.0525 m 3 stroke
From:
p4V4n = p3V3n
V3 = (0.05)(0.05) = 0.0025 m 3 stroke
(100)(V4 )1.3 = (600)(0.0025)1.3
V4 = 0.0099 m 3 stroke
Then:
V1′ = 0.0525 − 0.0099 = 0.0426 m3 stroke

( )  500 rev 
V1′ = 0.0426 m 3 stroke (2 stroke )
60 sec
 = 0.710 m3 s
 
Thus;
1.3 −1
 
1.3(100 )(0.710 )  600  1.3  = 157.54 kW
W=   − 1
1.3 − 1  100  
 
Answer: (a) 157.54 kW
3.1.7 Brake Power
Brake power – is the power required to drive the compressor
Brake power = Compressor power / compressor efficiency

Compressor Power = Brake power x compressor efficiency

3.1.8 Piston Speed
Piston speed = 2LN m/s
3.1.9 Adiabatic Compressor Efficiency
Adiabatic compressor efficiency = isentropic work /actual fluid work
3.1.10 Ideal Indicated Power
Ideal indicated power = pmiVD
where: pmi = indicated mean effective pressure.
3.1.11 Transferred heat in the cylinder, Q
Q = mc n (T2 − T1 )
where:
 k −n
cn = cv  
 1− n 
For air cv = 0.72 kJ/kg.K
3.1.12 Free Air Capacity, Vo
mo = m
poVo pV
=
RTo RT
 p  T 
Vo = V   o 
 po  T 
where:
p, V, T – actual or given conditions.
Po, Vo, To – standard conditions. If not given, use 14.7 psi, 68 F or 101.325 kPa, 20 C.

13
 3.1.13 Probable actual volumetric efficiency, ηa.
 p  T 
ηa = η1  1  o 
 po  T1 
3.2 Double-acting, Single-stage Reciprocating Compressor
Piston Displacement
A. Piston rod neglected:
π 
VD = 2 D 2LN
4
B. Piston rod considered:
π π
VD =
4
D 2 LN +
4
(D 2
)
− d 2 LN
3.3 Two-Stage Reciprocating Compressor.

Ideal (Optimum) Conditions:

A. No pressure drop in intercooler
B. Perfect intercooling
C. Work in first stage = work in second stage
n −1 n −1
   
nmRT1  px  n  1 
 
  −1
nmRT p n
  −1 = 2
n − 1  p1   n − 1  p  
   x  
p x p2
= or px = p1p2
p1 px
Compressor work:
n −1
 
2np1V1′  px  n
Wk =   −1
n − 1  p1  
 
Heat rejected in intercooler:
Q = mc p (Tx − T1 )
n−1
p  n
Tx = T  x 
 p1 
p V′
m′ = 1 1
RT1

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 Example No. 12
An air compressor is to compress 9 m3/min from 100 kPa to 1 MPa. Assuming ideal conditions and with n = 1.3,
what will be the savings in work due to two-staging?
A. 6 kW
B. 8 kW
C. 4 kW
D. 10 kW
Solution:
One Stage
n −1
 
np1V1  p2  n
W1 =   − 1
n − 1  p1  
 

(1.3)(100 )  
9 1.3 − 1

 60   1000 
− 1 = 45.58 kW
1. 3
W1 =  
1.3 − 1  100  
 
Two Stage
pi = p1p2 = (100)(1000) = 316.23 kPa
n −1
 
2np1V1  pi  n
WT =   − 1
n − 1  p1  
 
 9 
2(1.3)(100 )   1.3 −1

 60    316 . 23 
− 1 = 39.56 kW
1.3
WT =  
1. 3 − 1  100  
 
Savings in work = 45.58 kW – 39.56 kW = 6.02 kW
Ans. (A) 6 kW

3.4 Three-Stage Reciprocating Compressor.

Wk1 = Wk2 = Wk3

15
 For ideal conditions, pressure ratios are equal:
p x py p2
= =
p1 px py

( )
px = p12 p2
13

py = (p p )
2 13
1 2

Compressor work:
n−1
 
3np1V1′  px  n
Wk = 
 
 − 1

n − 1  p1  
 
Heat rejected in intercooler:
Q = 2mc p (Tx − T1 )

3.5 Performance of Centrifugal and Rotary Compressors

Compressor work:
n −1
 
np1V1  p2  n
Wk = 
 
 −1

n − 1  p1  
 

4. HEAT TRANSFER AND HEAT EXCHANGERS

4.1 Fourier’s Law of Conduction:

16
 Q kdt
=−
A dx
Fourier’s law: “the heat flux resulting from thermal conduction is proportional to the magnitude of the
temperature gradient and opposite to it in sign.
4.2 Conduction through Plane Wall.

kA(t a − t b )
Q=
x
Where:
Q = heat transmitted, W
A = heat transfer area, m2
ta = surface temperature on hot side, C
tb = surface temperature on cold side, C
k = thermal conductivity, W/m-C

Example No. 1
A 48 ft2 wall has an average thermal conductivity of 1.2 Btu-ft/ft2-F-hr. If the temperature difference between two
sides is 18 F and thickness is 0.7 ft, what is the total heat loss in 5 hours?
E. 1480 Btu
F. 7400 Btu
G. 5180 Btu
H. 38,500 Btu
Solution:
kA ∆t 1.2(48 )(18 )
Q= =
x 0 .7
Q = 1481.14 Btu hr
In 5 hrs: 5 x 1481.14 = 7405.7 Btu

4.3 Conduction through Composite Plane Wall.

17
 k1A(ta − t b )
Q=
x1
k A(t − t )
Q= 2 b c
x2
Where:
k1 = thermal conductivity of first layer.
k2 = thermal conductivity of second layer.
A = heat transfer area which is common to both layers.

4.4 Heat Transfer from Fluid to fluid.

Q = h1 A (t1 − t a )
Q = h2 A(t d − t 2 )
Where:
h1 = surface film conductance on the hot side, W/m2-C.
h2 = surface film conductance on the cold side, W/m2-C.
A(t1 − t 2 )
Q= = UA(t1 − t 2 )
1 x1 x 2 x 3 1
+ + + +
h1 k1 k2 k3 h2
1
U=
1 x1 x 2 x 3 1
+ + + +
h1 k1 k2 k3 h2
where:
U = overall conductance or overall coefficient of heat transfer, W/m2-C.

Example No. 2

18
 One side of a furnace wall (k = 1.5 W/m-K) is exposed to ambient air whose temperature is 29 C (h = 18 W/m2-K)
and the other side is exposed to combustion gases whose temperature is 1500 C (h = 12 Wm2-K). Given a heat
transfer rate of 6000 W per square meter area, determine thickness of the wall.
I. 15.9 cm
J. 24.2 cm
K. 20.2 cm
L. 32.4 cm
Solution:
Q ∆t
=
A 1 +x+ 1
hi k ho
1500 − 29
6000 =
1 x 1
+ +
12 1.5 18
x = 0.159 m = 15.9 cm

4.5 Conduction Through Pipe

2πkL(t a − t b )
Q=
r
ln 2
r1
where:
L = length of pipe.

4.6 Conduction Through Composite Pipe.

2πk1L(t a − t b )
Q=
r
ln 2
r1
2πk 2 L(t b − t c )
Q=
r
ln 3
r2

19
 2πk2 L(t a − t c )
Q=
ln(r2 r1 ) ln(r3 r2 )
+
k1 k2
where:
k1 = thermal conductivity of inner pipe.
k2 = thermal conductivity of outer pipe.
L = common length of the pipe.

4.7 Heat Transfer from Fluid to Fluid through Pipe.

Q = hi Ai (t1 − t a )
Q = ho Ao (t c − t 2 )
Where:
hi = surface film conductance on the hot side, W/m2-C.
ho = surface film conductance on the cold side, W/m2-C.
Ai = 2πr1L
Ao = 2πr3L

Q=
(t1 − t 2 ) = Ui Ai (t1 − t 2 ) = Uo Ao (t1 − t 2 )
1 ln(r2 r1 ) ln(r3 r2 ) 1
+ + +
Ai hi 2πk1L 2πk 2 L Ao ho
1
Ui =
1 1 2 1 r1 ln(r3 r2 ) r1
r ln( r r )
+ + +
hi k1 k2 r3ho
1
Uo =
r3 r3 ln(r2 r1 ) r3 ln(r3 r2 ) 1
+ + +
r1hi k1 k2 ho
Where:
Ui = overall conductance based on inside area.
Uo = overall conductance based on outside area.
Example No. 3
A pipe with an outside diameter of 2.5 in. insulated with a 2 in. layer of asbestos (k0 = 0.396 Btu-in/hr-ft2-F),
followed by a layer of cork 1.5 in thick (kc = 0.30 Btu-in/hr-ft2-F). If the temperature of the outer surface of the
cork is 90 F, calculate the heat lost per 100 ft of insulated pipe. Pipe surface temperature is 290 F.
20
 M. 847.64 Btu/hr
N. 3847.51 Btu/hr
O. 2847.29 Btu/hr
P. 1847.14 Btu/hr
Solution:
t1 − t 2
Q=
r  r 
ln 2  ln 3 
 r1  +  r2 
2π ka L 2π kc L
2.5
r1 = = 1.25 in
2
r2 = 1 .25 + 2 = 3 .25 in
r3 = 3 .25 + 1 .5 = 4 .75 in
L = 100 ft
290 − 90
Q= = 2847.29 Btu hr
 3.25   4.75 
ln  ln 
 1.25  +  3.25 
 0.396   0.30 
2π  (100 ) 2π  (100 )
 12   12 

4.8 Mean Temperature Difference.

Q = UA ∆ t m
Q. Arithmetic mean temperature difference.
∆t + ∆tB
Arithmetic ∆t m = A
2
R. Logarithmic (True) mean temperature difference.
21
 ∆t A − ∆t B
Logarithmic ∆t m =
∆t
ln A
∆t B

Example No.4
A liquid-to-liquid counterflow heat exchanger is used to heat a cold fluid from 120 F to 310 F. Assuming that the
hot fluid enters at 500 F and leaves at 400 F, calculate the log mean temperature difference for the heat exchanger.
S. 132 F
T. 232 F
U. 332 F
V. 432 F
Solution:
∆t − ∆t min
LMTD = max
 ∆t 
ln max 
 ∆t min 
where:
∆ t max = 400 − 120 = 280 F
∆ t min = 500 − 310 = 190 F
Thus:
280 −190
LMTD = = 232 F
 280 
ln 
 190 
4.9 Heat Balance
Q = m12 c p12 (t 2 − t1 ) = mxy c pxy (t x − t y ) = UA∆t m

Example No. 5
Hot water enters a counterflow heat exchanger at 99 C. It is used to heat a cold stream of water from 4 to 32 C.
The flow rate of the cold stream is 1.3 kg/s and the flow rate of the hot stream is 2.6 kg/s. The overall heat transfer
coefficient is 830 W/m2-C. Compute for the heat exchange area in m2.
W. 2.5 x 10-3
X. 5.2 x 10-3
Y. 2.5
Z. 5.2
Solution:
Heat balance
Q = m h c h (t hi − t ho ) = m c c c (t co − t ci )
Say ch = cc
2 .6 (99 − t ho ) = 1 .3(32 − 4 )
t ho = 85 C
LMTD:
LMTD =
(t hi − t ci ) − (t ho − t co )
 t −t 
ln hi ci 
 t hi − t ci 
(99 − 32) − (85 − 4)
LMTD = = 73.78 C
 99 − 32 
ln 
 85 − 4 
22
 For A:
Q = UA (LMTD ) = m h c h (t hi − t ho )
(830 )(A )(73 .78 ) = 2.6(4.187 )(99 − 85 )
A = 2.49 ×10 −3 m 2

4.10 Dimensionless Numbers

Re – Reynolds number
DρV
Re =
µ
Nu – Nusselt number
hD
Nu =
k
Pr – Prandtl number
cp µ
Pr =
k
St = 1/Pr – Stanton number
k
St =
cp µ
Gz – Graetz number
mcp
Gz =
kL
Gr – Grashof number
D 3 ρ 2 gβ ∆t
Gr =
µ2
4.11 Film Coefficient, Turbulent Flow Inside Pipe
For fluids being heated or cooled during turbulent flow inside pipes of internal diameter D,
 cp µ 
0.8 0.4
hi D  DVρ 
= 0.023   
kb  µ b  k b
For limits: 0.7 < Pr < 120; 10,000 < Re < 120,000 for high viscosity liquids; Re > 2100 for low viscosity liquids and
gases; L/D > 60; moderate ∆t.

where subscript b indicates that the properties k, µ, and ρ should evaluated at the bulk temperature , and hi is
the inside film coefficient.

Close approximation for gases and vapors, Re > 2100.

0.8
hi D  DVρ 
= 0.021  = 0.021Re 0.8
kb  µ b

4.12 Film Coefficient, Laminar Flow of Liquids in Pipes.

McAdams’s equation for small D and small ∆t, fluid being heated. For viscous liquids, Re < 2100; mcp/(kL) >10.
0.14 13
hi D µ   mc p 
= 2.02 b   
kb  µw   kL  b
where:
m = mass flow rate per unit time.

23
 µw = viscosity of the fluid measured at the temperature of the inside wall of the pipe.
L = heated length of a straight pipe.
cp = specific heat of the liquid.

Sieder and Tate film coefficient h for laminar flow of liquid in a pipe.
0.14
 cpµ 
0.333 0.333
 DVρ   µ 
0.333
hi D D
= 1.86       
k  µ   k  L  µs 
In dimensionless groups
0.14
0.333  D
0.333
 µ 
Nu = 1.86 Re 0.333
Pr    
L  µs 
where:
µs = viscosity of the fluid measured at the inside pipe surface temperature.

4.13 Film Coefficients for Annular Space.

Nu = 0.023Re 0.8 Pr n or
 DeVρ   c p µ 
0.8 n
hD
= 0.023   
k  µ   k b
where: n = 0.4 for heating and n = 0.3 for cooling.
De = equivalent diameter which is four times the hydraulic radius.
The hydraulic radius is the sectional area of the stream divided by the wetted perimeter.
 πD 2 4 − πD12 4 
De = 4 2  = D2 − D1

 π D 2 + πD1 
4.14 Film Coefficients for flow over outside of a Single Pipe, Forced Convection. (McAdams)
0.6
hD o  D Vρ 
= 0.24 o 
kf  µ 
 f 
where:
DoVρ
1000 < < 50,000
µf
t b + tw
tf =
2
Do = outside diameter.
tb = the bulk temperature.
tw = the temperature of the pipe wall on the side whose film temperature is desired.

4.15 Film Coefficients with Free Convection. (McAdams)

The form of equation applicable to many problems in free convection is
m
hc D  D 3 ρ 2gβ∆t   c p µ  
= C   
  
kf  µ2  f  k  f 

24
 where the subscript f indicates that the properties of the fluid are evaluated at the film temperature, C and m
are dimensionless constants, β is the coefficient of thermal expansion ( = 1/T for ideal gases), and the other
symbols have the usual meanings.

Simplified equation for hot surface in atmospheric air,

AA. Vertical plates over 1 ft high.
hc = 0.27 ∆t 0.25 Btu ft 2 − hr − F
BB. Horizontal pipes and vertical pipes over 1 ft high.
0.25
 ∆t 
hc = 0.27  Btu ft 2 − hr − F
 Do 
4.16 Film coefficient for Condensing Vapors on a surface.
Types of condensation
CC. Dropwise condensation – occurs when the vapor condenses as drops which are eventually removed from the
surface by gravity.
DD. Film-type condensation – occurs when a vapor condenses and forms a liquid film over the cool surface, has
much lower film coefficient for steam than the former.
0.25
 k 3 ρ 2 gh fg 
h = 0.725  Btu ft 2 − hr − F
 NDo µ∆t 
 f
where N is the number of tubes in a vertical row of horizontal tubes.
4.17 Vaporization.
Types of Vaporization.
EE. Film Boiling
FF. Nuclear Boiling
4.18 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient.
1
Uo =
(OD ) + (OD )ln(OD ID ) + 1
(ID )hi 2k ho
5.19 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient with scale coefficient.
1
Uo =
(OD ) + (OD ) + (OD )ln(OD ID ) + 1 + 1
(ID )hi (ID )hsi 2k ho hso
where hsi and hso is the scale coefficients.
4.19 Radiation.
Radiation – is a form of wave motion that obeys the same laws as other waves – light waves for example.
Radiation – is a heat transfer in which invisible electromagnetic waves are passed from one body to another
through space.
Reflectivity, ρ – is the fraction of the radiant energy reflected by a body.
Absorptivity, α – is the fraction of the radiant energy absorbed by the body.
Transmissivity, τ – is the fraction of the radiant energy transmitted through the body.
ρ + α +τ = 1
Perfect black body – is any body that would absorb all the radiant energy it received.

Kirchhoff’s law – states that the ratio of the rate of emitting and absorbing energy is a constant for any body for a
given temperature and wave length.

25
 Emissivity of any body – is the ratio of the rate of emission of radiant energy for that body to the rate of emission
for a perfect black body under the same conditions. Also called emittance ε.

Gray Body – is the actual body that radiates less heat than a black body.

5.21 Stefan-Boltzmann Law

The Stefan-Boltzmann law states that the amount of radiation from a black body is proportional to the fourth
power of the absolute temperature.
QR = σAT 4
where σ = 0.1713 x 10-8 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant in Btu/ft2-R4. In SI units it is 5.669 x 10-8 W/m2-K4.

5.22 Heat Transfer Between Two Black Bodies, Q.

( )
Q = σA T24 − T14
where
T1 = temperature of blackbody 1
T2 = temperature of blackbody 2

5.23 Heat Transfer Between Two Gray Bodies, Q.

(
Q = εσAFG T24 − T14)
where
ε = emissivity
FG = geometric view factor or configuration factor or angle factor or shape factor.

26